1.

Introduction to Irrigation Engineering (Detailed Explanation)

1.1 What is Irrigation?

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land for agricultural purposes. It supplements natural
rainfall and ensures adequate water supply to crops.

1.2 Necessity of Irrigation

Irrigation is required due to the following reasons:

1. Uneven Rainfall Distribution: Some regions receive less rainfall, which affects crop yield.

2. Seasonal Rainfall: In monsoon-dependent countries like India, rainfall is concentrated in a

few months, leaving dry periods where irrigation is necessary.

3. Crop Growth Requirement: Different crops require different amounts of water at different
stages of growth.

4. Increase in Crop Production: Irrigation increases agricultural productivity by ensuring a

consistent water supply.

5. Mitigation of Drought Conditions: In drought-prone areas, irrigation helps sustain farming

activities.

6. Multiple Cropping: With irrigation, farmers can grow more than one crop in a year,
increasing food supply.

7. Soil Moisture Control: Proper irrigation maintains soil moisture at an optimal level,
preventing drying out.

1.3 Benefits of Irrigation

Irrigation has several advantages:

A. Agricultural Benefits

✔ Increases crop yield and supports cash crops (sugarcane, cotton, etc.).
✔ Reduces dependency on rain-fed farming.
✔ Prevents crop failure during dry spells.

B. Economic Benefits

✔ Ensures stable income for farmers.

✔ Increases employment opportunities in agriculture and related industries.
✔ Encourages rural development.

C. Environmental Benefits

✔ Prevents soil erosion by maintaining moisture.

✔ Helps in afforestation by providing water to trees and plantations.

1.4 Types of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation systems are classified based on how water is supplied to the fields.

1. Surface Irrigation

Water flows over the land by gravity. It is the most common method.
✅ Types:

 Flood Irrigation: Entire field is flooded. Water use is high.

 Furrow Irrigation: Water flows in small channels between crop rows.

 Basin Irrigation: Land is divided into basins; water is applied to each basin.

 Border Strip Irrigation: Land is divided into long, narrow strips where water flows evenly.

2. Subsurface Irrigation

Water is supplied below the soil surface through pipes or underground channels.
✅ Example: Draining ditches near the root zone of crops.

3. Lift Irrigation
Water is lifted from rivers, canals, wells using pumps or other mechanical means.
✅ Examples: Tube wells, Bore wells, Pumped canals.

4. Sprinkler Irrigation

Water is sprayed like rainfall through rotating nozzles or pipes.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Suitable for undulating land.
✔ Saves water.
✔ Reduces soil erosion.

5. Drip Irrigation

Water is delivered directly to plant roots in the form of small droplets.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Highly efficient (saves 30-50% water).
✔ Reduces weed growth as only crop roots receive water.
✔ Suitable for dry regions.

1.5 Water Requirement of Crops

The total water required by a crop for its entire growth cycle is called Crop Water Requirement
(CWR).

✅ Key Terms:

 Duty (D): The area irrigated by 1 cumec of water in a given period.

 Delta (Δ): The total depth of water required by crops in a season.

 Base Period: The total time between the first irrigation and the last irrigation of a crop.
Formula Connecting Duty, Delta, and Base Period

Δ=8.64BD\Delta = \frac{8.64 B}{D}Δ=D8.64B

Where,

 Δ\DeltaΔ = Delta (meters)

 BBB = Base period (days)

 DDD = Duty (hectares per cumec)

✅ Example Calculation:
If duty = 860 hectares per cumec, and base period = 120 days,

Δ=8.64×120860=1.2m\Delta = \frac{8.64 \times 120}{860} = 1.2 mΔ=8608.64×120=1.2m

This means the crop needs 1.2 meters of water in a season.

1.6 Crop Seasons in India

In India, crops are categorized based on the season in which they grow:

Crop Season Time of the Year Examples

Kharif (Monsoon) June – October Rice, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Millets

Rabi (Winter) October – March Wheat, Mustard, Barley, Peas

Zaid (Summer) March – June Watermelon, Muskmelon, Vegetables

1.7 Important Irrigation Projects in India

✅ Major Irrigation Projects

 Bhakra Nangal Dam (Punjab, Himachal Pradesh) – Supplies water for Punjab & Haryana.

 Hirakud Dam (Odisha) – Largest artificial lake in India.

 Sardar Sarovar Dam (Gujarat) – Provides irrigation to Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya
Pradesh.

 Tungabhadra Dam (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh) – Important for South Indian irrigation.

Exam Preparation Tips for Irrigation Engineering

✅ Revise key definitions: Duty, Delta, Base Period.

✅ Practice numerical problems related to water requirement.
✅ Study the advantages and disadvantages of different irrigation systems.
✅ Learn about major irrigation projects and their locations.
Conclusion

This detailed explanation covers the Introduction to Irrigation Engineering, focusing on necessity,
types, benefits, water requirements, and irrigation projects.

Would you like numerical problems or MCQs for better practice? 🚀

You said:

surface ,subsurface, sprinkler, dripping irrigation in notes

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Irrigation Methods – Detailed Notes

Irrigation methods are classified based on how water is supplied to the crops. The four main types of
irrigation are Surface Irrigation, Subsurface Irrigation, Sprinkler Irrigation, and Drip Irrigation.

1. Surface Irrigation

Definition:
Surface irrigation is a method in which water is distributed over the soil surface by gravity flow.

Types of Surface Irrigation:

A. Flood Irrigation

 Water is released freely to flow over the entire field.

 Commonly used for rice cultivation.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Simple and cheap.
✔ No need for complex equipment.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High water wastage due to runoff & evaporation.
✖ Causes soil erosion if not controlled.

B. Furrow Irrigation

 Water is supplied in small, parallel channels between crop rows.

 Used for row crops like maize, cotton, sugarcane.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Less water wastage compared to flood irrigation.
✔ Reduces weed growth since water does not cover the entire field.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires land leveling.
✖ Can cause uneven water distribution if not properly managed.
C. Basin Irrigation

 The field is divided into small basins surrounded by ridges.

 Each basin is filled with water and then allowed to soak in.

 Used for orchards and rice fields.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Good water retention.
✔ Helps recharge groundwater.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires high labor for constructing basins.
✖ Can lead to waterlogging.

D. Border Strip Irrigation

 The field is divided into long, narrow strips.

 Water is released at the high end and flows evenly along the strip.

✅ Advantages:
✔ More uniform water distribution.
✔ Efficient for gentle slopes.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires good land leveling.
✖ Not suitable for sandy soils.

2. Subsurface Irrigation

Definition:
Water is supplied below the soil surface through pipes, drains, or capillary action.

Types of Subsurface Irrigation

1. Natural Subsurface Irrigation

o Water seeps into the root zone from nearby water bodies like rivers or lakes.

2. Artificial Subsurface Irrigation

o Pipes or porous materials are placed underground to supply water directly to plant
roots.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Minimizes evaporation losses.
✔ Reduces weed growth.
✔ Keeps soil surface dry, preventing fungal diseases.
❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High installation cost.
✖ Difficult to monitor and repair leaks.

3. Sprinkler Irrigation

Definition:
Sprinkler irrigation distributes water like natural rainfall using pipes and rotating nozzles.

Components of a Sprinkler System

 Pump – Lifts water to required pressure.

 Pipes (Main & Laterals) – Distribute water.

 Sprinkler Heads – Spray water over the field.

Types of Sprinkler Irrigation

1. Rotary Sprinklers – Sprinkler heads rotate and distribute water evenly.

2. Fixed Sprinklers – Water is sprayed in a fixed pattern.

3. Center Pivot Systems – Large-scale irrigation with rotating pipes.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Saves water (compared to surface irrigation).
✔ Suitable for all soil types except heavy clay.
✔ Reduces soil erosion.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Affected by wind, leading to uneven water distribution.
✖ High initial cost.
✖ Not effective for saline water (leaves salt deposits on leaves).

4. Drip Irrigation

Definition:
Water is supplied directly to the plant roots in the form of small droplets through emitters or tubes.

Components of Drip Irrigation System

 Pump – Provides water at low pressure.

 Filters – Prevent clogging of pipes.

 Drippers/Emitters – Control water release near plant roots.

 Lateral Tubes – Distribute water along crop rows.

Types of Drip Irrigation

1. Online Drippers – Individual drippers placed along the pipe.

 2. Inline Drippers – Drippers are built inside the pipe.

3. Subsurface Drip Irrigation – Pipes are buried underground.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Saves up to 50-70% water.
✔ Prevents weed growth as water is applied only to plant roots.
✔ Prevents soil erosion.
✔ Increases crop yield.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High initial setup cost.
✖ Requires clean water, otherwise emitters clog easily.
✖ Frequent maintenance needed.

Comparison of Irrigation Methods

Irrigation Water
Suitability Cost Advantages Disadvantages
Type Efficiency

Surface High water wastage,

Low Large fields Low Simple & cheap
Irrigation causes soil erosion

Prevents
Subsurface Dry & water- Expensive, hard to
High High evaporation, reduces
Irrigation scarce areas monitor
weeds

Sprinkler Saves water, reduces Affected by wind, high

Moderate All soil types Moderate
Irrigation erosion cost

Saves maximum
Row crops, Expensive, needs clean
Drip Irrigation Very High High water, prevents
orchards water
weeds

Which Irrigation Method is Best?

 Surface Irrigation is best for rice, wheat, and large fields with abundant water.

 Subsurface Irrigation is useful for dry and sandy regions where water conservation is
important.

 Sprinkler Irrigation is best for hilly or uneven land.

 Drip Irrigation is ideal for vegetables, orchards, and water-scarce areas.

Conclusion
✔ Surface irrigation is the simplest but has high water loss.
✔ Subsurface irrigation is efficient but costly.
✔ Sprinkler irrigation saves water but is wind-sensitive.
✔ Drip irrigation is the most efficient but needs high maintenance.

Exam Tip:

 Memorize advantages & disadvantages of each method.

 Practice MCQs related to irrigation types.

 Revise formulas for water efficiency & crop requirements.

2. Sources of Water for Irrigation – Detailed Notes

Irrigation water is obtained from two main sources:

1. Surface Water Sources (Rivers, Lakes, Reservoirs, Canals, etc.)

2. Groundwater Sources (Wells, Tube Wells, Aquifers)

2.1 Surface Water Sources

Surface water is the water available on the Earth’s surface in the form of rivers, lakes, reservoirs,
and artificial canals.

A. Rivers and Streams

 Rivers are the primary sources of irrigation water in India.

 They are categorized into perennial (flowing throughout the year) and non-perennial
(seasonal).

✅ Examples of major rivers used for irrigation in India:

 Ganga – Supports agriculture in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal.

 Krishna & Godavari – Used for irrigation in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and
Maharashtra.

 Brahmaputra – Irrigation in Assam.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Abundant water supply in monsoon.
✔ Can be diverted into canals for irrigation.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Seasonal fluctuations (floods in monsoon, low flow in summer).
✖ Expensive construction for diversion works (dams, barrages).

B. Lakes and Reservoirs

  Natural lakes and man-made reservoirs store surface water and provide irrigation.

 Reservoirs are artificial lakes formed behind dams.

✅ Major Reservoir-based Irrigation Projects in India:

 Bhakra Nangal Dam (Punjab & Himachal Pradesh)

 Hirakud Dam (Odisha)

 Sardar Sarovar Dam (Gujarat)

✅ Advantages:
✔ Stores water for dry seasons.
✔ Helps in flood control and hydroelectricity generation.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High cost of dam construction.
✖ Leads to displacement of people and submersion of land.

C. Canals

 Canals carry water from rivers or reservoirs to agricultural lands.

 They are further classified into:

1. Perennial Canals – Supply water throughout the year.

2. Non-Perennial Canals – Supply water only during the rainy season.

✅ Examples of Important Canal Systems:

 Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan) – Provides water to desert areas.

 Upper Ganga Canal (Uttar Pradesh) – Derived from Ganga River.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Can distribute water over large areas.
✔ Helps in controlling floods.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Seepage losses (water is absorbed by the soil).
✖ Waterlogging problems in poorly drained areas.

D. Tanks and Ponds

 Tanks and ponds store rainwater and are used for irrigation in dry regions.

 Common in South India (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka).

✅ Advantages:
✔ Low construction cost.
✔ Useful for small-scale farming.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Limited water storage capacity.
✖ Cannot supply water for large-scale irrigation.

2.2 Groundwater Sources

Groundwater is water stored beneath the Earth’s surface in aquifers and wells. It is extracted using
wells and pumps.

A. Open Wells

 Traditional method of extracting groundwater.

 Dug manually and typically shallow (10-20m deep).

 Water is lifted using pulleys, Persian wheels, or motor pumps.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Easy to construct and maintain.
✔ Cost-effective for small farms.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Limited depth → Water dries up in summer.
✖ High evaporation losses.

B. Tube Wells

 Deep boreholes (20-100m deep) drilled into aquifers.

 Uses motorized pumps to extract water.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Can extract large quantities of water.
✔ More reliable than open wells.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Expensive to install.
✖ Requires electricity or diesel pumps.

C. Artesian Wells

 Natural wells where water rises automatically due to underground pressure.

✅ Advantages:
✔ No need for pumps (water flows naturally).
✔ Good for deep aquifers.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Limited to specific locations.
✖ High cost for drilling.

D. Springs

 Natural outflow of groundwater from underground aquifers.

 Used in hilly and mountainous regions.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Pure and clean water source.
✔ Requires no pumping.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Seasonal variations in water flow.
✖ Cannot support large-scale irrigation.

2.3 Hydrology Basics for Irrigation

Understanding hydrology helps in estimating water availability for irrigation.

Key Hydrology Terms

1. Precipitation: Total rainfall in an area (measured in mm).

2. Runoff: Water that flows over the land into rivers and lakes.

3. Infiltration: Water absorbed by the soil and stored as groundwater.

4. Evaporation: Loss of water from open surfaces.

Runoff Estimation Formula (Rational Formula)

Q=C×I×A

Where:

 Q = Runoff (cumecs)

 C = Runoff coefficient

 I = Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

 A = Catchment area (sq.km)

2.4 Comparison of Surface Water and Groundwater

Parameter Surface Water Groundwater

Source Rivers, lakes, reservoirs Underground aquifers, wells

Availability Seasonal (depends on rainfall) Available year-round

Water Quality Can be contaminated Usually cleaner

Cost Expensive to store (dams, canals) Cheap if natural wells exist

Usage Large-scale irrigation Small to medium-scale farming

2.5 Best Water Source for Irrigation?

 Surface Water (Rivers, Reservoirs, Canals) → Best for large-scale irrigation.

 Groundwater (Wells, Tube Wells, Springs) → Best for small & medium farms.

 Tanks & Ponds → Useful in dry regions for limited irrigation.

2.6 Major Irrigation Projects in India

Project River States Benefited

Bhakra Nangal Dam Sutlej Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan

Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra

Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha, Chhattisgarh

Indira Gandhi Canal Sutlej Rajasthan

Krishna Delta System Krishna Andhra Pradesh

Exam Preparation Tips for Irrigation Water Sources

✅ Learn advantages & disadvantages of each water source.

✅ Memorize major irrigation projects & rivers.
✅ Solve numerical problems on runoff estimation.
✅ Understand hydrology basics (precipitation, infiltration, runoff).

Conclusion

✔ Surface water sources are good for large-scale irrigation but depend on rainfall.
✔ Groundwater sources provide year-round irrigation but require pumps.
✔ Hydrology plays a key role in irrigation planning.

3. Canals & Canal Design – Detailed Notes

3.1 What is a Canal?

A canal is an artificial water channel built for irrigation, navigation, hydroelectric power, or flood
control.

✔ In irrigation, canals distribute water from rivers, reservoirs, or lakes to agricultural fields.
✔ Canals prevent drought and crop failure by ensuring a continuous water supply.

3.2 Types of Canals

Canals are classified based on source, flow condition, alignment, and function.

A. Based on Water Supply Source

1. Permanent (Perennial) Canals

o Receive continuous water supply throughout the year.

o Example: Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan).

2. Non-Perennial Canals

o Supply water only during monsoon (seasonal).

o Example: Some canals in Madhya Pradesh & Maharashtra.

✅ Which is better?
✔ Perennial canals are more reliable for year-round irrigation.

B. Based on Flow Condition

1. Direct Supply Canals

o Water directly taken from rivers without storage.

o Cheap but unstable (depends on river water levels).

2. Storage Canals

o Water is stored in reservoirs (dams) before release into canals.

o More reliable than direct supply canals.

o Example: Canals fed by Bhakra Nangal Dam.

✅ Which is better?
✔ Storage canals provide steady irrigation and prevent floods.

C. Based on Alignment

1. Contour Canals

o Built along the contours of hills.

 o Suitable for hilly areas.

o Example: Canals in Himachal Pradesh.

2. Ridge Canals

o Constructed along ridges (highest land points).

o Water flows both ways, covering more area.

o Example: Upper Ganga Canal.

3. Side Slope Canals

o Built along the slopes of hills.

o Suitable for hilly regions & river valleys.

✅ Which is better?
✔ Ridge canals cover more land, making them the best for irrigation.

D. Based on Function

1. Irrigation Canals – Used only for irrigation.

2. Navigation Canals – Used for water transport (Example: Ganga River Canal).

3. Power Canals – Used for hydroelectric power generation.

4. Flood Control Canals – Prevent flooding in low-lying areas.

✅ Which is most common?

✔ Irrigation canals are most important for agriculture.

3.3 Canal Lining – Why is it Needed?

🔹 Canal lining means covering the canal bed & sides with impervious materials like concrete, brick,
or plastic.

✅ Advantages of Lining a Canal:

✔ Prevents water seepage → Reduces water loss by 50%.
✔ Increases canal life → Protects against erosion & cracks.
✔ Reduces waterlogging → Prevents soil from becoming too wet.
✔ Improves water flow speed → More efficient irrigation.

✅ Types of Canal Linings:

 Concrete – Most durable but expensive.

 Brick Masonry – Cheaper, but prone to cracks.

 Plastic Sheets (Polythene, PVC) – Best for small canals.

3.4 Canal Losses & Water Distribution

A. Canal Losses (Water Wastage in Canals)

1. Seepage Losses – Water absorbed by soil (biggest loss).

2. Evaporation Losses – Water turns into vapor (common in hot areas).

3. Percolation Losses – Water goes underground (like seepage).

4. Operational Losses – Human errors in managing water release.

✅ How to Reduce Water Losses?

✔ Lining canals with concrete or plastic.
✔ Controlled release of water to prevent wastage.
✔ Efficient irrigation methods (Drip, Sprinkler).

3.5 Canal Design Theories

To design a stable canal, engineers use two major theories:

A. Kennedy’s Theory (Regime Flow Theory)

 Assumes non-scouring, non-silting velocity.

 Critical Velocity (V) Formula: V=CM1/6

o V = Critical velocity (m/s)

o M = Silt factor

o C = Empirical constant (0.55)

✅ Limitations of Kennedy’s Theory:

✖ No scientific basis for C & M values.
✖ Doesn’t work well for all soil types.

B. Lacey’s Theory (Regime Channel Design)

 Assumes canals adjust naturally to flow conditions.

 Used for designing alluvial (silt & sand) canals.

🔹 Lacey’s Formulas:

1. Velocity Formula

V=Q/A

o Q = Discharge (cumecs)

o A = Area of channel cross-section

2. Perimeter Formula
 P=4.75Q0.5

o P = Wetted Perimeter (m)

3. Hydraulic Mean Depth Formula

R=1.35(Q/f)1/3

o f = Lacey’s silt factor

✅ Why is Lacey’s Theory Better?

✔ Works for alluvial soils.
✔ More practical than Kennedy’s theory.

3.6 Important Canals in India

Canal Length (km) States Covered

Indira Gandhi Canal 650 Rajasthan

Upper Ganga Canal 304 Uttar Pradesh

Sutlej Yamuna Link Canal 214 Punjab, Haryana

Sharda Canal 936 Uttar Pradesh

3.7 Comparison of Kennedy’s & Lacey’s Theory

Parameter Kennedy’s Theory Lacey’s Theory

Based on Critical velocity concept Regime flow concept

Best for Artificial canals Natural canals

Complexity Empirical (less scientific) More scientific

Accuracy Less accurate More accurate

Exam Preparation Tips for Canals & Design

✅ Memorize types of canals & their functions.

✅ Understand importance of canal lining.
✅ Revise Kennedy’s & Lacey’s equations.
✅ Learn major canals in India.

Conclusion
✔ Canals distribute irrigation water to farmlands.
✔ Lining canals improves efficiency.
✔ Lacey’s theory is better for alluvial canals.

4. Irrigation Methods – Detailed Notes

Irrigation methods are categorized based on how water is supplied to the crops. The four major
irrigation methods are:

1. Surface Irrigation

2. Subsurface Irrigation

3. Sprinkler Irrigation

4. Drip Irrigation

4.1 Surface Irrigation

Definition

Surface irrigation is a method where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by gravity
flow.

Types of Surface Irrigation

1. Flood Irrigation

o Water is released freely and flows over the entire field.

o Used for rice, wheat, and maize.

o Example: Traditional farming in India.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Simple & cheap.
✔ No technical equipment required.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High water wastage due to runoff.
✖ Causes soil erosion.

2. Furrow Irrigation

o Water is supplied in small parallel channels between crop rows.

o Suitable for row crops like maize, cotton, and sugarcane.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Saves 30-50% water compared to flood irrigation.
✔ Reduces weed growth.
❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires land leveling.
✖ Uneven water distribution if not properly managed.

3. Basin Irrigation

o Land is divided into small basins, each surrounded by ridges.

o Water is applied and stored in each basin.

o Common for orchards and rice fields.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Good water retention.
✔ Prevents water runoff.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High labor requirement for constructing basins.
✖ Can lead to waterlogging.

4. Border Strip Irrigation

o Field is divided into long, narrow strips.

o Water is released at the high end and flows evenly along the strip.

✅ Advantages:
✔ More uniform water distribution than flood irrigation.
✔ Suitable for gently sloping land.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires accurate land leveling.
✖ Not suitable for sandy soils.

4.2 Subsurface Irrigation

Definition

Water is applied below the soil surface through underground pipes or capillary action.

Types of Subsurface Irrigation

1. Natural Subsurface Irrigation

o Water seeps naturally into the root zone from a nearby water body (river, lake).

2. Artificial Subsurface Irrigation

o Pipes or porous materials are placed underground to supply water directly to plant
roots.
✅ Advantages:
✔ Minimizes evaporation losses.
✔ Keeps soil surface dry, reducing fungal diseases.
✔ Prevents weed growth.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High installation cost.
✖ Difficult to monitor and repair leaks.

4.3 Sprinkler Irrigation

Definition

Water is distributed through pipes and rotating nozzles, mimicking natural rainfall.

Components of a Sprinkler System

 Pump – Provides water at required pressure.

 Main & Lateral Pipes – Distribute water.

 Sprinkler Heads – Spray water over crops.

Types of Sprinkler Systems

1. Rotary Sprinklers – Sprinkler heads rotate, covering a large area.

2. Fixed Sprinklers – Sprays water in a fixed pattern.

3. Center Pivot System – Large-scale irrigation with a rotating arm on wheels.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Saves 30-50% water compared to surface irrigation.
✔ Suitable for uneven or hilly land.
✔ Reduces soil erosion.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Affected by wind, leading to uneven water distribution.
✖ High initial cost.
✖ Not suitable for saline water (leaves salt deposits on leaves).

4.4 Drip Irrigation

Definition

Water is supplied directly to the plant roots drop by drop through emitters or tubes.

Components of a Drip Irrigation System

 Pump – Provides water at low pressure.

 Filters – Prevent clogging of pipes.

  Drippers/Emitters – Control the release of water near plant roots.

 Lateral Tubes – Distribute water along crop rows.

Types of Drip Irrigation

1. Online Drippers – Individual drippers placed along the pipe.

2. Inline Drippers – Drippers are built inside the pipe.

3. Subsurface Drip Irrigation – Pipes are buried underground, supplying water directly to
roots.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Saves up to 70% water.
✔ Prevents weed growth as only roots receive water.
✔ Reduces soil erosion.
✔ Increases crop yield by 20-30%.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Expensive to install.
✖ Needs frequent maintenance (emitters clog easily).

4.5 Comparison of Irrigation Methods

Water
Irrigation Type Suitability Cost Advantages Disadvantages
Efficiency

Surface High water

Low Large fields Low Simple & cheap
Irrigation wastage

Subsurface Water-scarce
High High Prevents evaporation Expensive
Irrigation areas

Sprinkler Saves water, reduces

Moderate All soil types Medium Affected by wind
Irrigation erosion

Row crops, Saves maximum water,

Drip Irrigation Very High High Expensive
orchards prevents weeds

4.6 Which Irrigation Method is Best?

 Surface Irrigation – Best for rice, wheat, and large fields with plenty of water.

 Subsurface Irrigation – Ideal for sandy soils and dry regions.

 Sprinkler Irrigation – Good for hilly or uneven land.

 Drip Irrigation – Best for vegetables, orchards, and water-scarce areas.

4.7 Important Irrigation Projects in India

Project River States Benefited

Bhakra Nangal Dam Sutlej Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan

Indira Gandhi Canal Sutlej Rajasthan

Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra

Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha

Exam Preparation Tips for Irrigation Methods

✅ Memorize advantages & disadvantages of each method.

✅ Solve MCQs & numerical problems related to irrigation efficiency.
✅ Learn major irrigation projects in India.
✅ Understand components of sprinkler & drip systems.

Conclusion

✔ Surface irrigation is simplest but inefficient.

✔ Subsurface irrigation is efficient but costly.
✔ Sprinkler irrigation saves water but is wind-sensitive.
✔ Drip irrigation is most efficient but expensive.

5. Reservoirs & Dams – Detailed Notes

Reservoirs and dams play a crucial role in irrigation, flood control, hydropower generation, and
drinking water supply.

5.1 What is a Reservoir?

A reservoir is a large artificial or natural water storage body created by building a dam across a river
or valley.

✅ Functions of a Reservoir:
✔ Stores excess water during rainy seasons.
✔ Provides continuous water supply for irrigation.
✔ Helps in flood control by regulating river flow.
✔ Supports hydroelectric power generation.

5.2 What is a Dam?

A dam is a structure built across a river to store, regulate, or divert water for irrigation, electricity
generation, or flood control.
✅ Uses of Dams in Irrigation:
✔ Stores water and regulates river flow.
✔ Distributes water to irrigation canals.
✔ Helps in drought management.

5.3 Types of Dams

Dams are classified based on construction material, purpose, and structure.

A. Based on Construction Material

1. Gravity Dams

o Made of concrete or masonry.

o Heavy and withstands water pressure by its own weight.

o Example: Bhakra Nangal Dam (India).

✅ Advantages:
✔ Highly durable.
✔ Can store large amounts of water.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Very expensive to construct.
✖ Needs strong rock foundation.

2. Earthen Dams

o Made of compacted soil and clay.

o Used where rock is unavailable.

o Example: Hirakud Dam (India).

✅ Advantages:
✔ Cheaper than concrete dams.
✔ Suitable for large storage areas.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Erosion risk due to water seepage.
✖ Shorter lifespan than concrete dams.

3. Arch Dams

o Curved arch-shaped structure.

o Transfers water pressure to valley sides.

o Example: Idukki Dam (India).

✅ Advantages:
✔ Requires less material than gravity dams.
✔ Strong and suitable for narrow valleys.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires strong rock support.
✖ Difficult to construct.

4. Buttress Dams

o Supported by a series of buttresses (vertical walls).

o Used in soft soil foundations.

o Example: Bhakra Dam (India).

✅ Advantages:
✔ Uses less concrete than gravity dams.
✔ Suitable for weak foundations.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Complicated design.
✖ High maintenance cost.

B. Based on Function

Type Function Example

Storage Dams Store water for irrigation & power generation Bhakra Nangal Dam

Diversion Dams Divert river flow into canals Barrages like Farakka Barrage

Detention Dams Control floodwaters Hirakud Dam

Hydropower Dams Generate electricity Tehri Dam

5.4 Components of a Dam

1. Reservoir – Stores water.

2. Spillway – Releases excess water to prevent flooding.

3. Foundation – Supports dam structure.

4. Gates & Outlets – Control water release.

✅ Formula for Reservoir Capacity:

Storage Capacity=Catchment Area×Rainfall×Runoff Coefficient

5.5 Spillways & Energy Dissipation Structures

A spillway is a structure that safely releases excess water from a dam to prevent damage.

Types of Spillways

1. Overflow Spillway – Water flows over the top (e.g., Bhakra Dam).

2. Side Channel Spillway – Water flows to the side before being released.

3. Shaft Spillway – Water flows into a hole like a drainage pipe.

✅ Energy Dissipation

 Water from a spillway can damage riverbeds.

 Energy dissipators like stilling basins and baffle blocks are used to slow down the water
flow.

5.6 Reservoir Planning & Sedimentation Control

Reservoir Planning Factors

✔ Catchment area (Total area draining into the reservoir).

✔ Water demand (Irrigation, power, domestic use).
✔ Sediment inflow (Amount of silt carried by rivers).

Sedimentation in Reservoirs

 Sedimentation occurs when silt and sand settle at the reservoir bottom.

 This reduces storage capacity over time.

✅ Methods to Control Sedimentation:

✔ Check Dams – Trap sediments upstream.
✔ Silt Traps – Remove fine particles.
✔ Dredging – Remove deposited silt.

5.7 Structural Failures & Maintenance of Dams

Causes of Dam Failure

1. Overtopping – Excess water overflows the dam.

2. Seepage – Water leaks through dam walls.

3. Foundation Failure – Weak soil foundation collapses.

4. Earthquake Damage – Structural cracks due to seismic activity.

✅ Dam Maintenance Measures:
✔ Regular inspections for cracks & leaks.
✔ Emergency spillways to prevent overtopping.
✔ Grouting & waterproofing to prevent seepage.

5.8 Major Reservoir & Dam Projects in India

Dam River Location Purpose

Bhakra Nangal Dam Sutlej Punjab, Himachal Pradesh Irrigation, Hydropower

Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation, Flood Control

Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttarakhand Hydropower, Water Supply

Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada Gujarat Irrigation, Drinking Water

Indira Sagar Dam Narmada Madhya Pradesh Irrigation, Power

5.9 Comparison of Different Dam Types

Dam Type Cost Strength Lifespan Best For

Gravity Dam High Very Strong 100+ years Large rivers

Earthen Dam Low Moderate 50-70 years Wide valleys

Arch Dam High Very Strong 100+ years Narrow valleys

Buttress Dam Moderate Strong 70-100 years Weak foundations

Exam Preparation Tips for Reservoirs & Dams

✅ Revise different types of dams and their uses.

✅ Memorize major dam projects in India.
✅ Practice numerical problems on reservoir capacity.
✅ Understand spillway types & sediment control methods.

Conclusion

✔ Dams & reservoirs store and regulate water for irrigation, power, and flood control.
✔ Different dam types are used based on geology & function.
✔ Spillways prevent flooding, and sediment control methods maintain reservoir capacity.

6. Water Logging & Drainage – Detailed Notes

Water logging and drainage management are critical for maintaining soil productivity and
preventing crop damage in irrigated fields.

6.1 What is Water Logging?

Water logging occurs when excess water accumulates in the soil, reducing the air content and
making it difficult for plant roots to absorb oxygen.

✅ Effects of Water Logging on Crops:

✔ Reduces oxygen supply to plant roots.
✔ Slows down plant growth due to lack of air circulation.
✔ Causes root rot and fungal diseases.
✔ Leads to salinity problems in soil.

6.2 Causes of Water Logging

1. Over-Irrigation

o Excess water application causes soil to become saturated.

o Common in canal-irrigated areas.

2. Poor Drainage System

o Lack of proper drainage channels causes water to accumulate.

o Flat lands & clayey soils are most affected.

3. Seepage from Canals & Reservoirs

o Water leaks from canals and raises groundwater levels.

4. High Groundwater Table

o When groundwater is too close to the surface, excess irrigation creates water
logging.

5. Heavy Rainfall & Floods

o Continuous rains without proper drainage lead to flooding of fields.

6. Obstruction of Natural Drainage

o Urbanization, roads, and embankments block natural water flow.

6.3 Effects of Water Logging

1. Reduction in Crop Yield

o Lack of oxygen in the root zone reduces plant growth.

2. Soil Salinity Increase

 o Evaporation of stagnant water leaves behind salt deposits, making the soil infertile.

3. Spread of Pests & Diseases

o Wet conditions promote fungal infections & insect infestations.

4. Deterioration of Soil Structure

o Continuous water saturation damages soil porosity.

6.4 How to Prevent Water Logging?

A. Proper Drainage System

 Surface drains (canals) and subsurface drains (pipes) remove excess water.

B. Controlled Irrigation

 Using sprinklers and drip irrigation prevents excess water application.

C. Canal Lining

 Concrete or plastic lining reduces seepage losses from canals.

D. Artificial Lowering of Water Table

 Deep wells and pumping remove excess groundwater.

E. Growing Salt-Tolerant Crops

 Crops like barley, cotton, and date palms can tolerate high soil salinity.

6.5 What is Drainage?

Drainage is the removal of excess water from soil to maintain optimum moisture levels for crops.

✅ Functions of Drainage:
✔ Prevents water logging.
✔ Controls soil salinity.
✔ Improves soil aeration.
✔ Increases crop yield.

6.6 Types of Drainage Systems

A. Surface Drainage

 Open channels or ditches remove excess surface water.

 Common in flat agricultural lands.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Simple & low-cost.
✔ Reduces flood damage.
❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires regular cleaning.
✖ Takes up land space.

B. Subsurface Drainage

 Pipes or tunnels remove underground water from the root zone.

 Used in areas with high groundwater levels.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Prevents long-term water logging.
✔ Improves deep root growth.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High installation cost.
✖ Difficult to repair.

C. Vertical Drainage

 Deep wells remove water from underground aquifers.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Reduces groundwater table effectively.
✔ Suitable for large areas.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires constant pumping.
✖ Expensive.

D. Mole Drainage

 Narrow underground channels created using a mole plow.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Low cost for small fields.
✔ Works well in clay soils.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Not suitable for sandy soils.

6.7 Comparison of Drainage Methods

Drainage Type Best for Cost Maintenance

Surface Drainage Low-lying farms Low High

Drainage Type Best for Cost Maintenance

Subsurface Drainage High water table areas High Moderate

Vertical Drainage Large farms, deep aquifers Very High High

Mole Drainage Clay soils Low Low

6.8 Reclamation of Waterlogged Lands

Waterlogged land can be restored using physical, chemical, and biological methods.

A. Physical Methods

1. Surface & Subsurface Drainage – Removes standing water.

2. Deep Plowing – Improves soil aeration.

3. Raising Field Level – Prevents floodwater accumulation.

B. Chemical Methods

1. Gypsum Treatment – Reduces soil salinity.

2. Leaching – Flushes excess salts from soil.

C. Biological Methods

1. Salt-Tolerant Crops – Like barley and date palm.

2. Afforestation – Trees absorb excess water.

6.9 Important Drainage Projects in India

Project State Purpose

Indira Gandhi Drainage Project Rajasthan Reduces waterlogging in canal areas

Sutlej Drainage System Punjab Prevents flooding in agricultural lands

Coastal Drainage System Tamil Nadu Controls excess water near coastal farms

Exam Preparation Tips for Water Logging & Drainage

✅ Learn causes & effects of waterlogging.

✅ Memorize types of drainage systems & their functions.
✅ Revise methods for reclaiming waterlogged land.
✅ Understand major drainage projects in India.

Conclusion
✔ Water logging occurs due to excess irrigation, poor drainage, and canal seepage.
✔ Drainage systems remove excess water to prevent soil damage.
✔ Surface & subsurface drainage are most common in farmlands.
✔ Gypsum & leaching help reclaim saline waterlogged lands.

7. Hydraulic Structures – Detailed Notes

Hydraulic structures are engineering constructions designed to control, store, divert, and manage
water flow for irrigation, flood control, hydropower, and navigation.

7.1 What are Hydraulic Structures?

Hydraulic structures are man-made water control systems such as dams, barrages, weirs, canals,
cross-drainage works, and river training structures.

✅ Functions of Hydraulic Structures:

✔ Divert, regulate, and distribute water for irrigation.
✔ Store and control floods by managing river flow.
✔ Generate hydroelectric power.
✔ Improve navigation for transport.

7.2 Types of Hydraulic Structures

Hydraulic structures are classified into the following categories:

A. Diversion Headworks

 Used to divert river water into canals or irrigation systems.

 Built across perennial rivers to ensure a steady water supply.

✅ Examples:
✔ Barrages
✔ Weirs

✅ Advantages:
✔ Regulates water flow into canals.
✔ Prevents flooding by controlling river discharge.

B. Dams & Reservoirs

 Store large volumes of water for irrigation, power, and drinking water supply.

 Examples: Bhakra Nangal Dam, Hirakud Dam.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Provides year-round irrigation.
✔ Generates hydroelectric power.
✔ Controls flooding.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Expensive to build.
✖ Can cause displacement of people.

C. Barrages & Weirs

 Weirs and barrages are low-level water control structures built across rivers.

 They regulate flow levels and divert water into canals.

✅ Difference Between Weir & Barrage:

Feature Weir Barrage

Height Low Medium

Control Fixed crest Adjustable gates

Function Raises water level Controls water flow

✅ Examples:
✔ Farakka Barrage (West Bengal) – Regulates Ganga river flow.
✔ Hathnikund Barrage (Haryana) – Diverts water to Yamuna Canal.

D. Cross Drainage Works

 Used when a canal crosses a natural stream or river.

 Prevents water mixing and damage to structures.

✅ Types of Cross Drainage Works:

Type Function Example

Aqueduct Canal passes over a river Ganga Canal Aqueduct

Super Passage River passes over a canal Sutlej-Beas Link

Level Crossing River and canal mix at the same level Minor irrigation projects

Syphon Aqueduct Canal passes under pressure below a river Rajasthan Canal

✅ Advantages of Cross Drainage Works:

✔ Prevents flooding and erosion.
✔ Ensures smooth water flow.
E. River Training Works

 Used to control river flow and prevent erosion.

✅ Types of River Training Works:

1. Guide Banks – Protect riverbanks from erosion.

2. Spurs or Groynes – Deflect water flow away from embankments.

3. Embankments – Raise riverbanks to prevent flooding.

4. Cutoffs – Shorten river length to increase velocity and reduce sedimentation.

✅ Example:
✔ Brahmaputra River Training Project – Controls erosion in Assam.

7.3 Components of Diversion Headworks

A diversion headwork consists of:

1. Weir or Barrage – Controls river water level.

2. Head Regulator – Regulates water entry into canals.

3. Scouring Sluices – Removes silt deposits near the canal intake.

4. Under Sluices – Maintain river flow during floods.

5. Fish Ladder – Allows fish movement across dams & barrages.

✅ Formula for Weir Discharge (Lacey’s Formula):

Q=CLH1.5

Where:

 Q = Discharge (cumecs)

 L = Length of weir (m)

 H = Water head (m)

 C = Weir coefficient

7.4 Sedimentation in Hydraulic Structures

 Sediment deposition in reservoirs and canals reduces storage capacity and flow efficiency.

 Silt control structures like sediment excluders prevent sediment buildup.

✅ Methods to Control Sedimentation:

✔ Desilting basins – Remove silt before water enters canals.
✔ Dredging – Physically remove deposited sediment.
✔ Check dams – Trap silt before it reaches major reservoirs.
7.5 Major Hydraulic Structures in India

Hydraulic Structure River Location Purpose

Farakka Barrage Ganga West Bengal Diverts water to Hooghly River

Indira Gandhi Canal Sutlej Rajasthan Irrigation in desert areas

Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttarakhand Hydropower & irrigation

Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha Flood control & irrigation

Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada Gujarat Hydropower & irrigation

7.6 Comparison of Weir, Barrage, and Dam

Feature Weir Barrage Dam

Function Raise water level Control water flow Store water

Construction Low-height structure Gates to regulate water Large concrete/earth-fill structure

Example Krishna Weir Farakka Barrage Bhakra Dam

7.7 Advantages of Hydraulic Structures

✅ For Irrigation:
✔ Provides year-round water supply.
✔ Improves crop productivity.

✅ For Flood Control:

✔ Regulates river flow, preventing sudden floods.

✅ For Hydroelectric Power:

✔ Generates clean and renewable electricity.

✅ For Navigation:
✔ Maintains steady water levels for transport.

7.8 Disadvantages of Hydraulic Structures

❌ High Construction Cost – Requires huge investments.

❌ Displacement of People – Large dams submerge villages.
❌ Environmental Impact – Affects fish migration & river ecology.
❌ Sedimentation Issues – Reduces reservoir storage over time.
7.9 Exam Preparation Tips for Hydraulic Structures

✅ Understand types of hydraulic structures and their functions.

✅ Memorize key structures in India (dams, barrages, canals).
✅ Practice numerical problems on weir discharge and sedimentation control.
✅ Learn advantages and disadvantages of each structure.

Conclusion

✔ Hydraulic structures manage water flow, storage, and distribution.

✔ Dams & barrages provide irrigation, flood control, and hydroelectric power.
✔ Cross-drainage works & river training protect against erosion & flooding.

8. Groundwater Hydrology – Detailed Notes

Groundwater hydrology is the study of underground water movement, storage, and extraction for
irrigation, drinking, and industrial use. It plays a key role in water resource management and
sustainable irrigation.

8.1 What is Groundwater?

Groundwater is the water stored beneath the Earth's surface in pore spaces of soil and rock
formations.

✅ Importance of Groundwater in Irrigation:

✔ Provides year-round irrigation (even in dry seasons).
✔ Less evaporation loss than surface water.
✔ Used in tube wells, bore wells, and wells for agriculture.

8.2 Occurrence of Groundwater

Groundwater exists in different layers beneath the surface:

1. Zone of Aeration (Unsaturated Zone)

o Contains both air & water.

o Water is not available for plants.

2. Zone of Saturation (Water Table)

o Fully filled with water.

o Water is stored in aquifers and used for irrigation.

✅ Water Table:

 The upper surface of groundwater where soil is completely saturated.

  Fluctuates due to rainfall, pumping, and seepage.

✅ Capillary Fringe:

 Layer above the water table where water rises due to capillary action.

8.3 Aquifers & Their Types

An aquifer is an underground water-bearing layer of rock or soil that can store and transmit water.

Types of Aquifers

Aquifer Type Description Example

Unconfined Aquifer Water table is open to air & rainfall recharge Shallow wells, hand pumps

Confined Aquifer Water is trapped between impermeable layers Deep tube wells

Perched Aquifer Small water pocket above the main aquifer Found in hill slopes

Artesian Aquifer Water flows naturally under pressure Artesian wells

✅ Which Aquifer is Best for Irrigation?

✔ Confined aquifers provide continuous water supply and are less prone to pollution.

8.4 Groundwater Recharge & Discharge

✅ Recharge Methods (How Groundwater is Replenished):

✔ Rainwater infiltration (seeping into soil).
✔ Seepage from rivers, lakes, and canals.
✔ Artificial recharge using recharge wells.

✅ Discharge Methods (How Groundwater is Lost):

✔ Pumping from wells & tube wells.
✔ Natural seepage into rivers & lakes.
✔ Evapotranspiration from plants.

8.5 Well Hydraulics – Types of Wells

Wells are man-made structures that extract groundwater for irrigation.

Types of Wells

1. Open Wells (Dug Wells)

o Shallow (10-20m deep).

o Water table fluctuates with rainfall.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Simple and cheap.
✔ Easy to maintain.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Limited depth (dries up in summer).
✖ High evaporation losses.

2. Tube Wells

o Deep boreholes (20-100m deep).

o Water is pumped using electric or diesel pumps.

✅ Advantages:
✔ High water output.
✔ Reliable for large-scale irrigation.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ High installation cost.
✖ Requires continuous power supply.

3. Artesian Wells

o Water flows naturally due to underground pressure.

o No need for pumping.

✅ Advantages:
✔ No energy required for pumping.
✔ Provides clean groundwater.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Limited locations where pressure is available.
✖ Expensive to drill.

8.6 Pumping Systems & Their Efficiency

Groundwater is extracted using pumps in irrigation systems.

Types of Pumps Used for Irrigation

Pump Type Description Best For

Centrifugal Pump Common, uses rotating impellers Open wells, shallow tube wells

Submersible Pump Placed inside the well for deep water lifting Deep tube wells
Pump Type Description Best For

Jet Pump Uses high-pressure water jets Medium-depth wells

Air Lift Pump Uses compressed air to lift water High sand content areas

✅ Which Pump is Most Efficient?

✔ Submersible pumps are best for deep wells and high efficiency.

8.7 Groundwater Management & Conservation

A. Causes of Groundwater Depletion

1. Excessive pumping for irrigation.

2. Deforestation & reduced infiltration.

3. Low recharge due to urbanization.

B. Methods to Conserve Groundwater

✅ Rainwater Harvesting – Collects rainwater for groundwater recharge.

✅ Check Dams & Percolation Pits – Store floodwater to seep into the ground.
✅ Drip & Sprinkler Irrigation – Reduces water wastage.
✅ Regulated Pumping – Prevents over-extraction.

8.8 Comparison of Surface Water & Groundwater

Feature Surface Water Groundwater

Availability Seasonal (depends on rainfall) Available year-round

Storage Dams, reservoirs Aquifers

Losses Evaporation Less evaporation

Cost High (dams, canals) Low (wells, tube wells)

Quality Can be polluted Usually cleaner

8.9 Major Groundwater Projects in India

Project State Purpose

Atal Bhujal Yojana All India Groundwater recharge

Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission Rural areas Rural groundwater supply

National Aquifer Mapping Program Multiple States Mapping groundwater resources

8.10 Important Formulas in Groundwater Hydrology

A. Darcy’s Law (Groundwater Flow Formula)

Q=KAdh/dl

Where:

 Q = Discharge (m³/sec)

 K = Hydraulic conductivity (m/day)

 A = Cross-sectional area of flow (m²)

 dh/dl = Hydraulic gradient

✅ Applications of Darcy’s Law:

✔ Determines groundwater movement.
✔ Helps in well design & pumping analysis.

B. Well Discharge Formula (Dupuit’s Equation for Confined Aquifers)

Q={2πKH(h1−h2)}/{loge(r2/r1)}

Where:

 Q = Discharge from well (m³/s)

 K = Hydraulic conductivity

 H = Aquifer thickness

 h1,h2= Water levels at distances r1&r2

8.11 Exam Preparation Tips for Groundwater Hydrology

✅ Learn types of aquifers & wells.

✅ Memorize pumping systems & their efficiency.
✅ Understand groundwater recharge & conservation methods.
✅ Practice numerical problems using Darcy’s Law & Well Discharge equations.

Conclusion

✔ Groundwater is a key source for irrigation and drinking water.

✔ Aquifers store water underground, and tube wells extract it.
✔ Conservation methods like rainwater harvesting & check dams prevent depletion.