MODULE 04

PEOPLE AND FORESTS

OVERVIEW:
Forest Management is deals with the overall administrative, legal, economic, and social
aspects of forestry. Included as well are the scientific and technical aspects, like silviculture,
protection, and forest regulation.

OBJECTIVES:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. Know how to use and manage temperate forests.

2. Know how to use and manage tropical forests; and
3. Identify forest conservation strategies applicable to the philippine setting.

TEMPERATE FORESTS: USE AND MANAGEMENT

Temperate forests are often found close to farmland and/or densely populated
urban areas. Because of proximity, these forests are often utilized as a source of
recreation-related, non-forestry activities. Examples of those activities are hunting, fishing,
picking mushrooms, picking fruits and berries. Aside from its recreational benefits,
temperate forests also provide an important source of industrial roundwood.

CURRENT FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN GENERAL

The management of temperate forests is both large-scale and small-scale. In the
temperate forest zones, large-scale private (corporate) forest operations are located mainly
in the United States of America and in the Southern Hemisphere.

European countries with many private forest owners have extremely strict forest legislation.
The legislation typically requires environmental protection and nature conservation to
different degrees. Most countries have government agencies with the task of advising
private forest owners and keeps the management in line with legislation. North America
private forest owners on the other hand have more freedom over how to manage their
forests.

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 The traditional way to evaluate forest resources in well-organized forestry
enterprises was to estimate data. This is done by using information from existing stand
records covering the whole forest estate. This method may work well if the information is
accurate and fresh but, due to various types of bias and other problems, this method is
often not particularly useful for the purposes of producing data covering larger forest areas.

Present-day management of larger forest holdings make use of forest inventories,

maps, aerial photos, stand databases etc. There are computerized systems that employ
accurate satellite remote sensing systems that keep track of the geographical location of
forest stands, roads, and ownership boundaries. Most forest-rich western countries hold
regular national forest inventories. These provide information about important forest
features.

KEEPING THE TEMPERATE FORESTS AT REASONABLE LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

Temperate forests are important for the national economy and the livelihoods of
many individuals. The world is growing increasingly dense, and therefore would have a
bigger demand for wood products. The challenge that forestry is currently facing is how to
balance the demands of a growing population and demands to conserve biodiversity.

Intensive forest management

This may include operations such as: site preparation; tree planting (including,
sometimes, the use of genetically improved trees and/or exotic tree species); tending;
thinning; and fertilizer application.

It is often criticized as being contradictory with the goal of preserving biodiversity.

Forest managers argue though that a reasonable level of biodiversity can be preserved
even if a major portion of the forest is managed intensively. Examples of how it’s done is
to leave a few snag trees, hollow trees and other dispersed trees that are ecologically
important that can provide home for species to re-colonize forest areas that have been
newly established after clear-felling.

Landscape planning

This is also called “landscape ecosystem management”. This is often employed in

an intensive forest management. Landscape planning leave some forest areas untouched
as reserves for biodiversity conservation. Areas are that can form a continuous web in the

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landscape and include ecotypes that are valuable for conserving biodiversity are selected
in the planning.

Landscape planning leads to higher silvicultural costs, in return it has a high and
predictable yield of industrial roundwood. This approach is both realistic and viable.

Low intensity forestry

Compared to landscape planning, this has lower reforestation and silvicultural

costs. It is often based on natural regeneration or some type of selective harvesting system,
allowing the forest stand to naturally develop. This approach can be employed in forests
whose stands regenerate easily or stands that have trees that regenerate well. With proper
planning, it can meet nature conservation objectives and result in minimum damage to
valuable ecosystems.

The downside to this approach is the uncertainly of the long-term consequences.

There are reports of questioning the viability of this approach. In the past, some studies
made aware that this may cause of gradual deterioration of forest conditions and
biodiversity. These effects have also been shown to worsen over time and may be difficult
and may be irreversible.

TROPICAL FORESTS: USE AND MANAGEMENT

Only about 7% of the world's total land area are occupied by tropical forests but
they house in more than 50% of all living species. They are some of the most biologically
diverse areas on the planet and are rich in species.

As forest resources deplete, competition for access to forest goods and services
become greater. It is also important to note that forest areas cannot be managed separately
from agricultural areas. This is because both areas compete to meet similar basic needs.
Therefore both should be considered together within the overall context of sustainable
development.

Uses of forest resources:

 Industrial Timber Production

 Fuelwood Production

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TROPICAL FORESTS MANAGEMENT
Biodiversity conservation

The main function of most protected forest area is to conserve natural forest
ecosystems. The term “protected area” encompasses a vast variety of approaches for the
management of natural and semi-natural forest types.

Protected areas have been known to enjoy strict legal status but there are numerous
problems arise in tropical zones in relation to their management. Problems include dispute
with local people over land rights, and illegal extraction of animal and plant resources.
These are often intensified because of the inability of state authorities to protect such areas.
Therefore, conservation accomplishments do not reflect reality.

The equation “protected areas = ecological diversity” is not necessarily true.

Plans for the designation of protected areas have been based on three main criteria:

1. biogeographical divisions between the main ecosystems in a country.

2. the degree to which resources are threatened or degraded; and

3. high rates of diversity or species endemism

The equation “forest classification type = level of conservation” is not automatic. For
example, a complete natural reserve (i.e. a complete ban on human activity in the area)
corresponds to the maximum level of conservation that can be awarded, but in reality, it
leads less conservation than expected. The classification type of a forest area does not
guarantee protection if financial, human resources, and political will do not support such a
classification. In some countries, natural resource conservation is not considered a priority
and short-term objectives are generally considered to be more important.

For these efforts to come into fruition, biodiversity needs to be understood more
accurately from an economic and socio-cultural standpoint.

Buffer zones

Buffer zones serve as a physical barrier between human encroachment of the

protected area. Creation of these buffer zones is meant to support the protected area and
at the same time, provide local people with benefits. The support of local people in
conservation efforts can be encouraged through participation in the harvesting and
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management of buffer zones (e.g. using of appropriate agroforestry practices; hunting;
establishing forest and agricultural tree plantations). The drawback is that the economic
development they generate can attract more people to them and increase pressure on
resource consumption.

Sustainable wildlife management

Habitat degradation and excessive game hunting are the two main threats to fauna
sustainability. However, wildlife is also being used for tourism (e.g. hunting and
ecotourism). Aside from the financial value of these activities, this method of utilizing wildlife
resources should be ecologically and socially viable.

Historically, authoritarian management of wildlife resources often failed. Such

measures have harmed local communities and defied traditional cultural values. Total bans
on the use and marketing of game have also made communities resort to poaching.

At present, biodiversity development and sustainable use is generally equated to the

idea of a total ban on the commerce of wildlife and related products. It is also essential to
see the possible multiple uses that wildlife can provide, like recreation; food; and scientific,
cultural, economic, and ecological functions.

Fire protection

Fire is a valuable tool for farmers and herders if used properly. It may be used in the
preparation of sites for establishing plantations or to encourage natural regeneration.
Although fire is a natural component, it can damage vegetation. It also has harmful effects
like carbon emissions.

Studies have also shown that most forest fires are man-made due to:

1. deliberate deforestation (i.e. forest conversion), slash and burn cultivation.

2. rangeland regeneration (for grazing and hunting).

3. accidents.

4. traditional use (e.g. religious and tribal ceremonies); and

5. political and socio-economic conflicts over land use and ownership rights.

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 There have been different mechanical means of controlling brush fires that were
implemented through modern apparatus (e.g. fire trucks, pumps, etc.). The costly methods
of fire control led to promotion of participation of local communities, education and training,
and the use of small equipment and manual tools in fighting forest fires. However, the safest
and most effective fire protection method in most cases was deliberate and controlled
burning at the beginning of the dry season. The problems of fire control are more
sociological in nature than technical. Fire control is more of a matter of popular education
and agricultural policy than direct control and response.

Management for soil and water conservation

Tropical regions have most of their watersheds bear a large farming population.
Specifically, agricultural arrangements, like terraced farming in Asia, present tried and
tested soil and water conservation functions. Reforestation in areas degraded by farming
and grazing has been an expensive technical solution. However, upon consultation with
local people, improved forest protection often leads to natural regeneration. It also enables
secondary forest to be restored in many instances.

Forested watersheds that provide water to heavily populated areas should be

protected against shifting cultivation and unplanned urbanization. Management in such
cases should be efficient surveillance to protect forest cover. Tying in the functions of water
supply and natural reserves for wildlife and plant life in the same watershed does not
generally exhibit any technical problems, furthermore water management carried out
downstream from these areas can be successful.

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ACTIVITY - SCIENCE AND THE ART OF GEOGRAPHY ECOSYSTEMS

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

H. Cite from public documents, articles, newspaper, or any form of mass media (just be
sure it came from a verified and trustworthy source) that represent issues/problems tackled
in this module. Write a suggestion based on the article. Your chosen articles should be at
least from 2010 to present. If possible, please provide snippets of the following articles and
paste them on a separate sheet, after the table. An italicized example is provided.

Title, author, Brief summary Issues/problem Relationship of Suggestion

and date (if of the issue s tackled in this the article to the
available) module specified issue

Example: The articled Sustainable The article Talk with the

talked about wildlife talked about local people to
“Title of article”
illegal poaching management sustainable know why they
by Author, 2019
activities in wildlife poach and find
Place A. management ways to …
because it talks
of issues like …

I. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

1. Why is biodiversity important?

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2. Of the different issues presented in this module, which is the most glaring problem in
the Philippines?

3. How do you suggest bridging the gap between the needs of the locals and protection
of biodiversity?

Sources:

Hagner, S. (1999). Forest management in temperate and boreal forests: Current

practices and the scope for implementing sustainable forest management [PDF].

Dapuy, B., Maître, H., & Amsallem, I. (1999). Tropical forest management techniques:
A review of the sustainability of forest management practices in tropical
countries [PDF].

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 MODULE 5

PEOPLE, GRASSLAND AND SCRUB

OBJECTIVES:

 Classify the different grassland biomes.

 Understand the importance of grassland and scrub to wildlife and humans.
 Familiarize students with the management and maintenance of grassland
and scrub biome.

Scrub can be valuable for a wide range of wildlife, providing a continued source of
nectar, fruits, seeds, shelter, breeding, and roosting sites. A stand of scrub with varied plant
species, age and structure will support a great variety of species.

By ensuring that scrub – the transitory stage between open habitats such as
grassland and closed canopy woodland - is part of your habitat mosaic you will be providing
food and shelter for invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds.

IMPORTANCE OF SCRUB FOR WILDLIFE

INVERTEBRATES
Some tall herbs, often associated with scrub edge, are vital to many grassland
invertebrates that need nectar-rich shrubs to complete their lifecycles. Species such as
blackthorn, hawthorn, bramble, and herbs provide early pollen and nectar, as well as
foraging habitat for herbivorous and predatory invertebrates in both adult and larval stages.
Standing and fallen dead timber is valuable habitat for fungi and wood-boring insects.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

Amphibians and reptiles prefer south facing areas of scrub for basking and
hibernation sites, for example south facing heathland gorse scrub edges provide basking
for adders. Scrub can also be used as a wildlife corridor to link habitats such as wetland
areas for amphibians.

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BIRDS AND MAMMALS
Scrub is commonly used by birds such as bullfinch, yellowhammer, linnet, willow
warbler, wren, blackbird, dunnock, long-tailed tit and turtle dove. Coastal scrub is important
for migratory birds such as redwing, fieldfare, and waxwing, which use scrub as a ‘feeding
station’. Fruits and seeds are a particularly important feature of scrub which provides
autumn and winter food for resident and migrant birds and mammals.

Certain species will show preferences for certain structures of scrub for example
yellowhammer and linnet nest in low, dense scrub edges that are thick at the base, whereas
song thrush nest in thick cover, preferring mature scrub, and feed in short marginal
vegetation.

Raptors will often use scrub for roosting in winter and hunting small birds and
mammals. Long-eared owl will utilize the old nests of magpie in denser scrub areas.
Nightingale are summer visitors (mid-April – August) and restricted to the southern and
eastern counties of England. Scrub has become increasingly important for nightingale,
preferring thickets of dense scrub such as blackthorn and bramble, with a margin of rough
grass.

SCRUB MANAGEMENT
Since scrub is a transitory habitat, it needs management to maintain it otherwise it
will develop into woodland or can become invasive and reduce the biodiversity of a site.
Initially it is important to look at a site and plan how it is going to be managed to ensure a
balance with other features of the site such as open habitat, species of conservation
importance or geological features.

Work on scrub is best carried out in the autumn/winter, ideally early February, and
should never be done during the bird nesting season (March – July). Work on berry-bearing
scrub is best delayed until after December, leaving valuable autumn and winter fruits and
seeds as food for wildlife.

Improvement – Increased biodiversity is associated with larger areas of well-

managed scrub.

If a site does not have much scrub, creating it through natural regeneration or
planting can improve the variety of wildlife in the area. When planting, try to create a natural,

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uneven spread of planting with a mix of species and plenty of edges, which are an important
part of scrub.

When planning to increase the amount of scrub it is important not to create scrub
at the expense of other existing high value habitat such as herb-rich grassland. Where a
stand of scrub does not attract a great variety of wildlife, the aim of managing the scrub
should be to improve its value for wildlife. This can be done by increasing the variety of
species and structure, encouraging natural regeneration and by rotational cutting to
increase the age range within the scrub.

Generally, it is advised that species of local provenance are used for supplementary
planting. The ideal outcome is a mosaic of scrub stands of varying age and size structure
with associated open habitat, which in turn will increase the diversity of the associated plant
and animal communities.

Farmers/landowners who apply for Natural England’s Environmental Stewardship

Scheme could receive payment for the restoration or creation of a succession of scrub
habitat for specific target species such as the dormouse, song thrush or turtle dove. Scrub
creation is particularly aimed at sites where target species already exist and where the site
is adjacent to existing areas of scrub or woodland.

MAINTENANCE – Where a site has enough scrub in good condition it is important

to maintain its wildlife value by keeping a variety of stages of growth.

Because scrub is a transitory habitat and readily colonizes unmanaged open

habitat, it is typically strong growing with a dense structure. However, if allowed to grow
unchecked scrub gradually develops a woodland structure. Growth tends to become leggy
and single stemmed; the understory is shaded out and the thicket qualities of the scrub are
then lost.

By rotationally coppicing blocks of scrub and allowing them to re-grow, the scrub’s
characteristic thicket structure is rejuvenated and maintained.

Scrub typically matures at about 15 years, so coppicing 1/15th every year, i.e. a 15-
year rotation, is a good rule of thumb; alternatively cutting 2/15th every other year or 3/15th
every third year.

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 Where scrub is almost entirely composed of bramble, the rotation can be shorter,
between 5-6 years (i.e. a fifth or sixth each winter) to provide a mosaic of bramble at
different stages of growth.

In any event always try to avoid cutting adjacent patches sequentially in order not
to reduce foliage for invertebrates to feed on. Rough grassland fringes and damp ditch
banks benefit from a shorter ‘cut and rake’ rotation cycle of 2-3 years where a half or a third
is cut in late summer/autumn. Try to integrate this with the coppicing cycle i.e. cut and rake
the edge of a block that you are coppicing in the same year.

Rotational cutting of bramble, marginal rough grass and tall herbs will increase the
age ranges within the scrub and give diversity in structure, which in turn will increase the
diversity of the associated wildlife. Aim to create long edges which are sunny and sheltered
and a scrub mosaic effect with rides and glades. Edges are particularly important for wildlife
because they have flowering plants, which provide continued nectar for invertebrates, fruits
and seeds for birds and mammals, shelter and nest sites and hunting grounds for raptors.

Brash can be used to create habitat piles within the scrub. Limit the number of piles
and once these are established as part of the rotation, use the same locations in future
years.

Livestock can be allowed rotational access to rougher grass alleviating the need to
cut and rake. Care should be taken that no toxic weeds are in rougher areas/scrub and that
livestock does not push into, or become caught up in, the scrub edge– for example sheep
can become trapped by their fleeces in bramble.

REDUCTION – If scrub is encroaching on to habitats of higher conservation value, for

example unimproved grassland, it may be necessary to reduce the amount of scrub. The
effect of scrub encroachment on, for example, geological and historical features of a site
should also be considered. Once the extent of the scrub has been reduced, remaining
scrub will need to be maintained to preserve the balance between scrub and open habitat.

ERADICATION – Where scrub composition is predominantly invasive/non-native species

and is damaging other habitats, for example rhododendron or Japanese knotweed or
snowberry eradication may be desirable. Complete eradication is difficult and will require
several years of management tailored to preventing re-growth.

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TECHNIQUES USED FOR MANAGING SCRUB
There are several ways to manage scrub and methods will vary according to the
aims of management and the species for which it is being managed.

Planting and sowing – for improvement

Natural regeneration should be encouraged but for quick results plant with whips of
local provenance and from a sustainable source.

MANUAL/MACHINERY – for improvement, maintenance, reduction, or eradication

Whether hand tools or large-scale machinery is used for scrub management will
depend on the extent of the scrub and site ground conditions. It is important to use tools
appropriate to the task and ground conditions, ranging from handheld tools, mower,
chainsaw, to tractor-mounted hedge cutters or excavators.

Where the surrounding habitat is fragile, for example herb-rich grassland or wet
ground, machinery may not be feasible or advisable.

GRAZING – for maintenance, reduction, or eradication

Grazing improves and maintains the edges of scrub and helps with its reduction
and eradication. The results will largely depend on the type of livestock used and the
palatability of the scrub species. Grazing requires careful monitoring because if it becomes
too intense, scrub structure can change through over-grazing of palatable plants and
fencing may be necessary to avoid an adverse impact on species such as nightingale.
Livestock should not be used for managing /eradicating scrub that contains species that
are toxic – for example rhododendron.

THE GRASSLAND BIOME HABITAT

The grassland biome includes terrestrial habitats that are dominated by grasses
and have relatively few large trees or shrubs. There are three main types of grasslands—
temperate grasslands, tropical grasslands (also known as savannas), and steppe
grasslands.

GRASSLAND BIOME KEY CHARACTERISTICS

The following are the key characteristics of the grassland biome:

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  Vegetation structure that is dominated by grasses
 Semi-arid climate
 Rainfall and soils insufficient to support significant tree growth
 Most common at mid-latitudes and near the interiors of continents
 Grasslands are often exploited for agricultural use

CLASSIFICATION

The grassland biome is divided into the following habitats:

TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS: Temperate grasslands are dominated by grasses, lacking

trees, and large shrubs. Temperate grasslands include tall-grass prairies which are wet
and humid, and dry, short-grass prairies that experience hot summers and cold winters.
The soil of temperate grasslands has a nutrient-rich upper layer, but fires that prevent trees
and shrubs from growing often accompany seasonal droughts.

TROPICAL GRASSLANDS: Tropical grasslands are located near the equator. They have
warmer, wetter climates than temperate grasslands and experience more pronounced
seasonal droughts. Savannahs are dominated by grasses but also have some scattered
trees. Their soil is very porous and drains rapidly. Tropical grasslands are found in Africa,
India, Australia, Nepal, and South America.

Steppe grasslands: Steppe grasslands border on semi-arid deserts. The grasses found
in the steppe are much shorter than those of temperate and tropical grasslands. Steppe
grasslands lack trees except along the banks of rivers and streams.

SUFFICIENT RAINFALL

Most grasslands experience a dry season and a rainy season. During the dry season,
grasslands can be susceptible to fires, which often start as a result of lightning strikes. The
annual rainfall in a grassland habitat is greater than the annual rainfall that occurs in desert
habitats, and while they receive enough rain to grow grasses and other scrubby plants, it's
not enough to support the growth of significant numbers of trees. The soils of grasslands

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also limit the vegetation structure that grows in them. Grassland soils are generally too
shallow and dry to support tree growth.

VARIETY OF WILDLIFE

Some common plant species that occur in grasslands include buffalo grass, asters,
coneflowers, clover, goldenrods, and wild indigos. Grasslands support a variety of animal
wildlife as well, including reptiles, mammals, amphibians, birds, and many types of
invertebrates. The dry grasslands of Africa are among the most ecologically diverse of all
grasslands and support populations of animals such as giraffes, zebras, and rhinoceroses.
The grasslands of Australia provide habitat for kangaroos, mice, snakes, and a variety of
birds. The grasslands of North America and Europe support wolves, wild turkeys, coyotes,
Canadian geese, cranes, bobcats, and eagles. Additional grassland wildlife includes:

African elephant (Loxodonta africana): The two front incisors of African elephants grow
into large tusks that curve forward. They have a large head, large ears, and a long muscular
trunk.

Lion (Panthera leo): The largest of all African cats, lions inhabit savannas and the Gir
Forest in northwest India.

American bison (Bison bison): Millions used to roam North America's grasslands, boreal
regions, and scrublands but their relentless slaughter for meat, hides, and sport drove the
species to the brink of extinction.

Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta): Inhabits of the grasslands, savannas, and semi-deserts
of sub-Saharan Africa, hyena’s have the highest population density in the Serengeti, a vast
plains ecosystem stretching from northern Tanzania to southwestern Kenya.

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HUMAN IMPACT ON THE GRASSLANDS

THIS IS A POWER PLANT ON A GRASSLAND photo courtesy of mset.rst2.edu

 Grasslands are sadly being threatened by human impacts. They are disappearing
due to dividing up the land for farming and urban development. Dividing up the
land for farming is bad because the animals of the grasslands do not have any way
to move around.
 25% of grasslands have disappeared because of people building power plants,
cities, schools, roads, permanent homes (also known as urban development).
 Prairie animals are also being endangered. For example, farmers think that prairie
dogs are pests because they burrow and can cause injury to cattle and horses.
Farmers kill them even though it is illegal.
 In the tropical grasslands, people are illegally poaching endangered animals. For
example, people are poaching tigers, elephants, and leopards and more
endangered animals like that.
 People tour the tropical grasslands and watch the animals. The animals are
developing behavior problems due to being observed for long periods. Plus, the
cars the people are touring in have a pollution effect on the tropical grasslands.

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THIS USED TO BE A GRASSLAND, BUT NOW IT'S COVERD WITH BUILDINGS photo
courtesy of SpeciesRisk_Graph_p11

THIS PERSON IS DEALING WITH A POACHED TIGER PELT photo courtesy of techno-
trades.com

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HOW YOU CAN HELP?

RECYCLING SIGN photo courtesy of pixmac.com

You can help the grasslands by biking to school and recycling items such as paper, plastic
bags/bottles, and paper bags. You can also help by getting your family members to drive
fewer miles in the car. If it is a short distance and nice weather, it would be a good idea to
walk or bike wherever you are going. Remember, if you see litter, pick it up.

ACTIVITY: PEOPLE, GRASSLAND AND SCRUB

1. Choose one from the impacts of humans on grassland biomes and discuss.
2. Give an example in the Philippine/local setting. Include the location and
explain how humans has affected the biome.

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 MODULE 6

PEOPLE AND WATER, OCEANS & COASTS

OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the importance of oceans and coastal environments.
 Identify the impacts of humans to oceans and climate change.

OCEANS AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

Earth is a world of water, with seven tenths of its surface covered by ocean. The
oceans are the engine of our climate system, taking in approximately half of all solar energy
around the equator to power mighty currents that extend up as far as the poles, wind fields
following in their wake.

Their waters also provide us with much of the air we breathe microscopic
phytoplankton populations performing half of all photosynthesis, despite forming less than
1% of global biomass. In addition, the oceans absorb some of the additional CO2 produced
by human activity – lessening the full impact of global warming.

Human beings don't like to venture too far from the sea: 60% of us live less than 60
km from the world's three million square kilometers of coast, which represent major
economic resources, and more than two thirds of all cities with populations of more than
2.5 million people are within coastal zones.

The surface of the sea is ever-changing, but satellites provide us with a means of
mapping it for the very first time.

Envisat's ASAR surveyed ocean wave spectra to increase the safety and efficiency
of marine transport – 90% of world trade crosses the oceans – while ERS's scatter meter
compiled maps of sea surface wind patterns. Envisat's MERIS and other spectrometers
can identify phytoplankton or pollution levels from the slightest shift in water colour, while
AATSR provided a steady record of sea surface temperature and two decades worth of
radar altimetry data tracks a slight but steady increase in sea level of 3 mm per year.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OCEANS

The oceans make up 70 percent of

the planet and contains 97 percent of all the
water on Earth. The vast amount of water
stores the majority of the planet’s moisture,
terrestrial energy, and heat from the Sun.
This energy is transferred between the
equator and the two poles by larger surface
currents by winds and deep ocean currents
driven by differences in ocean density. It
also provides the moisture and energy for
storm systems and ultimately global
climates.

Phytoplankton, microscopic plants, and animals in the oceans provide the foundation of the
global food web of species. The earth’s oceans are so vital for life that over 40 percent of
the world’s population live 7.4 billion people near coastal areas.

MODERATE CLIMATES

As terrestrial creatures, humans

think of the importance of the
planet’s land surfaces, yet Earth is
a planet consisting of 70 percent
water. From space, the dominance
of water is obvious because most
of it is stored in Earth’s oceans.
Earth would not be the same planet
without its oceans. The oceans,
along with the atmosphere, keep
Earth’s surface temperatures fairly

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constant worldwide. While some places on Earth get as cold as -7 degrees Celsius and
others as hot as 55 degrees Celsius, the range is only 125 degrees Celsius. On Mercury
temperatures go from -180 degrees Celsius to 430 degrees Celsius, a range of 610
degrees Celsius. The oceans, along with the atmosphere, distribute heat around the planet.
The oceans absorb heat near the equator and then transport that solar energy to polar
regions. The oceans also moderate climate within a region. At the same latitude, the
temperature range is smaller along coastal areas compared to areas farther inland. Along
coastal areas, summer temperatures are not as hot, and winter temperatures are not as
cold, because water takes a long time to heat up or cool down.

BIOLOGICALLY RICH

The oceans are an essential part of Earth’s

water cycle. Since they cover so much of the planet,
most evaporation comes from the ocean and most
precipitation falls on the oceans. The oceans are also
home to an enormous amount of life. That is, they
have tremendous biodiversity. Tiny ocean plants
create the base of a food web that supports all sorts
of life forms. Marine life makes up the majority of all
biomass on Earth. (Biomass is the total mass of living organisms in a given area.) These
organisms supply us with food and even the oxygen created by marine plants.

CONTINENTAL MARGIN

Recall from the chapter on Plate Tectonics that the ocean floor is not flat: mid-ocean
ridges, deep sea trenches, and other features all rise sharply above or plunge deeply below
the abyssal plains. In fact, Earth’s tallest mountain is Mauna Kea volcano, which rises
10,203 m (33,476 ft.) meters) from the Pacific Ocean floor to become one of the volcanic
mountains of Hawaii. The deepest canyon is also on the ocean floor, the Challenger Deep
in the Marianas Trench, 10,916 m (35,814 ft). The mapping of the ocean floor and coastal
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margins is called bathymetry. The continental margin is the transition from the land to the
deep sea or, geologically speaking, from continental crust to oceanic crust. More than one-
quarter of the ocean basin is continental margin.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE OCEAN

COMPOSITION OF OCEAN WATER

Water is a polar
molecule so it can
dissolve many
substances such as
salts, sugars, acids,
bases, and organic
molecules. Where
does the salt in
seawater come from?
As water moves
through rock and soil
on land it picks up ions. This is the flip side of weathering. Salts comprise about 3.5% of
the mass of ocean water, but the salt content or salinity is different in different locations. In

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places like estuaries, seawater mixes with fresh water, causing salinity to be much lower
than average. Where there is lots of evaporation but little circulation of water, salinity can
be much higher. The Dead Sea has 30% salinity—nearly nine times the average salinity of
ocean water. It is called the Dead Sea because nearly nothing can survive within it because
of its salinity. Earth guide has an interactive ocean maps can show salinity, temperature,
nutrients, and other characteristics. Differences in water density are responsible for deep
ocean currents. With so many dissolved substances mixed in seawater, what is the density
(mass per volume) of seawater relative to fresh water? Water density increases as: salinity
increases; temperature decreases; pressure increases

In 1960, two men in a specially designed submarine called the Trieste descended
into a submarine trench called the Challenger Deep (10,910 meters). The average depth
of the ocean is 3,790 m, a lot more shallow than the deep trenches but still an incredible
depth for sea creatures to live in. There are three major factors that make the deep ocean
hard to inhabit: the absence of light, low temperature, and extremely high pressure.

VERTICAL DIVISIONS
To better understand regions of the ocean, scientists define the water column by
depth. They divide the entire ocean into two zones vertically, based on light level. Large
lakes are divided into similar regions. Sunlight only penetrates the sea surface to a depth
of about 200 m, creating the photic zone (consisting of the Sunlight Zone and Twilight
Zone). Organisms that photosynthesize depend on sunlight for food and so are restricted
to the photic zone. Since tiny photosynthetic organisms, known as phytoplankton, supply
nearly all of the energy and nutrients to the rest of the marine food web, most other marine
organisms live in or at least visit the photic zone. In the aphotic zone (consisting of the
Midnight Zone and the Abyss) there is not enough light for photosynthesis. The aphotic
zone makes up the majority of the ocean, but has a relatively small amount of its life, both
in diversity of type and in numbers.

HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS
The seabed is also divided into the zones described above, but the ocean itself is
also divided horizontally by distance from the shore. Nearest to the shore lies the intertidal
(littoral) zone, the region between the high and low tidal marks. This hallmark of the
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intertidal is change water is in constant motions in waves, tides, and currents. The land is
sometimes under water and sometimes is exposed. The neritic zone is from low tide mark
and slopes gradually downward to the edge of the seaward side of the continental shelf.
Some sunlight penetrates to the seabed here. The oceanic zone is the entire rest of the
ocean from the bottom edge of the neritic zone, where sunlight does not reach the bottom.
The seabed and water column are subdivided further, as seen in the figure above.

PEOPLE AND OCEANS

GENERAL
The ocean is vast, covering 140 million square miles (363 million square km),
equivalent to approximately 72 per cent of the earth's surface.

More than 600 million people (around 10 per cent of the world’s population) live in
coastal areas that are less than 10 meters above sea level.

Nearly 2.4 billion people (about 40 per cent of the world’s population) live within 100
km (60 miles) of the coast.

Oceans, coastal and marine resources are especially important for people living in
coastal communities, who represent 37 per cent of the global population in 2017.

HEALTH AND NUTRITION

Human health is being impacted by the enhanced survival and spread of tropical
diseases due to increasing ocean temperatures.

Fish is one of the most important sources of animal protein. It accounts for about
17 per cent of protein at the global level and exceeds 50 per cent in many least-developed
countries.

The nutrients found in fish are important for optimal neurodevelopment in children
and for improving cardiovascular health.

SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS AND DECENT WOR

About 97 per cent of the world’s fishermen live in developing countries and fishing
is their major source for food and income. Women account for most of the workers in
secondary marine-related activities such as fish processing and marketing.

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 Overall, 80 per cent of the world’s fish stocks for which assessment information is
available are reported as fully exploited or overexploited. Illegal, unregulated, unreported
fishing affects about 20 per cent of the global fish yields, which cost about $US23 billion a
year. An estimated 27 percent of landed fish is lost or wasted between landing and
consumption.

Small scale fisheries supply almost half of the world’s seafood stock. Small scale
fisheries are however, among others, disadvantaged by lack of access to markets, even
domestically, and a lack of pricing power.

ECONOMY
The ocean-economy, which includes employment, ecosystem services provided by
the ocean, and cultural services, is estimated at between US$3-6 trillion/year.

Fisheries and aquaculture contribute $US100 billion per year and about 260 million
jobs to the global economy.

Shipping is responsible for more than 90 per cent of the trade between countries.
The global oceans-based economy is estimated at $US3 trillion a year, which is around 5
per cent of global GDP.

Approximately 50 per cent of all international tourists travel to coastal areas. In

some developing countries, notably Small Island Development States, tourism accounts
for over 25 per cent of GDP.

MARINE POLLUTION

MARINE DEBRIS
More than 8 million tons of plastic enter the oceans each year, equal to dumping a
garbage truck of plastic every minute. As much as 80 per cent of all litter in our oceans is
made of plastic.

As many as 51 trillion microplastic particles — 500 times more than the stars in our
galaxy — litter our oceans and seas, seriously threatening marine wildlife.

Marine debris is harming more than 800 species. 40 per cent of marine mammals
and 44 per cent of seabird species are affected by marine debris ingestion.

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 According to some estimates, at the rate we are dumping items such as plastic
bottles, bags, and cups after a single use, by 2050 oceans will carry more plastic mass
than fish, and an estimated 99 per cent of seabirds will have ingested plastic.

Plastic waste kills up to 1 million sea birds, 100,000 sea mammals, marine turtles,
and countless fish each year. Plastic remains in our ecosystem for years, harming
thousands of sea creatures every day.

Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear in the oceans makes up

around 10 percent (640 000 tons) of all marine litter. This gear continues to catch fish
through so called “ghost fishing”, and also traps turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals.

LAND-BASED ACTIVITIES
80 per cent of all pollution in seas and oceans comes from land-based activities.

Nitrogen loads to oceans roughly tripled from pre-industrial times due to fertilizer,
manure, and wastewater. The global economic damage of nitrogen pollution is estimated
at $200–800 billion per year.

In many parts of the world, (urban) sewage flows untreated, or under-treated, into
the ocean.

Pollution and eutrophication (excessive nutrients in water) are also caused by run
off from the land, which cause dense plant growth and the death of animal life. The five
large marine ecosystems most at risk from coastal eutrophication are: Bay of Bengal, East
China Sea, Gulf of Mexico, North Brazil Shelf and South China Sea.

Increased nutrient loading from human activities, combined with the impacts of
climate change and other environmental change has resulted in an increase in the
frequency, magnitude, and duration of harmful algal blooms worldwide. These algal blooms
can contaminate seafood with toxins, and impact ecosystem structure and function,
recreational activities, fisheries, tourism, and coastal property values.

Nutrient over-enrichment from agricultural, municipal, and industrial sources

contributes to the so called “dead zones”—hypoxic regions that exhibit oxygen levels that
are too low to support many aquatic organisms including commercially desirable species.
The extent and duration of “dead zones” is also increasing worldwide.

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OIL SPILLS

Oil tankers transport some 2,900 million tons of crude oil and oil products every
year around the world by sea. In addition to large tanker incidents, small oil spills happens
every day, due to drilling incidents or leaking motors, and cause the death of birds, marine
mammals, algae, fish, and shellfish. Oil spills remain a concern, though actual spills have
decreased steadily for several decades.

BIODIVERSITY

BIOSPHERE
The world’s oceans contain somewhere between 500,000 and 10 million marine
species.

Marine phytoplankton (the plant components of the plankton community) produces

50 per cent of oxygen on Earth.

Oceans have absorbed as much as half of all anthropogenic carbon emissions over
the past two centuries. “Blue carbon” ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrass beds, tidal
marshes and other marine and coastal vegetated ecosystems are among the most intense
carbon sinks on the planet.

The species diversity in the oceans ranges from 0.7 to 1.0 million species, with
millions more bacteria, other microbes, and viruses. Much of the biodiversity in the ocean,
particularly in the deep sea and in the microbial ocean, is unknown, and up to 2,000 new
species are described per year.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Coral reefs (both tropical and cold water) are very sensitive to ocean acidification,
with 60 per cent of reefs currently threatened by a combination of ocean warming,
acidification and other anthropogenic impacts, a number that will rise to 90 per cent by
2030 and about 100 per cent by 2050.

About 20 per cent of the world’s coral reefs have been destroyed and show no
immediate prospects for recovery; about 16 per cent of them were seriously damaged by
coral bleaching in 1998, but of these about 40 per cent have either recovered or are
recovering well.

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 1998 was declared the first major coral bleaching event. The second major global
bleaching event was triggered by the El Niño of 2010. The third major global coral bleaching
event was declared in 2015, and it has become the longest, most widespread, and most
damaging event recorded, impacting some reefs in consecutive years and it is continuing
in 2017.

The Great Barrier Reef of Australia, for example, has experienced its worst coral
bleaching event in 2016, and bleaching has already begun again in 2017. The leading
causes of coral bleaching are the above-average sea water temperatures caused by
climate change.

An estimated 20 per cent of global mangroves have been lost since 1980.

Projected increasing temperatures in oceans will likely result in changes in

distribution of marine species and can significantly influence the reproductive cycles of fish.

Pressures on coastal and marine biodiversity continue to increase, as an estimated

40 per cent of the world’s population lives within 100km of the coast, putting unsustainable
strain on coastal resources. Human population is projected to increase to more than 9
billion people by 2050, bringing increasing pressure marine and coastal resources.

CLIMATE CHANGE

CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE OCEAN

About 93 per cent of the excess heat energy stored by the Earth over the last 50
years is found in the ocean more than three quarters of the total exchange of water between
the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface through evaporation and precipitation takes place
over the oceans.

The ocean contains 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere and is at present
acting to slow the rate of climate change by absorbing about 30 per cent of human
emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning, cement production, deforestation, and
other land use change.

ICE MELTING IN POLAR REGIONS

Over the last two decades, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been losing
mass, glaciers have continued to shrink almost worldwide, and Arctic sea ice and Northern
Hemisphere spring snow cover have continued to decrease in extent).

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 Over the past three decades, Arctic summer sea ice retreat was unprecedented
and sea surface temperatures were anomalously high in at least the last 1,450 years.

SEA LEVEL RISE

Between 1901 and 2010, global sea level rise increased at an accelerating rate and
recent sea level rise appears to have been the fastest in at least 2800 years.

During the last four decades, 75 per cent of the sea level rise can be attributed to
glacier mass loss and ocean thermal expansion. This gives Antarctica alone the potential
to contribute more than a meter of sea level rise by 2100 and more than 15 meters by 2500.

Sea level rise leads to coastal erosion, inundations, storm floods, tidal waters
encroachment into estuaries and river systems, contamination of freshwater reserves and
food crops, loss of nesting beaches, as well as displacement of coastal lowlands and
wetlands. In particular, sea level rise poses a significant risk to coastal regions and
communities.

Almost two-thirds of the world's cities with populations of over five million are
located in areas at risk of sea level rise.

The potential costs associated with damage to harbors and ports due to sea level
rise could be as high as $US111.6 billion by 2050 and $US367.2 billion by the end of the
century.

EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS

Ocean warming has been linked to extreme weather events as increasing seawater
temperatures provide more energy for storms that develop at sea, leading to fewer but
more intense tropical cyclones globally.

Latest figures show that disasters—90 per cent of which are classed as climate
related—now cost the world economy US$520 billion per year and push 26 million people
into poverty every year.

DISPLACEMENT
It is estimated that at least 11 to 15 per cent of the population of Small Island
Developing States live on land with an elevation of 5 meters or lower, and that a sea level
rise of half a meter could displace 1.2 million people from low-lying islands in the Caribbean
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Sea and the Indian and Pacific Oceans; with that number almost doubling if the sea level
rises by 2 meters.

It has been reported that an annual average of 21.5 million people have been
forcibly internally displaced by sudden weather-related hazards since 2008.

ACTIVITY: PEOPLE AND WATER, OCEANS & COASTS

Give examples of coastal communities in the country which was recently affected by
weather and climate change.

1. What is government doing to address this?

2. Identify at least one marine reserve sanctuary in the country and discuss
its significance to the environment.

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