WAVES

 Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point.

 For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down

 Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth

 In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter.

 For water waves, this means it is the wave and not the water (the matter) itself that travels
 For sound waves, this means it is the wave and not the air molecules (the matter) itself
that travels
 Objects floating on water provide evidence that waves only transfer energy and not matter
 Waves are classified as either:

 mechanical wave
 electromagnetic wave

 Wave motion are classified as either :

 Transverse wave
 Longitudinal wave

Mechanical waves
 Require a medium to travel through, like sound waves
 The medium must have elastic and inertial properties

Electromagnetic waves
 Do not require a medium to travel through, like light waves
 Can travel through a vacuum

Transverse waves
 The vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of the wave's motion
 The surface of the wave goes up and down
 Examples include waves on a string

Longitudinal waves
 The particles in the medium move back and forth along the direction of the wave
 The wave consists of alternating compressions and rarefactions
 Examples include sound waves and P-type earthquake waves
Wave Motion

 Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal)

Demonstrating Wave Motion

 Properties of waves, such as frequency, wavelength and wave speed, can be observed using water
waves in a ripple tank

 The wavelength of the waves can be determined by:

 Using a ruler to measure the length of the screen
 Dividing this distance by the number of wavefronts
 The frequency can be determined by:
 Timing how long it takes for a given number of waves to pass a particular point
 Dividing the number of wavefronts by the time taken
 The wave speed can then be determined by:
 Using the equation; wave speed = frequency × wavelength
Features of a Wave
 When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to know, including:
 Crest (Peak)
 Trough
  Amplitude
 Wavelength
 Frequency
 Wave speed
 Wavefront
Crests & Troughs
 A crest, or a peak, is defined as: The highest point on a wave above the equilibrium, or rest,
position
 A trough is defined as The lowest point on a wave below the equilibrium, or rest, position

Amplitude

 Amplitude is defined as: The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a
wave
 It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)
 Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed position

Wavelength

 Wavelength is defined as: The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next
wave
 In a transverse wave:The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
 In a longitudinal wave, The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the
centre of the next
 The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
 The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram


Frequency

 Frequency is defined as: The number of waves passing a point in a second

 Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Wave Speed

 Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium

 Wave speed is defined as: The distance travelled by a wave each second
 Wave speed is given the symbol, ν, and is measured in metres per second (m/s), it can be calculated
using:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength

Wavefront

 Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used to represent a
single wave
 The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
 The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called a ray
 The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
 When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with a short wavelength
 When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with a long wavelength

The Wave Equation

 Wave speed is defined as: The distance travelled by a wave each second
 Wave speed is given the symbol ν and is measured in metres per second (m/s)
 Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium
 Transverse and longitudinal waves both obey the wave equation:

 Where:

 v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)

 f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
 λ = wavelength in metres (m)

 The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using this formula triangle:

Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

 Waves are repeated vibrations that transfer energy

 Waves can exist as one of two types:

 Transverse
 Longitudinal

Transverse Waves

 Transverse waves are defined as: Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to
the direction of energy transfer
 For a transverse wave:

 The energy transfer is perpendicular to wave motion

 They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
 They can move in solids and on the surfaces of liquids but not inside liquids or gases
  Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in solids, liquids and gases and
in a vacuum

 The point on the wave that is:

 The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
 The lowest below the rest position is called the trough


 Examples of transverse waves are:

 Ripples on the surface of water

 Vibrations on a guitar string
 S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
 Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

Representing Transverse Waves

 Transverse waves are drawn as a single continuous line, usually with a central line showing
the undisturbed position
 The curves are drawn so that they are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
 These represent the peaks and troughs


Longitudinal Waves

 Longitudinal waves are defined as: Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the
direction of energy transfer
 For a longitudinal wave:
  The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
 They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
 They can move in solids, liquids and gases
 They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)

 The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:

 Close together, called compression; Particles are close together resulting to a region of
high pressure
 Spaced apart, called rarefaction; Particles are spread out giving a region of low pressure.


 Examples of longitudinal waves are:

 Sound waves
 P-waves (a type of seismic wave)

 Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas

Representing Longitudinal Waves

 Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is moving parallel to
the direction of energy transfer
 Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
 Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions

Difference between Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

 The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the table

SOUND
 Sound waves are longitudinal waves created by vibrating sources.
 A medium is needed to transmit sound waves (such as air).
 The greater the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder it is.
 The greater the frequency of a sound wave, the higher its pitch.
 To measure the speed of sound in air, you can make a noise at a known, large distance from a solid
wall and record the time for the echo (reflected sound) to be heard.
 Echo – sound reflecting off of barriers and coming back to the origin.
 Reverberation – when the echo joins with the original sound.
 Taking into account the fact that the sound had to go and come back.
 The speed of sound in air is 343 ms-1 .
 The speed of sound in water is 1493 ms-1 .
 The speed of sound in steel is 5130 ms-1 .
 The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
 Ultrasound is sound with a frequency greater than 20000 Hz:
 Infra sound is sound whose frequency is below 20Hz.
 When ultrasound reaches a boundary between two media it is partially reflected back.
 The remainder of the waves continues to pass through.
 Ultrasound is used for medical imaging.
Characteristics of sound
 Sound travel fastest in solids due to vibration and slowest in gases.
 Speed of sound will increase with temperature.
 Generally the higher the density, the higher the speed.
 Increasing the amplitude increases the volume of a sound.
 Increasing the frequency will increase the pitch of a sound.
Experiment to show sound needs a material medium to travel.
 Sound is a mechanical wave which needs a material medium for transmission or travel.
 It can travel through air, water, solids but cannot travel through a vacuum.
1. Suspend an electric bell inside a glass bell jar by passing a connecting wire through an air tight cork
fitted at the mouth of the jar.
2. Place the jar over a disc which has a pipe connected to a vacuum pump, as shown in the diagram along
side.
3. When we return to the switch, we hear the sound of the bell.
4. Now, with the help of a vacuum pump, pump out the air from the jar. The sound becomes fainter.
5. When most of the air has been removed, a very feeble sound is heard. When there is no air in the jar,
sound travels through to the walls of the container. This makes the wall to vibrate thus sending sound.
6. When air is removed, sound from the bell cannot travel to the wall. Therefore sound requires a material
medium for propagation.

Reflection, Refraction & Diffraction

 All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected, refracted and diffracted

Reflection

 Reflection occurs when: A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through,
but instead stays in the original medium.
 The laws of reflection states:

1. The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection

2. The incident ray, the normal ray and the reflected ray at the point of incidence all lie
at the same plane

 When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:

Refraction

 When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change

 This effect is called refraction and it occurs when: A wave passes a boundary between two
different transparent media and undergoes a change in speed
 When a wave refracts, as well as a change in speed, the wave also undergoes:

 A change in wavelength (but frequency stays the same)

 A change in direction


 If the waves slow down, the waves will bunch together, causing the wavelength to decrease
 The waves will also start to turn slightly towards the normal
 If the waves speed up then they will spread out, causing the wavelength to increase
 The waves will also turn slightly away from the normal

Diffraction

 When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
 This effect is called diffraction
 The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the gap compared to the wavelength of the water
wave


Factors Affecting Diffraction

 Diffraction, as shown above, only generally happens when the gap is smaller than the wavelength of
the wave
 As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that the gap is very
much larger than the wavelength, the waves no longer spread out at all

Investigating Refraction

 Refraction can be shown by placing a glass block in the tank

 The glass block should sit below the surface of the water and cover only some of the tank floor
 The depth of water becomes shallower here the glass block is placed
 Since speed depends on depth, the ripples slow down when travelling over the block
 This is a good model of refraction showing how waves slow down when passing from deep water
into shallow water

Reflection of Light
Ray Diagrams

 Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the boundary
 The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
 The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
 The line at right angles (90°) to the boundary is known as the normal
 When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
 An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
 A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
 The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectivel

The Law of Reflection

 The law of reflection states that these angles are the same:
 Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)


 Reflection in a Plane Mirror
 When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object can be seen in the mirror
 The image will be:

 The same size as the object

 The same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
 Virtual
 Upright
 Laterally inverted. (left to Right)

 The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray diagram


 Light from the object hits the mirror, reflecting from it (i=r)
 To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from the right-hand side of the mirror
 The reflected ray can be traced back in this directions, forming a virtual ray
 This can be repeated for another ray travelling in a slightly different direction
 An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross
 The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image
 A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from the image, and cannot be projected onto a
piece of paper (because the rays don’t actually go through the image)

Investigating Reflection

Aims of the Experiment

 To investigate reflection by a plane mirror

Variables

 Independent variable = angle of incidence, i

 Dependent variable = angle of reflection, r
 Control variables:
 Distance of ray box from mirror
 Width of the light beam
 Same frequency / wavelength of the light


 Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
 In the middle of the paper use a ruler to mark a straight line of about 10 cm long
 Use a protractor to draw a 90° line that bisects (cuts in half) the 10 cm line
 Place the mirror on the first line as shown in the diagram above
 Switch on the ray box and aim a beam of light at the point where the two drawn lines cross at an
angle
 Use the pencil to mark two positions of the light beam:
 A point just after leaving the ray box
 The point on the reflected beam about 10 cm away from the mirror
 Remove the ray box and mirror
 Use a ruler to join the two marked positions to the point where the originally drawn lines crossed
 Use the protractor to measure the two angles from the 90° line. The angle for the ray towards the
mirror is the angle of incidence, and the other is the angle of reflection
 Repeat the experiment three times with the beam of light aimed at different angles
 An example of the data collection table is shown below:

Analysis of Results

 The law of reflection states:

 i=r
 Where:

 i = angle of incidence in degrees (°)

 r = angle of reflection in degrees (°)

 If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should be the same, as shown below:

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

 An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly

 Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
 If the mirror is distorted, this could affect the reflection angle, so make sure there are little to no
blemishes on it

Random Errors:

 The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
 Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
 The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
 Use a protractor with a higher resolution

Safety Considerations

 The ray box light could cause burns if touched

 Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
 Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
 Avoid looking directly at the light
 Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
 Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
 Take care using the mirror
 Damages on the mirror can affect the outcome of the reflection experiment

Refraction of Light
Ray Diagrams for Refraction

 When drawing refraction ray diagrams, angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a
line at 90 degrees to the boundary
 The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
 The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of refraction (r)
 The line at right angles (90°) to the boundary is known as the normal
 When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
 An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
 A refracted ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
 The angles of incidence and refraction are usually labelled i and r respectively

Refraction of Light

 Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent media
 At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction
 The direction is taken as the angle from a hypothetical line called the normal
 This line is perpendicular to the surface of the boundaries and is usually represented by a straight
dashed or dotted line
 The change in direction depends on which media the light rays pass between:
 From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the normal
 From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the normal
 When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all


 The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in different substances
 When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence they bend towards the
normal
 The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength – the frequency of
waves does not change
 Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low frequency, whilst blue has
a high frequency)
 When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass of water), therefore, the
frequency does not change

Refractive Index

 The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the material (which
is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum):


 The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for different materials
 Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is about 2.4 for
diamond
 Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is about 1.5 for glass
 Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units
Snell's Law
 When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the normal
 How much the light bends depends on the density of the material


 If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r < i (bends towards the
normal)
 If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r > i (bends away from
the normal)
 The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's Law:


 Where:

 n = the refractive index of the material

 i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
 r = angle of refraction of the light (°)

 'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator

 This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:


 Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, instead of being
refracted, all of the light is reflected
 This phenomenon is called total internal reflection
 Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when: The angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle and the incident material is denser than the second material
 Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:
 The angle of incidence > the critical angle
 The incident material is denser than the second material


 Total internal reflection is utilised in:
 Optical fibres e.g. endoscopes
 Prisms e.g. periscopes

Prisms

 Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:

 Periscopes
 Binoculars
 Telescopes
 Cameras

 They are also used in safety reflectors for bicycles and cars, as well as posts marking the side or edge
of roads
 A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects
 It consists of two right-angled prisms


 The light totally internally reflects in both prisms


Critical Angle

 As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until it gets closer to 90°
 When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the boundary
 At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c


 When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is now reflected
 This is total internal reflection

Refractive Index & Critical Angle Equation

 The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n

 The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:


 This equation shows that:
 The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
 Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be totally internally
reflected

Optical Fibres

 Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they can be used for
  Communications
 Endoscopes
 Decorative lamps

 Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits the edge of the
fibre


 Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body

Dispersion of Light

 White light is a mixture of all the colours of the spectrum

 Each colour has a different wavelength (and frequency), making up a very narrow part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
 White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a prism
 This is done by refraction
 Violet light is refracted the most, whilst red light is refracted the least
 This splits up the colours to form a spectrum
 This process is similar to how a rainbow is created

The Visible Spectrum of Light

 Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans
 Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
 However, it only takes up 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum
 In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are able to perceive beyond
visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of light
 The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
 Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy)
 Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and energy)

Monochromatic Light

 Light is a transverse wave

 The different colours of light all have different wavelengths (and frequencies)
 Red has the longest wavelength
 Violet has the shortest wavelength
 Light of a single wavelength (a single colour), or single frequency, is known as monochromatic

LENSES

 A lens is a transparent piece of glass or plastic with at least one curved surface.
 A lens works by refraction: it bends light rays as they pass through it so they change direction.

Types of Lenses

 The lens classification depends on how the light rays bend when they pass through the lens.

 The two main types of lenses are:

 Convex Lens (Converging)

 Concave Lens (Diverging)

 Convex lenses are thick in the middle and thinner at the edges.

 A concave lens is flat in the middle and thicker at the edges.

 A convex lens is also known as the converging lens as the light rays bend inwards and converge at a
point which is known as focal length.

 the concave lens is also known as a diverging lens because it bends the parallel light rays outward
and diverges them at the focal point.
 Terms used

1. Principal focus: the point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge with a
converging lens.
2. Focal length: distance from principle focus and the optical center.
3. Principal axis: line that goes through optical center, and the 2 foci.
4. Optical center: the center of the lens

DETERMINING AN IMAGE
 If the image of an object is to be determined, three important rays are considered.
 Any of the two rays can be used. Rays start from one point of the object.
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will refract
through the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens.

 Any incident ray traveling through the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.

 An incident ray that passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue in the
same direction that it had when it entered the lens.
Converging Lenses
 In a convex lens (sometimes called a positive lens), the glass (or plastic) surfaces bulge outwards in
the center giving the classic lentil-like shape.
 A convex lens is also called a converging lens because it makes parallel light rays passing through it
bend inward and meet (converge) at a spot just beyond the lens known as the focal point.
 When parallel rays of light (travelling parallel to the principal axis) pass through a lens, they are
brought to a focus at a point known as the principal focus.

 The distance of the principal focus from the lens is called the focal length, and depends on how
curved the lens is.

Forming a Real Image

 Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them.
 The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the lens. This ray will
continue to travel in a straight line.
2. Next, draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to the lens. When
this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the principal focus.
3. The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet.
 The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed a distance between one
focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens.
 In this case, the image is:

 Real
 Enlarged
 Inverted

 The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distance – further than twice the
focal length (2f) from the lens:

 In this case the image is:

 Real
 Diminished (smaller)
 Inverted

 If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:

 In this case the image is:

 Real
 Same size as the object
 Inverted

Features of a Real Image

 A real image is one formed by the convergence of rays of light.
 A real image can be projected onto a screen

CONCAVE LENS
 A concave lens is a lens that possesses at least one surface that curves inwards.
 It is a diverging lens, meaning that it spreads out light rays that have been refracted through it.
 A concave lens is thinner at its centre than at its edges
 After light rays have passed through the lens, they appear to come from a point called the principal
focus.
 This is the point onto which the collimated light that moves parallel to the axis of the lens is focused.
 The image formed by a concave lens is virtual, meaning that it will appear to be farther away than it
actually is, and therefore smaller than the object itself.

S.N. Convex lens Concave lens

1 A lens which is thick (bulged) in the middle A lens which is thin in the middle but thick
but thin at the edges is called convex lens. at the edges is called a concave lens.
2 It converges the parallel beam of light falling It diverges a parallel beam of light falling
on it, hence also called a converging lens. on it, hence also called a diverging lens.
3 It has a real focus. It has a virtual focus.
4 The power of this lens is positive. The power of this lens is negative
5 It forms a real or virtual image depending on It always forms a virtual image
the position of the object.
6 It is used in the correction of long-sightedness. It is used in the correction of short-
sightedness.
Lens Object location Image location Type Orientation Relative size Application
Converging Infinity At F Real Inverted Smaller Telescope
Converging Beyond 2F Between F and Real Inverted Smaller Camera
2F
Converging At 2F At 2F Real Inverted Same size Copier
Converging Between F and Beyond 2F Real Inverted Larger Projector
2F
Converging At F At infinity No No image No image Lighthouse
image
Converging Closer than F Same side of Virtual Upright Larger Magnifying
lens glass

Diverging Anywhere Same side of Virtual Upright Smaller Projector

lens

APPLICATIONS OF LENSES

1. Cameras, telescopes, microscopes, and film projectors all use lenses.

2. There are also two lenses in our eyes that allow us to see the world around us.
3. Many different types of lenses are used in optical devices such as cameras, spectacles,
microscopes, telescopes, and projectors.
4. Convex lenses are used in eyeglasses to correct farsightedness, which occurs when the distance
between the eye's lens and retina is too short, causing the focal point to be behind the retina.
5. Concave lenses are used to magnify objects in telescopes and binoculars.

Magnifying Glasses

 If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays diverge and a real
image is no longer formed
 When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to come from a point on
the left. This point can be found by extending the rays backwards (creating virtual rays)
 A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross
 In this case the image is:

 Virtual
 Enlarged
 Upright

 Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass

 When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object

CORRECTING SIGHT
Defects of vision and their correction

 The ability to see is called vision / eyesight.

 Sometimes the eye of a person cannot focus the image of an object on the retina properly.

 In such cases the vision of a person becomes blurred and he/she cannot see either the distant objects
or nearby objects (or both) clearly and comfortably.

 The person is said to have a defect of vision - The defects of vision are also known as defects of eye.

 There are two common defects of vision (or defects of eye). These are:

 Short-sightedness or Near-sightedness

 Long-sightedness or Far-sightedness

 They are caused by the incorrect refraction of light rays by the eye-lens.

 Converging and diverging lenses are commonly used in glasses to correct defects of sight
  Converging lenses can be used to correct long-sighted vision
 Diverging lenses can be used to correct short-sighted vision

Correcting Short - Sightedness

 near-sightedness is the defect of an eye due to which a person can see nearby objects clearly but he
cannot see far away (distant) objects clearly and distinctly.
 A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity.
 In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the retina.

Causes of Defect:

 The two possible causes of this defect are:-

 Excessive curvature of the eye lens or due to the high converging power of eye lens (short
local length).
 Elongation of the eye ball.

Corrective Measures:

 This defect can be corrected by using spectacles with concave lens of suitable focal length or power
as shown in the figure (c).

Correcting Long-Sightedness
 People who are long-sighted have eyes that are 'too small' - This means they cannot clearly see things
that are close, and can only clearly see things that are far away.
 This is because the eye refracts the light rays and they are brought to a focus beyond the retina - In
other words, the focus point is behind the retina at the back of the eye.
 This can be corrected by using a convex or converging lens

Cause of long sightedness:

This defect arises due to either of the following two reasons:

 The eyeball becomes too small along its axis so that the distance between the eyelens and the
retina is reduced.
 The focal length of the eyelens becomes too large resulting in the low converging power of the
eyelens.

 A hypermetropic eye is corrected using a convex lens of suitable focal length.

 This lens diverges the rays such that the rays coming from normal near point N appear to come from
near point N' after refraction.

 That is a virtual image of the object placed at N is formed at N'. Then the eyelens forms a clear image
at the retina.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

 White light is a mixture of all the colours of the spectrum

 Each colour has a different wavelength (and frequency), making up a very narrow part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
 White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a prism

 This is done by refraction

 Violet light is refracted the most, whilst red light is refracted the least

 This splits up the colours to form a spectrum

 When light enters a denser medium, such as glass, it slows down (refracts), which causes it to bend.
 Different colours, however, slow down by different amounts, which cause them to bend by different
amounts.
 This effect is known as dispersion and can be used to separate white light into its individual colours.
 The seven colours of the spectrum are:

Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

 You can remember these colours either by remember the name: ROY G. BIV
 Or by remembering the phrase: Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain

Light as a Wavelength

 Light is a transverse wave.

 The different colours of light all have different wavelengths (and frequencies).

 Red has the largest wavelength

 Violet has the shortest wavelength

 Light of a single wavelength (a single colour) is known as monochromatic.

THE VISIBLE SPECTRUM OF LIGHT

 Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans
 Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye.
 In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are able to perceive beyond
visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of light.
 The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:

 Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy)
 Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and energy)

MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT

 Light is a transverse wave

 The different colours of light all have different wavelengths (and frequencies)

 Red has the longest wavelength

 Violet has the shortest wavelength

 Light of a single wavelength (a single colour), or single frequency, is known as monochromatic

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Waves

 The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on the wavelengths or

frequencies
 The main groupings of the continuous electromagnetic (EM) spectrum are:

 Radio waves
 Microwaves
  Infrared
 Visible (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)
 Ultraviolet
 X-rays
 Gamma rays

 This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest frequency) to shortest
wavelength (highest frequency)

 The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation
 Radiation with higher energy is:

 Highly ionising
 Harmful to cells and tissues causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)

 Radiation with lower energy is:

 Useful for communications

 Less harmful to humans

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves are defined as: Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source
of the waves to an absorber

 All electromagnetic waves share the following properties:

 They are all transverse

 They can all travel through a vacuum
 They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
  The 7 types of electromagnetic waves together form a continuous spectrum

Parts & Properties of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

 Visible light, however, is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: the electromagnetic
spectrum
 The different parts of the spectrum have different names (and some different properties)
 These parts are shown in order below, going from the longest wavelength (and lowest frequency)
to the shortest wavelength (and highest frequency)

 All electromagnetic waves share several properties:

 They are all transverse
 They can all travel through a vacuum
 They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum

The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

 The speed of light, in a vacuum, is approximately 3 x 108 m/s
 The speed of light in air is approximately the same
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves have a large number of uses. The main ones are summarised in the table
below

WAVE USE
1 Radio waves Communication. Radio and T.v
2 microwaves  Communication: Wifi, Mobile Phones, Satelite
 Cooking Food

3 Infra red rays  Remote Control.

 Fibre optic Communication.
 Thermal Imaging.
 Night Vision.
 Heating and Cooking.
 Motion Sensor. For security alarm

4 Visible Light  Vision.

 Photographs

5 Ultra Violet Rays  Security Marking.

 Fluorescent Bulb.
 Getting a suntan

6 X- Rays  X-ray imaging:Medicine, airport and industries

7 Gamma Rays  Treatment of cancer

 Sterilizing medical equipment

 Radio waves and microwaves

 These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses. Their main uses
concern wireless communication – in fact many things that people often assume use radio
waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellite
communications…)
 At very high intensity, microwaves can also be used to heat things: This is what happens in
a microwave oven
 Infrared
 Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal
imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in medicine
  Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the spectrum
and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: Infrared lights are used to illuminate
an area without being seen, which is then detected using the camera
 Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an
infrared receiver on a device such as a TV
 Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so most
fibre optic communication systems use infrared
 Ultraviolet
 Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a suntan, which is your body’s way of protecting
itself against the ultraviolet
 When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as visible
light (making them glow). This process is known as fluorescence
 Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things using special ink – in fact most bank
notes have invisible fluorescent markings on them
 Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light
 X-rays
 The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine. X-rays are able to pass through most body
tissues, but are absorbed by the denser parts of the body, such as bones. When exposed to
x-rays, bones create a shadow which can be seen using a special x-ray detector or using
photographic film
 Gamma rays
 Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
If the gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very effective at
killing it
 Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria

Dangers
 Electromagnetic Waves can have some harmful side effects.
 As the frequency of electromagnetic (EM) waves increases, so does the energy.
 Beyond the visible part of the spectrum, the energy becomes large enough to ionise atoms.
 As a result of this, the danger associated with EM waves increases along with the frequency

 The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the radiation

 Although the intensity of a wave also plays a very important role
  Because of ionization, ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on
human body tissue

 The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose

 They can damage cells and cause mutations, making them cancerous

 In general, electromagnetic waves become more dangerous the shorter their wavelength

 For example, radio waves have no known harmful effects whilst gamma rays can cause
cancer and are regarded as extremely dangerous

 The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised in the table below:

Microwaves
 High levels of microwaves can cause heating of internal organs. (Although there is no evidence
that the levels emitted by mobile phones or WiFi devices cause any harm)
X-Rays
 X-rays, Gamma rays and (to a lesser extent) ultra-violet are all ionising. This means that they can
cause harm to living tissues: killing cells or possibly mutating them or causing cancer
 Whilst the levels used in most medical x-rays pose a minimum risk, hospitals are careful to
minimise the amount of x-ray exposure that individuals (including hospital staff) receive

Microwaves

 Certain frequencies of microwaves are absorbed by water molecules

 Since humans contain a lot of water, there is a risk of internal heating from microwaves
  This might worry some people, but microwaves used in everyday circumstances are proven to be
safe

 Microwaves used for communications (including mobile phones) emit very small
amounts of energy which are not known to cause any harm
 Microwave ovens, on the other hand, emit very large amounts of energy, however, that
energy is prevented from escaping the oven by the metal walls and metal grid in the glass
door

Ultraviolet

 Ultraviolet is similar to visible light, except it is invisible to the human eye and carries a much
higher energy
 If eyes are exposed to high levels of UV it can cause severe eye damage

 Good quality sunglasses will absorb ultraviolet, preventing it from entering the eyes

 Ultraviolet is ionising meaning it can kill cells or cause them to malfunction, resulting
in premature ageing, and diseases such as skin cancer

 Sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light, preventing it from damaging the skin

X-rays & Gamma Rays

 X-rays and gamma rays are the most ionizing types of EM waves

 They are able to penetrate the body and cause internal damage
 They can cause the mutation of genes and cause cancer

 Fortunately, the level of X-rays used in medicine is kept to minimum levels at which the risk is very
low

 Doctors, however, will leave the room when taking X-rays in order to avoid unnecessary
exposure to them

 People working with gamma rays have to take several precautions to minimise their exposure and
are routinely tested to check their radiation dose levels

WAVES DANGER
 1 Radio wave No known damage
2 Micro wave Possible heat damamge to
internal organs
3 Infra red  skin burn

 For example,
4 Visible light Bright light can cause eye radiation
damage badges are
5 Ultra violet rays  Eye damage worn by
 skin burn medical
 Cause skin cancer professionals
such as
6 X- rys  Kills cells
radiographers
 Mutation
to measure the
 Cause cancer
amount of
radiation

7 Gamma Rays  Kills cells exposure in

 Mutation their body

 Cause cancer
Systems of Communications

 Many important systems of communications rely on long wave electromagnetic radiation,

including:

 Mobile phones, wireless internet & satellite television (using microwaves)

 Bluetooth, terrestrial television signals & local radio stations (using radio waves)
 Optical fibres (using visible or infrared waves)

Radio Waves

 Radio waves can be used to transmit signals over short distances

  Terrestrial (local) television signals, radio station transmissions and Bluetooth all work
using radio waves

 Radio station signals are transmitted at a longer wavelength than terrestrial television signals
 In hilly areas, it may be possible to receive radio signals but not receive terrestrial television
signals

 This is because radio signals are more prone to diffraction around the hills

 Radio signals tend to have wavelengths of around a kilometer, so the radio signals are more likely
to have wavelengths similar to the size of the hill

 This leads to diffraction, so radio signals can reach locations not in the line of sight of the
transmitter, whereas TV signals are not diffracted

 Bluetooth uses radio waves instead of wires or cables to transmit information between electronic
devices, over short distances, such as phones and speakers

 Bluetooth signals tend to have shorter wavelengths than radio or television signals
 This enables high rates of data transmission, but can only be used over a short distance (for
example, within a household)
 This means they can pass through walls but the signal is significantly weakened on doing
so

Microwaves

 Microwaves can be used to transmit signals over large distances

 Microwaves are used to send signals to and from satellites

 Mobile phones, wireless internet, satellite (global) television and monitoring Earth systems
(for example, weather forecasting) all utilise microwave communication
  As with radio waves, microwave signals will be clearer if there are no obstacles in the way which
may cause diffraction of the beam
 On the ground, mobile phone signals use a network of microwave transmitter masts to relay the
signals from the nearest mast to the receiving phone

 They cannot be spaced so far apart that, for example, hills or the curvature of the Earth
diffract the beam

 When microwaves are transmitted from a dish, the wavelength must be small compared to the dish
diameter to reduce diffraction

 Also, the dish must be made of metal because metal reflects microwaves well

 Mobile phones and wireless internet use microwaves because microwaves are not refracted,
reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere or ionosphere

 This means satellites can relay signals around the Earth enabling 24-hour-a-day
communication all around the world
 Also, they can penetrate most walls and only require a short aerial for transmission and
reception

Optical Fibres

 Optical fibres (visible light or infrared) are used for cable television and high-speed broadband

 This is because glass is transparent to visible light and some infrared

 Also, visible light and short-wavelength infrared can carry high rates of data due to their
high frequency