Features of a Wave

●​ When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important
to know, including:
○​ Crest (Peak)
○​ Trough
○​ Amplitude
○​ Wavelength
○​ Frequency
○​ Wave speed
○​ Wavefront

Crests & Troughs

●​ A crest, or a peak, is defined as:​
The highest point on a wave above the equilibrium, or rest, position
●​ A trough is defined as​
The lowest point on a wave below the equilibrium, or rest, position

Crest and Trough of a Wave

 Diagram showing a crest and a trough on a transverse wave

Amplitude
●​ Amplitude is defined as:​
The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave
●​ It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)
●​ Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed
position

Wavelength
●​ Wavelength is defined as:​
The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next
wave
●​ In a transverse wave:
○​ The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
●​ In a longitudinal wave
○​ The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one
compression to the centre of the next
●​ The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres
(m)
●​ The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram

Wavelength and Amplitude

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Frequency
 ●​ Frequency is defined as:​
The number of waves passing a point in a second
●​ Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Wave Speed
●​ Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium
●​ Wave speed is defined as:​
The distance travelled by a wave each second
●​ Wave speed is given the symbol, ν, and is measured in metres per second
(m/s), it can be calculated using:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength

Wavefronts
●​ Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each
wavefront is used to represent a single wave
●​ The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
○​ The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes
called a ray
○​ The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
○​ When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with
a short wavelength
○​ When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with a long
wavelength

Wavefronts
 Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts
Worked Example
Small water waves are created in a ripple tank by a wooden bar. The wooden bar
vibrates up and down hitting the surface of the water. The diagram below shows a
cross-section of the ripple tank and water.

Identify the letter which shows:

a) The amplitude of a water wave.

b) The wavelength of the water wave.

Answer:

(a)

Step 1: Recall the definition of amplitude

●​ Amplitude = The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or

trough of a wave

Step 2: Mark the undisturbed position on the wave

●​ This is the centre of the wave

Step 3: Identify the arrow between the undisturbed position and a peak

●​ The amplitude is shown by arrow D

(b)

Step 1: Recall the definition of wavelength

●​ Wavelength = The distance from one point on the wave to the same point
on the next wave

Step 2: Draw lines on each horizontal arrow

●​ This helps to identify the points on the wave the arrows are referring to
Step 3: Identify the arrow between two of the same points on the wave

●​ The wavelength is shown by arrow C

The Wave Equation
●​ Wave speed is defined as:​
The distance travelled by a wave each second
●​ Wave speed is given the symbol ν and is measured in metres per second
(m/s)
●​ Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium
●​ Transverse and longitudinal waves both obey the wave equation:

●​ Where:
○​ v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
○​ f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
○​ λ = wavelength in metres (m)
●​ The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done
using this formula triangle:

Equation Triangle for the Wave Equation

Transverse Waves
●​ Waves are repeated vibrations that transfer energy
●​ Waves can exist as one of two types:
○​ Transverse
○​ Longitudinal

Transverse Waves
●​ Transverse waves are defined as:​
Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction of
energy transfer
●​ For a transverse wave:
 ○​ The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
○​ They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
○​ They can move in solids and on the surfaces of liquids but not inside
liquids or gases
○​ Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in solids,
liquids and gases and in a vacuum
●​ The point on the wave that is:
○​ The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
○​ The lowest below the rest position is called the trough

Vibrations of a Transverse Wave

Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down

●​ Examples of transverse waves are:

○​ Ripples on the surface of water
○​ Vibrations on a guitar string
○​ S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
○​ Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

Representing Transverse Waves

●​ Transverse waves are drawn as a single continuous line, usually with a central
line showing the undisturbed position
●​ The curves are drawn so that they are perpendicular to the direction of energy
transfer
 ○​ These represent the peaks and troughs

Transverse Wave Graph

Transverse waves are represented as a continuous solid line

Longitudinal Waves
●​ Longitudinal waves are defined as:​
Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of energy
transfer
●​ For a longitudinal wave:
○​ The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
○​ They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
○​ They can move in solids, liquids and gases
○​ They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)
●​ The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
○​ Close together, called compressions
○​ Spaced apart, called rarefactions

Longitudinal Wave on a Spring

Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly backwards
and forwards

●​ Examples of longitudinal waves are:

○​ Sound waves
○​ P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
○​ Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas

Representing Longitudinal Waves

●​ Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is
moving parallel to the direction of energy transfer
○​ Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
○​ Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions

Diagram of a Longitudinal Wave

Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and compressions

Comparing Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

●​ The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the
table:

Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table

Property Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Structure Peaks and troughs Compressions and

rarefactions

Vibration 90° to direction of energy transfer Parallel to direction of

energy transfer

Vacuum Electromagnetic waves (a transverse wave) Cannot travel in a

can travel through a vacuum vacuum
 Material Can move in solids, liquids and gases Can move in solids,
liquids and gases

Density Constant density Changes in density

Pressure Constant pressure Changes in pressure

Speed of Dependent on the material it travels in Dependent on the

wave material it travels in

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The key difference between transverse and longitudinal waves is the direction of the
vibrations with respect to the direction of the wave itself. For transverse waves, these
are perpendicular to each other, whilst for longitudinal waves, these are parallel.

Reflection
●​ Reflection occurs when:​
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but
instead stays in the original medium
●​ The law of reflection states:

The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection

●​ When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:

Reflection
When waves reflect off a barrier, the angle of reflection, r, is equal to the angle of
incidence, i
Describing Sound
●​ Sound waves are produced by vibrating sources
●​ When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid, those vibrations can be
transferred to the solid
○​ For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate
○​ If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter

Sound waves are longitudinal: the molecules vibrate in the same direction as the energy
transfer

●​ Sound waves require a medium to travel through

○​ This means that if there are no molecules, such as in a vacuum, then the
sound can’t travel through it
●​ The range of frequencies a human can hear is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz

Compression & Rarefaction

●​ Longitudinal waves consist of compression and rarefactions:
○​ A compression is a region of higher density i.e. a place where the
molecules are bunched together
 ○​ A rarefaction is a region of lower density i.e. a place where the molecules
are spread out

Compressions and Rarefactions of Air in a Column

Sound is a longitudinal wave consisting of compressions and rarefactions - these are

areas where the pressure of the air varies with the wave

●​ These compressions and rarefactions cause changes in pressure, which vary in

time with the wave
○​ Therefore, sound is a type of pressure wave
●​ When the waves hit a solid, the variations in pressure cause the surface of the
solid to vibrate in sync with the sound wave

Compressions and Rarefactions of Sound Reflecting from a Solid

 When sound waves hit a solid, the fluctuating pressure causes the solid to vibrate
Examiner Tips and Tricks
When describing compressions and rarefactions, make sure to use the correct terms. It
is best to refer to them as regions of high and low densities of particles instead of the
particles are more 'bunched up' or 'far apart', as this is too vague and not very scientific!
Investigating Sound in a Vacuum
Sound Waves in a Vacuum
●​ Sound waves are longitudinal waves
○​ All longitudinal waves require a medium through which to travel
●​ A vacuum is a region of space that does not contain air (or any other matter)
○​ This means that, in a vacuum, there is no medium for sound waves
○​ So sound waves cannot travel in a vacuum

Using a Bell Jar

●​ This can be easily demonstrated using a piece of equipment called a bell jar
○​ This is a glass container from which air can be pumped out, creating a
vacuum (or nearly a vacuum)
●​ A sound-emitting object is used, such as a battery-operated ringing bell or alarm
 ●​ This is placed in a bell jar, which still contains air
○​ The ringing bell can be heard despite the bell jar's glass walls
●​ However, as the air begins being pumped out, the volume of the sound heard
starts decreasing
●​ When the air is completely removed from the bell jar, the ringing bell cannot be
heard at all

Sound in a Bell Jar Demonstration

In the absence of air, sound waves are unable to travel and leave the bell jar
Examiner Tips and Tricks
It is very difficult to make a perfect vacuum. This means that you may well still hear a
very faint ringing in this experiment, even when as much air as possible is removed
from the jar.
Pitch & Loudness
●​ The frequency of a sound wave is related to its pitch
○​ Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency (or short wavelength)
○​ Sounds with a low pitch have a low frequency (or long wavelength)
●​ Sounds with a large amplitude have a high volume
○​ Sounds with a small amplitude have a low volume The amplitude of a
sound wave is related to its volume

Graphs of Different Amplitudes & Frequencies

The amplitude of a wave determines the volume of the sound and the frequency
determines the pitch
Different Sound Sources
●​ An oscilloscope is a device that can be used to study a rapidly changing signal,
such as:
○​ A sound wave
○​ An alternating current

Oscilloscope
 Oscilloscopes have lots of dials and buttons, but their main purpose is to display and
measure changing signals like sound waves and alternating current

●​ When a microphone is connected to an oscilloscope, the (longitudinal) sound

wave is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen
●​ The time base (like the 'x-axis') is used to measure the time period of the wave

A Soundwave Depicted as a Transverse Wave on an Oscilloscope

 A sound wave is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen of the
oscilloscope. The time base can be used to measure a full time period of the wave cycle

●​ The height of the wave (measured from the centre of the screen) is related to the
amplitude of the sound
●​ The number of entire waves that appear on the screen is related to the frequency
of the wave
○​ If the frequency of the sound wave increases, more waves are displayed
on screen

Echoes
●​ Sound waves reflect off hard surfaces
○​ The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo
●​ Echo sounding can be used to measure depth or to detect objects underwater
○​ A sound wave can be transmitted from the surface of the water
○​ The sound wave is reflected off the bottom of the ocean
●​ The time it takes for the sound wave to return is used to calculate the depth of
the water
○​ This is the distance to the ocean floor plus the distance for the wave to
return
 ○​ The distance the wave travels is twice the depth of the ocean

Ship using Radar

Echo sounding is used to determine water depth

Investigating the Reflection of Sound Waves
Using Echoes to Measure the Speed of Sound
 Measuring the speed of sound using echoes

1.​ A person stands about 50 m away from a wall (or cliff) using a trundle wheel to
measure this distance
2.​ The person claps two wooden blocks together and listens for the echo
3.​ A second person has a stopwatch and starts timing when they hear one of the
claps and stops timing when they hear the echo
4.​ The process is then repeated 20 times and an average time calculated
5.​ The distance travelled by the sound between each clap and echo will be (2 × 50)
m
6.​ The speed of sound can be calculated from this distance and the time using the
equation:
Measuring the Speed of Sound
●​ There are several experiments that can be carried out to determine the speed of
sound
●​ Three methods are described below
○​ The apparatus for each experiment is given in bold

Method 1: Measuring Sound Between Two Points

Measuring the Speed of Sound Using a Loud Noise

Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points

1.​ Two people stand a distance of around 100 m apart

2.​ The distance between them is measured using a trundle wheel
3.​ One person has two wooden blocks, which they bang together above their head
4.​ The second person has a stopwatch which they start when they see the first
person banging the blocks together and stops when they hear the sound
5.​ This is then repeated several times and an average value is taken for the time
6.​ The speed of sound can then be calculated using the equation:
Method 2: Using an Oscilloscope
Measuring the Speed of Sound Using Microphones

Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1.​ Two microphones are connected to an oscilloscope and placed about 5 m apart
using a tape measure to measure the distance
2.​ The oscilloscope is set up so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a
sound, and the time base is adjusted so that the sound arriving at both
microphones can be seen on the screen
3.​ Two wooden blocks are used to make a large clap next to the first microphone
4.​ The oscilloscope is then used to determine the time at which the clap reaches
each microphone and the time difference between them
5.​ This is repeated several times and an average time difference calculated
6.​ The speed can then be calculated using the equation:

Measuring Wave Speed in Water

●​ Ripples on water surfaces are used to model transverse waves
○​ The speed of these water waves can be measured

Ripples on Water
Creating ripples in water

1.​ Choose a calm flat water surface such as a lake or a swimming pool
2.​ Two people stand a few metres apart using a tape measure to measure this
distance
3.​ One person counts down from three and then disturbs the water surface (using
their hand, for example) to create a ripple
4.​ The second person then starts a stopwatch to time how long it takes for the first
ripple to get to them
5.​ The experiment is then repeated 10 times and an average value for the time is
calculated
6.​ The average time and distance can then be used to calculate the wave speed
using the equation:

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When you are answering questions about methods to measure waves, the question
could ask you to comment on the accuracy of the measurements

●​ In the case of measuring the speed of sound:

○​ Method 2 is the most accurate because the timing is done automatically
 ○​ Method 1 is the least accurate because the time interval is very short

Whilst this may not be too important when giving a method, you should be able to
explain why each method is accurate or inaccurate and suggest ways of making them
better (for example, use greater distances)

●​ For example, if a manual stopwatch is being used there could be variation in the
time measured which can be up to 0.2 seconds due to a person's reaction time
●​ The time interval could be as little as 0.3 seconds for sound travelling in air
●​ This means that the variation due to the stopwatch readings has a big influence
on the results and they may not be reliable
Speed of Sound in Air
●​ Sound waves travel at a speed of about 340 m/s in air at room temperature
○​ The higher the air temperature, the greater the speed of sound
●​ The speed of sound in air varies from 330 – 350 m/s
Speed of Sound in Materials
●​ Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums:
○​ Sound travels fastest in solids
○​ Sound travels slowest in gases
●​ Some typical speeds of sound in solids, liquids and gases are:
○​ Solids = 5000 m/s
○​ Liquids = 1500 m/s
○​ Gases = 350 m/s

Ultrasound
●​ Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz in frequency
(although this range decreases with age)

Infrasound & Ultrasound

 Humans can hear sounds between 20 and 20 000 Hz

●​ Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves with a frequency greater than 20
000 Hz