Electronic Materials and Devices

(BECE201L) Module-1
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Associate Professor, SENSE
Current Flow Mechanism
(Transport in Metals)
 The electronic properties of metals

• What is a metal?
• A metal is a material that conducts electricity
• But… some non-metals also conduct electricity (semiconductors)
• A metal is opaque and looks shiny
• But…some non-metals also shine (semiconductors)
• A metal conducts heat well
• But… some non-metals also conduct heat. Diamond conducts heat better than any metal.

So how do we distinguish metals from non-metals?

 COPPER: Most widely used electrical conductor
High electrical conductivity
s = 5.95107 W-1 m-1 or r = 16.8 nW m
High thermal conductivity k = 385 W m-1 K-1
How do we make sense of these numbers?
Need to compare with other metals (reference)

Copper Copper sheet used in electrical shielding

© McGraw-Hill Education/Stephen Frisch © McGraw-Hill Education/Stephen Frisch
(MHHE007542.JPG) (MHHE005312.JPG)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Copper is used in electric grids

© McGraw-Hill Education/Mark Dierker (mhhe022609.jpg)

© McGraw-Hill Education/Mark Dierker (mhhe022620.jpg)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 SILVER vs COPPER vs ALUMINUM

Metal Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity Comment

(W-1 m-1) (W m-1 K-1)

Al 3.50107 237 Good

Cu Can
5.9510 7 we explain 401
conduction classically?
Better
Ag 6.30107 429 Best

Silver Copper Aluminum (98.5%)

© McGraw-Hill Education/Mark Dierker © McGraw-Hill Education/Stephen Frisch © McGraw-Hill Education/Ken Cavanagh (MHED9000878.JPG)
(mhhe022468.jpg) (MHHE005312.JPG)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 SILVER vs COPPER vs ALUMINUM

Metal Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity Ratio k/s

(W-1 m-1) (W m-1 K-1)

Ag 6.30107 429 6.810-6

Cu Can
5.9510 7 we explain 401
conduction classically?
6.710-6
Al 3.50107 237 6.810-6

Why is s higher for Ag than Cu?

Why is k higher for Ag than Cu?

Why is the ratio k/s the same for all three?

Electrical properties of metals: Classical approach (Drude model)
• In 1900, only 3 years after the discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson, P. Drude suggested a
simple model to explain many of the observed properties of metals.
• His modeling approach used the highly successful kinetic theory of gas, based on the following
assumptions:

• The electrons in a solid behave like a classical ideal gas. They do not interact with each other at all:
(There is no Coulomb interaction and they do not collide with each other either.) This is known as
the independent electron approximation.

• The positive charge is located on immobile ion cores. The electrons can collide with the ion cores.
These collisions instantaneously change their velocity. (However, in between collisions, the electrons
do not interact with the ions either.) This is known as the free electron approximation.
• The electrons reach thermal equilibrium with the lattice through the collisions with the ions.

• In between collisions, the electrons move freely. The mean length of this free movement is called
the mean free path  𝜆.
• Given the average speed ῡ, the mean free path also corresponds to a mean free time between
collisions  𝜏 = 𝜆∕ῡ. 𝜏 is also called the relaxation time and plays a fundamental role in the theory.
 The free electron theory of metals:
The Drude theory of metals
• Mobile negatively charged electrons are confined in a metal by attraction to immobile positively charged
ions

Isolated atom Free electrons or

conduction electrons
in metals

• Nucleus with charge eZa

• Z valence electrons are weakly bound to the nucleus (participate in chemical reactions)
• Za – Z core electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus (play much less of a role in chemical reactions)
• In a metal – the core electrons remain bound to the nucleus to form the metallic ion
• The valence electrons wander far away from their parent atoms called conduction electrons or electrons
Drude theory: DC electrical conductivity
E
In an electric field the equation of motion is

integration gives

If τ is the average time between collisions

then the average drift velocity is
• In the presence of an applied
• A conduction electron in the electron field, there is a net drift (v).
gas moves about randomly in a metal This net drift along the force-
(with the average speed 𝑣̅ ) being field is superimposed on the
frequently and randomly scattered random motion of electrons.
For an electric field, by thermal vibrations of the atoms.
• After many scattering events
we get • In the absence of an applied field the electron has been
there is no net drift in any direction. displaced by a net distance,
The average time between successive Δx, from its initial position
collisions in Cu is 10-14 s toward the positive terminal.
 Drude theory: DC electrical conductivity
Consider an area A perpendicular to the electric field. The number of electrons passing through the area per
unit time is
E
The amount of charge passing through the area per unit time
vx

Current density
l

and with we get Ohm’s law

 Drude theory: DC electrical conductivity

Ohm’s law

We can define the The conductivity and resistivity

conductivity have inverse relation

and the resistivity

and the mobility Drift

velocity
 Ohm’s law

• Valid for metals From here and l

• Valid for homogeneous

semiconductors

• Not valid for inhomogeneous

semiconductors

• Not valid for metal contacts to

semiconductors
So that
 Examples
• A specimen of metal has 7.87 × 1028 free electrons per cubic meter. The mobility of electrons in the
metal is 35.2 cm2/V-s (a) Compute the conductivity of the metal (b) If an electric field of 30 V/cm is
applied across the specimen, find the drift velocity of free electrons and the current density.

(a). Mobility = μ = 35.2 × 10-4 m2/V-s

Conductivity σ = qnμ = 1.6 × 10-19 × 7.87 × 1028 × 35.2 × 10-4 = 44.32 × 106 Siemens/m or 1/Ohm-m

(b). Electric field E = 30 × 102 V/m

Hence, drift velocity of free electrons is v = μ E = 35.2 x 10-4 x 30 x 102 = 10.56 m/s
Current density J = σ E = 44.32 x 106 x 30 x 102 = 13.3 × 1010 A/m2
• Calculate the drift velocity of free electrons in a copper conductor of cross-sectional area (A) 10−5 m2
and in which there is a current (I) of 100 A, assuming the free electron concentration (n) of copper to
be 8.5 × 1028 m−3.
The current I through a conductor of cross-section area A and free electron concentration n is given by
𝐼 = 𝑞𝑛𝐴v
The drift velocity 𝐼 100
v= = = 0.735 × 10 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛𝑞𝐴 8.5 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 × 10
 Examples
• A potential difference of 1V is applied across a uniform wire of length (L) 10m. Calculate the drift
velocity of electrons through the copper. Given that the relaxation time (τ) is 10−14 s and the
effective mass of the electron is 0.02 × 9.1 × 10−31 kg.
1 𝑒𝐸𝜏 1.6 × 10 × 0.1 × 10
The electric field, 𝐸= = 0.1 𝑉/𝑚 v= = = 0.0088 𝑚/𝑠
10 𝑚∗ 0.02 × 9.1 × 10

Avogadro number

The mean free path

𝑚
𝜆 = 𝑣̅ 𝜏 = 1.6 × 10 × 2.5 × 10 𝑠
𝑠
The mean free time = 40 𝑛𝑚
How does average drift velocity compare with
average thermal velocity?
 How to measure the
conductivity or resistivity?
 Electrical conductivity of materials
How to measure the
conductivity or resistivity?
• A two-point probe can be used but
the contact or wire resistance can
be a problem, especially if the
sample has a small resistivity.

• The problem of contact resistance

can be overcome by using a four
point probe.

• 32 orders of magnitude,
even after discounting
superconductors!
• From the size of an atom
(10-10 m) to the earth-sun
distance (1012 m) is only 22
orders of magnitude.
17
 Four Probe Resistivity Measurement
𝐸
dV 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 =
E  - 𝜌
𝐼
dr 𝐸 = 𝐽𝜌 𝐽=
2𝜋𝑟
2s 2s
V BC  - E
s
dr  -  r J  dr
s
The surface area through
which current flows is half
Ir of 4πr2 because current
V BC  flows only below A
2 s
The potential drop between
B and C (r = s and r = 2s)
due to currents from A.

The four probe resistivity measurement: Point A is considered as an Measured Resistivity

A current I is passed through the probes independent current source
A and D and the voltage drop V along BC and similarly point D as an
is read on a high resistivity voltmeter. independent current sink.
How do we know whether the
Drude model works?

Let us compare with

experiments…
 Drude theory: electrical conductivity
The measured data
are marked by the
elements’ names; the
calculations are the
solid lines.
The calculations have
been made assuming a
mean free path of 𝜆 = 1
nm for all elements.

𝜏 = 𝜆∕ῡ.
• The Drude model explains Ohm’s law qualitatively.
• We can also perform a quantitative comparison of the predicted and measured conductivities.
• For T = 273 K, the calculation (solid line) reproduces the right order of magnitude and lies in the middle
of the scattered experimental data points. Some elements lie far away from the calculation.
• For lower temperatures, the situation becomes more problematic. At 77 K, the calculated conductivity
increases because ῡ gets smaller, but the measured conductivity increases much more.
• At even lower temperature, the comparison becomes increasingly unfavorable.