Information & Communication Technology

Prepared by: - Rashid Rehmat

FEBRUARY 9, 2017
Rashid REHMAT
PREMIER INSTITUTE OF LAHORE (GCUF) Rashid_jica@hotmail.com
Information & Communication Technology MIT| Rashid Rehmat

COMPUTER OVERVIEW
ICT (Information and Communication Technology)
ICT is the technology required for information processing, in particular, the use of electronic computers,
communication devices and software applications to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and
retrieve information from anywhere, anytime.
Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading, investigation, study or research. We need
information to make decisions and to predict the future. For example, scientists can detect the
formation of a tsunami using the latest technology and warn the public to avoid disasters in the affected
areas.
Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process whereby information is exchanged
between individuals using symbols, signs or verbal interactions. Previously, people communicated
through sign or symbols, performing drama and poetry. With the advent of technology, these ‘older’
forms of communication are less utilized as compared to the use of the Internet, e-mail or video
conferencing. Communication is important in order to gain knowledge. With knowledge, we are more
confident in expressing our thoughts and ideas.
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, experience and resources to create processes and

Proc
products that fulfill human needs. Technology is vital in communication.
Defining Computers
essin
A digital electronic device that converts input (data) into output (information) which is useful to people

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Types of computers (on the basis of their function and nature)
There are three main types of computer:
 Analog computer represents data as a continuous spectrum of values, and gives output in form
of voltage signals i.e. between -15 and +15 volts. Slide Rule, Curvimeter were early analog
computers.
 Digital computer uses number to represent information. Two digits 0 and 1 combine to make
data. Most of the modern computers are digital. Mark-I was first general purpose digital
computer built in 1940s by Aiken. Examples of digital computers are IBM PC, Apple Mac etc.
 Hybrid Computers are the computers which processes both digital and analog data. It can be a
digital computer that accepts analog signals and process them in digital form. Some of the
applications of hybrid computers are Devices used in petrol pumps, machines used in hospitals
to measure B.P
Classification (Categorization) of computers
Computers can be categorized on the basis of size and speed as:
Computers used by individual users
Desktop Computer is personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk
or table due to its size and power requirements. Desktop computers are available in horizontally-
oriented casing and tower casing e.g. Microsoft PC
Workstations are the specialized, powerful desktop computers designed for engineers, architects. It's
intended for business or professional use (rather than home or recreational use). Workstations and
applications designed for them are used by small engineering companies, architects, graphic designers,
and any organization, department, or individual that requires a faster microprocessor, a large amount of
random access memory (RAM), and special features such as high-speed graphics adapters. The most
common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT.

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Notebook Computers are small, portable computers, weighs between 3 and 8 pounds and is about 8 ½
by 11 inches. A notebook can effectively be turned into a desktop computer with a docking station, a
hardware frame that supplies connections for peripheral input/output devices such as a printer or larger
monitor. A laptop is a small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap.
Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers, though
technically laptops are somewhat larger in size than notebooks, in both thickness and weight.
Tablet Computer, commonly known as tablet, is a portable, thin, flat mobile computer with a touch
screen display, which is usually in color, processing circuitry, and a rechargeable battery in a single
device. Tablets often come equipped with sensors, including digital cameras, and a microphone.
The touch screen display uses the recognition of finger or pen (stylus) gestures to replace
the mouse, track pad and keyboard used in laptops. Tablets run specialized versions of office products.
Tablets are typically larger than smart phones or personal digital assistants with screens 7 inches (18 cm)
or larger, measured diagonally.
Handheld Devices are computing equipment that can be used in the hand, such as PDA, smart phone or
tablet computer.
PDA: - (Personal digital assistant) is a term for a small, mobile, handheld device that provides
computing and information storage and retrieval capabilities for personal or business use, often
for keeping schedules, calendars and address book information handy.
Smart Phones typically combine the features of a mobile phone, such receiving voice calls and
creating text messages, with digital mobile devices like personal digital assistants (PDAs), such as
an event calendar, media player, video games, GPS navigation, digital camera and digital video
camera. They are often called the hybrid of cell phone and PDA. It can be used for Web surfing,
or e-mail access e.g. Black Berry
Computers used by Organizations
Network Server is a centralized computer (often simply a powerful desktop) that provides data and
network resources to all computers (clients) connected in the network. Multiple servers in cluster are
called server farms.
Super Computers are the most powerful, largest and fastest computers, used to handle large and
complex calculations, processing trillions of operations per second. They are used in research
organizations, weather forecasting e.g. Cray-1 and Cray-2
Mainframe computers (big computers or big irons) are computers used primarily by large organizations
for bulk data processing, such as census, enterprise resource planning, and transaction processing. They
are large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously, with the help of terminals (dumb or intelligent). They are often used in air Lines, banks,
universities etc. IBM S/390 is an example of mainframe.
Terminal consists of a monitor, keyboard and mouse, by using which number of users can access the
systems. It can be dumb or intelligent.
Mini-Computers (mid-range computers), a term no longer much used, are the computers of a size
intermediate between a microcomputer and a mainframe. They are capable of supporting hundreds of
users simultaneously, with the help of terminals e.g. Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series, HP 2100 series,
HP1000 series.
Micro-Computer is a computer with a central processing unit (CPU) as a microprocessor, designed for
individual use. The term was introduced in the 1970s to differentiate desktop computer systems from
larger minicomputers. It is often used synonymously with the term "desktop computer," but it may refer
to a server or laptop as well e.g. Microsoft PC, Laptop computers.
Micro-Controllers also called embedded computer, is a compact microcomputer designed to govern the
operation of embedded systems in motor vehicles, robots, office machines, complex medical devices,
mobile radio transceivers, vending machines, home appliances, and various other devices.
ICT and Society
Military
 Controlling smart weapons
 Geospatial analysis
 Analyzing data for army leaders

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Home
 Helping students to do their homework
 Playing video games
 Enabling people to be in contact through social media

Surgeons
 Surgical education through virtual surgery
Surgery simulators are used to train medical students
Education
 Teachers use computers to research for teaching materials, participate in online forums and
online conferences as well as to aid their teaching.
 Students use the computers as a reference tool. They use computers to browse the Internet to
look for information.
 School administrators use computers for administrative purposes to make sure that the entire
operation runs smoothly.
Main parts of a computer system
Four main parts of a computer system are:

• Hardware - physical parts of the computer

System Unit (Processor, memory, storage devices) input/output units
• Software - instructions to the computer (Application and System Software)
• Data - raw facts the computer can manipulate. Data is organized into files. A file is a set of data
that has been given a name, often called a document. Data can be in form of Text (Alphabetic),
Numbers, Alphanumeric or Video Clip (Image & sound)
• People - also known as users. Users have following tasks to perform while working with the
computer
• Setting up computer System
• Installing Software
• Running Programs
• Managing Files
• Maintaining the System
Some computers are user-less, means they don’t need any user to operate them such as Dryer,
Washers, and many other home appliances.
Data vs. Information
Data is the raw facts and figures that need to be processed, such as such as alphabets, numbers, or
symbols. Data has no meanings attached to it.
Information is data that has been processed for use in decision making. Information is a meaningful data
e.g. Average Marks of the whole class
History of Computers
A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices such as the ancient
Chinese abacus, the Jacquard loom (1805) and Charles Babbage's ``analytical engine'' (1834).
It would also include discussion of mechanical, analog and digital computing architectures. During the
early days of electronic computing devices, there was much discussion about the relative merits of
analog vs. digital computers.
In fact, as late as the 1960s, analog computers were routinely used to solve systems of finite difference
equations arising in oil reservoir modeling. In the end, digital computing devices proved to have the
power, economics and scalability necessary to deal with large scale computations.
Digital computers now dominate the computing world in all areas ranging from the hand calculator to
the supercomputer and are pervasive throughout society. Therefore, this brief sketch of the
development of scientific computing is limited to the area of digital, electronic computers.
The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each generation is characterized by
dramatic improvements over the previous generation in the technology used to build computers, the
internal organization of computer systems, and programming languages.

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Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally

changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and
more efficient and reliable devices.

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes:-

• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.
• First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time.
• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
• In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry.
It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). In 1943 an electronic computer name the
Colossus was built by Alan Turing for the military.
• Other developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose digital computer, the
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer
weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which was used for processing. When this
computer was turned on for the first time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of
this generation could only perform single task, and they had no operating system.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors:-
• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. The transistor was
invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s.
• The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
• Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
• High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
• In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the Universal
Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In 1953 the International Business Machine (IBM) 650 and 700
series computers made their mark in the computer world.
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits:-
• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
• Users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and
interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971- 89 Present) Microprocessors:-
• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand.
• The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the
central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

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• In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.
Fifth Generation (1989 to Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
• Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
• In the area of computer networking, both wide area network (WAN) and local area network
(LAN) technology developed at a rapid pace, stimulating a transition from the traditional
mainframe computing environment toward a distributed computing environment in which each
user has their own workstation for relatively simple tasks (editing and compiling programs,
reading mail) but sharing large, expensive resources such as file servers and supercomputers.
• RISC technology (a style of internal organization of the CPU) and plummeting costs for RAM
brought tremendous gains in computational power of relatively low cost workstations and
servers.
• This period also saw a marked increase in both the quality and quantity of scientific
visualization.

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NUMBER SYSTEM AND BOOLEAN LOGIC

NUMBER SYSTEM:-
Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system architecture, every
value that you are saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number system.
Computer architecture supports following number systems.
 Binary number system (Base 2)
 Octal number system (Base 8)
 Decimal number system (Base 10)
 Hexadecimal (hex) number system (Base 16)
1) Binary Number System
A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value) represents with 0
and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is 2, because it has only two digits.
2) Octal number system
Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value) represents with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number system is 8, because it has only 8
digits.
3) Decimal number system
Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value) represents with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7, 8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it has
only 10 digits.
4) Hexadecimal number system
A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to F. Every
number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F in this number system. The base
of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, B is 11, C is
12, D is 14, E is 15 and F is 16.
TEXT CODES
ASCII:-
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a code for representing English
characters as numbers, with each letter assigned a number from 0 to 127. Most modern character-
encoding schemes are based on ASCII, though they support many additional characters
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) code
• 8-bit alphanumeric code developed by IBM, supports 256 symbols.
• It was mainly used in IBM mainframe computers.
UNICODE:-
Unicode is a 16 bit scheme and can represent more that 2^16=65536 characters.
BIT AND BYTE
Bit: is the smallest unit of information computer can process. It can have one of two values: 0 or 1
Byte: is a collection of 8 bits. It can represent 256 different messages (256 = 28)
Nibble: is a collection of 4 bits. It can represent 16 different messages (16 = 24)

Least Significant Bit (LSB):- is the lowest bit in a series of numbers in binary; the LSB is located at the far
right of a string.
For example, in the binary number: 10111001, the least significant bit is the far right is 2^0=1.
Most Significant Bit (MSB):- is the bit in a multiple-bit binary number with the largest value.

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Computers represent data with electrical swi

= 1 circuits are simple
On-off
= 0are not prone to errors.
and
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Bits, Bytes, and
Byte = 8 bits or one
Buzzwords
character in ASCII (2 ) 3
Kilobyte ≈ 1,000 bytes
(KB, K) (210 =1024)
Megabyte ≈ 1,000 KB or 1
Converting Between (meg,Number MB) Systems million bytes
Conversion from any system to decimal
Octal to Decimal:-
Gigabyte
Example: Convert 1268 to decimal. ≈ 1,000 MB or
(gig,
1268 can also GB)
Using the values of each column, (which in an octal integer are powers of 8) the octal value
be written as: 1 billion bytes
(1x82) + (2x81) + (6 x 80)

Terabyte
Multiply the ≈ 1,000
digit in each column by the column GBfor that
multiplier value orcolumn
1 to give:
As (8^2 = 64), (8^1 = 8) and (8^0 =1), this gives a multiplier value for each column.

(TB)
1x64 = 64 2x8 =16 6x1 = 6
Then simply add these results to give the million
decimal value. MB or 1
64 + 16 + 6 = 8610

Example: Convert Petabyte

Binary to Decimal:-
11012 to decimal.
trillion bytes
= (1x23) + (1x22) + (0x21) + (1x20)
= 8 + 4 +0 +1 (PB) ≈ 1 quadrillion
= 1310
Hexadecimal to Decimal:-
Example: Convert B2D16 to decimal. bytes
= (Bx162) + (2x161) + (Dx160)
= (11x162) + (2x161) + (13x160)
= 2816 + 32 +13
= 286110
Therefore B2D16 = 286110.
Converting from Decimal to any other System
To convert a decimal integer number (a decimal number in which any fractional part is ignored) to any
other radix, all that is needed is to continually divide the number by its radix, and with each division,
write down the remainder. When read from bottom to top, the remainder will be the converted result.
Decimal to Octal:-

Therefore, Decimal number 8610 = 1268 in octal

Decimal to Binary:-

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Therefore Decimal number 1310 = 11012 in binary

Decimal to Hexadecimal:-

Therefore Decimal number 286110 = B2D16 in Hexadecimal

Conversion between octal and binary:-

Octal to Binary:-
Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent binary representation.
Example: 7058 =? 2

7 0
5

111 000
101
7058 = 1110001012
The above conversion can also be done by first converting the octal number into decimal, then decimal
to binary.
Binary to Octal:-
– Group bits in threes, starting on right
– Convert to octal digits
Example: 10110101112 =? 8

1 011 010
111

1 3 2
7
10110101112 = 13278

Hexadecimal and Binary Inter-conversion

Hexadecimal to Binary:-
Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit equivalent binary representation
Example: 10AF16 =? 2

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1 0 A
F

0001 0000
1010 1111
10AF16 = 00010000101011112
The above conversion can also be done by first converting the hexadecimal number into decimal, then
decimal to binary.
Binary to hexadecimal:-
– Group bits in fours, starting on right
– Convert to hexadecimal digits
Example: 10101110112 =? 16

10 1011
1011

B B
10101110112 = 2BB16

Hexadecimal to Octal or Octal to Hexadecimal

To convert hexadecimal into octal we use binary number as an intermediary. In such conversions,
hexadecimal number is first converted into binary and then binary is converted into octal number.

1 F
0
1C 7 4
1 4
0001 1111
0000
1100

1F0C16 = 174148

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Similarly, to convert octal to hexadecimal, octal number is first converted into binary and then binary is
converted into hexadecimal number. If we just reverse the order of above example we can perform this
conversion.
174148 =1F0C16
Binary Arithmetic
In binary number system there are only 2 digits 0 and 1, and any number can be represented by these
two digits. The arithmetic of binary numbers means the operation of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Binary arithmetic operation starts from the least significant bit i.e. from the
right most side.

Binary Addition
It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of binary addition.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the given column and
a carry of 1 over to the next column.
Example − Addition

Binary Subtraction
Subtraction and Borrow, these two words will be used very frequently for the binary subtraction. There
are four rules of binary subtraction.

Example − Subtraction

Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication. It is simpler than decimal multiplication
because only 0s and 1s are involved. There are four rules of binary multiplication.

Example − Multiplication

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Binary Division
Binary division is similar to decimal division. It is called as the long division procedure.
Example − Division

Boolean Logic
Boolean logic is a form of algebra in which all values are reduced to either TRUE
(1) or FALSE (0). Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the manipulation
of variables that can have one of two values. In formal logic, these values are
“true” and “false.” In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and 0, or
“high” and “low.” Boolean expressions are created by performing operations on
Boolean variables.
Boolean operators
Common Boolean operations include AND Operation, OR Operation and NOT
Operation. A Boolean operator can be completely described using a truth table.
The truth table for the Boolean operators AND
The AND operator is also known as a Boolean product. It is used for logical multiplication. It gives TRUE
result only if both the inputs are ‘TRUE ‘or ‘1’
The truth table for the Boolean operators
The OR operator is the Boolean sum. It is used to perform logical sum. It returns TRUE of ‘1’ if any of the
inputs is 1.
The truth table for the NOT operators
The OR operator is the Boolean sum. It is used to perform logical sum. It returns TRUE of ‘1’ if any of the
inputs is 1.
Boolean Function
A Boolean Function is described by an algebraic expression called Boolean expression which consists of
binary variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation symbols. Consider the following
example.

Here the left side of the equation represents the output Y. So we can state equation no. 1

Truth Table Formation

A truth table represents a table having all combinations of inputs and their corresponding result. It is
possible to convert the switching equation into a truth table. For example, consider the following
switching equation.

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The output will be high (1) if A = 1 or BC = 1 or both are 1. The truth table for this equation is shown by
Table (a). The number of rows in the truth table is 2nwhere n is the number of input variables (n=3 for
the given equation). Hence there are 2^3 = 8 possible input combination of inputs.

Logic Gates

Boolean functions are implemented with the help of digital computer circuits called gates. A Logic
gate is an electronic device that produces a result based on two or more input values.

AND Gate

• Two or more input signals and one output signal.

• Output is 1 when both the inputs are 1.
• Logic equation Y = A.B called as Boolean equation.
• Where A and B are the inputs and Y is the output for all standard
symbols of gates shown below.

OR Gate

• Two or more input signals and one output signal.

• Output is low when both the inputs are low.
• Logic equation Y = A + B.

NOT Gate

• One input signal and one output signal, also called as inverter.
• Output is always opposite state of the input.
• Logic equation Y = A
• Where is A is the complement of A.

XOR (Exclusive OR) Gate

• Two or more input signal and one output signal.
• Output is ‘0’ when both the inputs are same.
• Logic equation Y = A XOR B

NOR (Not OR) Gate

• One or more input signals and one output signal.
• If one of the input is high then output is low
• Logic equation Y = A + B

NAND (Not AND) Gate

• Two or more input signals and one out signal.
• It has high output when at least one of the input is
zero or low.
• All input signals must be high to obtain low output.
• Logic equation Y = A. B

Combinational Circuits
Combinational logic circuits give us many useful devices. One of the
simplest is the half adder, which finds the sum of two bits. We can
gain some insight as to the construction of a half adder by looking at
its truth table
As we see, the sum can be found using the XOR operation and the
carry using the AND operation.

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Computer Hardware Basics

VON NEUMAN ARCHITECTURE/MACHINE ORGANIZATION
In 1945, just after the World War, two mathematician-scientists Alan Turing and John Von Neumann
were working on breaking the Enigma code using the 'Colossus' computer and to build the first atomic
bomb respectively, which needed vast calculations. Up to that time, the computers where
‘programmed’ by rebuilding the entire machine to carry out a different task. For example, the early
computer called ENIAC took three weeks to re-wire in order to do a different calculation. There had to
be a better way.
The new idea was that both data and
the program processing that data
should stored in the same memory for
faster calculation. This 'stored-
program' architecture is now
commonly known as the 'Von
Neumann' architecture. All
computers more or less based on the
same basic design, the Von Neumann
Architecture!
Von Newman model is based on the
following three characteristics:
1. Computer has four main sub-
systems:
 Memory
 ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)
 Control Unit
 Input/output System (I/O)
2. Program is stored in memory during execution.
3. Program instructions are executed sequentially.

Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or permanently. For
example, Random Access Memory (RAM), is a volatile memory that stores information on an integrated
circuit used by the operating system, software, and hardware.

Type of memory or storage

There are two types of memory or storage:
Primary Storage (Main Memory)
Main memory is where programs and data are kept when the processor is actively using them. When
programs and data become active, they are copied from secondary memory into main memory where
the processor can interact with them. RAM is an example of main memory
Secondary Memory or Secondary Storage
Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a long-term basis.
Common secondary storage devices are the magnetic disks such as Hard disk, magnetic tape and optical
disks like CD, DVD.
Types of Main Memory
ROM – is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in
ROM can only be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at all, so it is mainly used to

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store firmware (software that is closely tied to specific hardware and unlikely to need frequent updates).
It contains the basic input output system or BIOS (POST). Different type of ROM are:
 PROM: programmable ROM
Only written once then its contents cannot be deleted
 EPROM: erasable PROM
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recovering the problems of PROM and
ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM thorough ultraviolet light and it erases chip is
reprogrammed.
 EEPROM: electronically EPROM
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory similar to the EPROM but it uses
electrical beam for erase the data of ROM. It can be erased using electronic impulses and
written again
RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory, a type of fast access computer memory that can
be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding
bytes. RAM is the most common type of memory found in computers and other devices, such
as printers. Memory is divided into units or words; each is usually a standard size or fixed-length. When
the computer is running, both Program Data (variables) are stored in the memory. RAM is Volatile in
nature, means all the data disappears when power is off.
Following two technologies are used to build RAM
SRAM: static RAM
 Faster and expensive
 No need to refresh its contents
 Cache memory: fast memory inside CPU chip
DRAM: dynamic RAM
 Most commonly used technology to build RAM
 Need to be refreshed periodically
 Main memory
Differences between ROM and RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Volatile - Data is lost if the computer crashes or  Non-volatile - Data is never lost
is turned off.
 Data is temporary - it is only there as long as  Data is permanent - it can never be changed
the computer is on and it can be changed
 Data can be written to or read from.  Data can only be read
Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a feature of an operating system (OS) that allows a computer to compensate for
shortages of physical memory by temporarily transferring pages of data from random access memory
(RAM) to disk storage.
Processor
CPU (Central Processing Unit) of a computer is a piece of hardware that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. The CPU is like the brains of the computer - every instruction, no matter how simple,
has to go through the CPU.
Basic elements of a processor
CU (Control Unit):
Control unit controls the flow of data into and from the Central Processing Unit. It generates signals to
the computer system to execute the programs. It does not itself execute the programs; rather it directs
other parts of system to do so. It must communicate with ALU, memory and other parts of computer
system. It also controls the flow of information through the processor and coordinates the activities of
other units.
ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)
ALU is an electronic circuit that that performs all Arithmetic i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and Logical operations such as equal to, less than, greater than. The process of performing
arithmetic and logical operations with the help of computers is called Electronic Data Processing (EDP).
Registers

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Registers are fast storage locations that hold data or instructions temporarily. Type of registers includes:
• Data registers: Holds data coming from or to be sent to RAM
• Instruction registers: Used for storing and decoding instructions
• Accumulator Registers: Stores the result of latest calculation
• Address Registers: Keeps the track of where data is stored in memory
• Program counter: has the address of next instruction to be executed
Cache Memory
Cache memory, also called CPU memory that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than
it can access regular RAM. This memory is typically integrated directly with the CPU chip or placed on a
separate chip that has a separate bus interconnect with the CPU.
• L1 is "level-1" cache (2KB-64KB) memory, usually built onto the microprocessor chip itself. For
example, the Intel MMX microprocessor comes with 32 thousand bytes of L1. Instructions are
first searched in this cache. L1 cache is very small in comparison to others, thus making it faster
than the rest.
• L2 (that is, level-2) cache (256KB-512KB) memory is on a separate chip (possibly on an
expansion card). If the instructions are not present in the L1 cache then it looks in the L2 cache,
which is a slightly larger pool of cache, thus accompanied by some latency.
System clock refers to a microchip that regulates the timing and speed of all computer functions. The
speed of a computer processor is measured in clock speed, for example, 1 MHz is one million cycles, or
vibrations, a second
Instruction Set is the complete set of all the instructions in machine code that can be recognized and
executed by a CPU (Built-in)
Machine Cycle
A series of steps taken by CPU to execute an instruction is called machine cycle. It includes:

Instruction cycle
 Fetch: CU fetches instructions or data from memory
 Decode: CU breaks down (or decodes) instructions into computer commands/instruction sets
(ADD,SUB,LOAD)

Inside the
Execution cycle
 Execute: ALU actually processes the commands
 Store: result is stored in memory

Inside CPU (Fetch, decode, execute)

• Address of the next instruction is transferred from PC to MAR
• The instruction is located in memory
CPU
• Instruction is copied from memory to MDR
• Instruction is transferred to and decoded in the IR
• Control unit sends signals to appropriate devices to cause execution of the instruction
memory memory
Multi-processor and multi-core processor
Multiprocessor system contains more than one address
CPU, allowing them to work in parallel. This
data
is called SMP, or Simultaneous Multiprocessing. Multi-core CPU has multiple execution
cores on one CPU register register
accumulator
Factors affecting the processing speed
instruction
Following are the factors which affect the processing speed:
(work
Size of Registers (word size) register register)
 Amount of data computer can process at any time. It is also known as the word arithmetic
size.
program system
 32-bit or 64-bit processor counter clock logic unit
Memory and computing power
 More RAM means more computing power (faster computing)
Cache Memory
 high-speed memory that is built into a CPU, holding data being processed
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Bus Speed (Tied to the speed of CPU)

Why is CPU often idle?
Your computer spends much of its time waiting for your input. CPU and hardware are significantly faster
than I/O. When a user or process is blocked waiting for I/O, the operating system switches to another
job.
INPUT/OUTPUT UNIT
Handles devices that allow the computer system to communicate and interact with the outside world.
We feed data into the computer using input devices i.e. Keyboard, mouse, scanner. Similarly, after
processing data and instructions result is displayed using output devices such as monitor, printer etc. I/O
devices are also known as peripheral devices.
Speed of I/O devices is slow compared to RAM. To resolve this issue each I/O device has a special
purpose processor, called I/O controller. Each controller has a small memory buffer (temporary memory
location inside the controller), and control logic to control I/O device (e.g. keyboard controller). I/O
controller sends an interrupt signal to CPU when done read/write.
I/O can be categorized as:
• Non-storage devices
– Keyboard and monitor
– Printer
• Storage devices
– Magnetic storage devices
– Optical storage devices
System Bus
Information travels between components on the motherboard through wires (pathway) called Bus or
System Bus. There are different types of buses:

Data Bus
Data bus the most common bus which is used to carry data. It is an electric path that connects CPU,
memory, I/O devices and storage. The bus contains parallel group of lines, greater the number of lines,
greater the speed of data transfer. For example a bus with 16 lines carries 16 bits (2 bytes) and 32 lines
(32 bits or 4 bytes) of data.
Address Bus
Address bus is a computer bus that is used to carry address information. It is a set of wires like data bus
that only connect CPU and memory. Whenever the processor needs date from the memory, it places
address of data to be accessed on address bus; it fetches data from the specified address and places on
data bus.
Number of lines in address bus determines the maximum number of memory addresses. For example
maximum number of memory locations for address bus with 8 lines is 2^8=256 and 32 lines can access
4GB of memory
Control bus
Control bus is used to carry control information from control unit to other units. It directs the transfer of
data to the ALU from memory. It also controls the functioning of I/O and storage devices
PORT
A port is a connector at the back of a computer where you plug in an external device such as a printer,
keyboard, or scanner.
• Video port(s): to connect monitors
• Audio ports: to connect speakers and/or headphones
• USB ports: keyboards, pointing devices, printers, cameras, disk drives, portable storage devices,
etc.
• Serial Port (COM Ports) allows serial devices such as mouse, modem, keyboard

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• Parallel Ports (LPT Ports) lets an external parallel device printers to communicate with the
computer by transmitting more bits (8 or 25) of data at the same time therefore, these ports are
much faster than serial ports
RISC and CISC processors
RISC (Reduced instruction set computer) and CISC (Complex instruction set computer) are the types of
instruction set for the processors. Processors with RISC architecture were having less number of
instructions as compared to processors with CISC architecture.

Expansion Slots in a Pc
An expansion slot is a socket on the motherboard that is used to insert an expansion card (or circuit
board), which provides additional features to a computer such as video, sound, advanced graphics,
Ethernet or memory.

Multi-Tasking and Multi-Processing

Multi-tasking is the ability of an operating system to perform more than one task simultaneously on a
single processor machine.
Multi-processing is the ability of an operating system to perform more than one task simultaneously on
a multiple processor machines.

PERIPHERAL DEVICES
A device which is used to put information into and get information out of the computer is called a
Peripheral Device.
 Input devices: mouse, keyboards, etc.
 Output devices: monitors, printers, etc.
 Input/output devices: touchscreens.
Input Devices
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Input Devices are the devices which are used to enter data into the computer. Common input devices
are:
• Keyboard
• Pointing Devices
• Data Scanning Device
Keyboard:-
The most common input device, used to enter text, characters and other commands into the computer.
Most of the standard keyboards are QWERTY. This name comes from the order of the first six keys on
the top left letter row of the keyboard (Q W E R T Y). The QWERTY design is based on a layout created
for typewriters.
The major groups of keys on the keyboard are:
• Alphanumeric Keys: used to enter alphabets and numbers
• Modifier Keys: used to modify input in combination i.e. ALT, CTRL, SHIFT
• Numeric Keypad: contains the numbers from 0…..9
• Function Keys: set of 12 keys used to perform some specific function
• Cursor-movement Key: are the keys used to move right, left, up and down (Arrow Keys)
Functions of ALT, CTRL and SHIFT Keys
CTRL, ALT and SHIFT keys are used to change (alter) the function of any other pressed key. They are
called modifier keys. CTRL+C: is used to copy and file or text, ALT+F4: is used to close any program or file
you are working on, SHIFT+3: is used to enter # sign
Function of Other important keys
Start key: (Windows logo key) is used to show start menu containing all the program files
Enter key: used to enter commands and move cursor to next line
Esc key: short for escape, is used to exit from programs and tasks
CAPS Lock key: Toggle key that, when activated, causes all alphabetic character to uppercase
Tax Key: enables the cursor to jump couple of spaces to the right
Backspace key: deletes the characters at the left of the cursor
Space Bar key: moves the cursor one space to the right
Delete key: deletes the character at the current position and one at right of the cursor position. It is also
used to delete selected object.
Keyboard Controller
Keyboard controller is a small chip inside the keyboard, which sends signals to the system when a key is
pressed.
 On key press, Keyboard controller, a small chip notes that a key has been pressed.
 Keyboard Controller places a code into a part of its memory called, Keyboard Buffer (temporary
storage)
 Keyboard controller then sends signal to the system software
 System reads the code from the keyboard buffer and passes it to the CPU

Point and Draw Input Devices

A Pointing Device is an input device, used to control the movement of the pointer or cursor on the
screen.
1. Mouse is a computer input device used to move a cursor around the screen. Key features of a
mouse are:
• It controls a pointer that is displayed on the monitor.

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• Has usually arrow like shape.

• Is used to select commands and to control information.
• Can have one or more buttons and a wheel button to scroll over the pages. An event occurs
when you press a button on the mouse:
o Left-Click: used to select or open any file or program
o Right Click: provides quick access to many common functions via a pop up menu
o Drag: used to drag and drop files and folders from one location to another
Mouse can be optical, mechanical and wireless
Optical mouse: An optical mouse contains a small camera which takes more than thousands of
snapshots every second. Small LED (light emitting diode) provides light underneath the mouse, which
helps to highlight slight differences in the surface underneath the mouse. These differences are
reflected back into the camera for digital processing. This comparison finds speed and direction of
mouse movement.
Mechanical mouse: A mechanical mouse is a computer mouse that contains a metal or rubber ball on its
underside. When the ball is rolled in any direction, sensors inside the mouse detect this motion and
move the on-screen mouse pointer in the same direction.
Wireless mouse: Wireless mouse allows cordless access to the computer. It contains a receiver station
that uses a PS/2 or USB connection to plug. It transmits data via infrared or radio frequency.
2. Track Ball
A pointing device consisting of spherical ball, having some portion projecting above the surface. It is
stationary and doesn't require more space. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of
the hand and their nails to move a pointer.

Track ball is used in military applications, video games and now in some new mobile phones like T-
Mobiles, blackberry etc.
3. Touch Pad
A touchpad, track pad or mouse pad is a pointing device with a specialized surface that can translate the
motion and position of a user's fingers to a relative position on the operating system that is outputted to
the screen. Touchpads are a common feature of laptop computers. Because they vary in size, they can
also be found on personal digital assistants (PDAs) and some portable media players.
4. Touch Screen Stylus
Touch Screen is an input device that accepts input from users through fingertips directly on computer
screen. ATM Machines and PTCL Billing machines are the examples of touch screen
5. Stylus
Stylus is an input device that uses pressure to enter information or to click and point Styluses are used
with PDAs, Tablet PCs and Graphics tablets
Game controllers
A game controller is a device used with games or entertainment systems to provide input to a video
game, typically to control an object or character in the game. There are several type of gaming devices
such as gamepads, joysticks, gaming wheels and force feed etc.
Data Scanning Devices
Image Scanning Device
An image scanner is a digital device used to scan images, pictures, printed text and objects and then
convert them to digital images. ... The most widely used type of scanner in offices or homes is a
flatbed scanner, also known as a Xerox machine.
Barcode Reader
A barcode reader is also called a price scanner or point-of-sale (POS ) scanner, is a hand-held or
stationary input device used to capture and read information contained in a bar code . A barcode reader
consists of a scanner , a decoder (either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect the reader
with a computer.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
An electronic device used for reading printed characters and changed into machine readable form.
OCR (optical character recognition) is the recognition of printed or written text characters by a
computer. This involves photo scanning of the text character-by-character, analysis of the scanned-in
image, and then translation of the character image into character codes, such as ASCII, commonly used
in data processing.

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Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

An OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark such as pencil mark. It is often used to
calculate or store multiple choice tests.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
MICR (magnetic ink character recognition) is a technology used to verify the legitimacy or originality of
paper documents, especially checks. Special ink, which is sensitive to magnetic fields, is used in the
printing of certain characters on the original documents.

Output Devices:-
Output Devices are the devices which are used to get information from the computer e.g. monitor,
printer, speaker etc.

1) Printers
A printer is any device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There are two main types of printers
Impact Printers: printer which make impact or strike the paper while printing i.e. Dot Matrix printer,
daisy wheel printer and line printers, and band printers
Dot-matrix printer: A type of printer that produces characters by striking pins against an ink
ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape. They are expensive, noisy, slow,
and produce low-quality output. However, they can print to multi-page forms (that is, carbon
copies), something laser and ink-jet printers cannot do. The speed of dot-matrix printers is
measured in characters per second (cps). The slowest printer can print 50-70 cps and fastest can
print up to 500cps.
Line Printers
It works like a dot-matrix printer but uses a special wide print head that can print an entire line
of text at one time. Line printers produce low-resolution print, but are incredibly fast; the fastest
printer can print 3,000 lines of text per minute.
Band Printer
A band printer features a rotating band embossed with alphanumeric characters. To print a
character, the machine rotates the band to the desired character, and then a small hammer taps
the band pressing the characters against the ribbon. They are fast and robust. A good quality
band printer can generate 2000 lines of text per minute.
Non-Impact Printers: printers which don’t make impact or strike the paper while printing i.e. laser
printer, ink-jet printers, thermal printers
Laser printer
Laser printer Forms images using an electrostatic process. It produces high-quality text and
graphics by repeatedly passing a laser beam back and forth over a "drum". They can print
between 3 and 30 pages per minute
Inkjet printer
Inkjet is one of the most popular printers, which make images by forcing droplets through
nozzles. Top speed of an ink-jet printer is 20 pages per minute
Plotters
A Plotter is a special kind printer. It is like a printer because it produces images on paper, but they are
typically used to print large format, such as construction drawings created by an architect. Following are
the types of plotters
• Table or Flatbed Plotters: pen is used to write of paper wrapped on a drum
• Roller Plotter (Drum Plotters): two arms at right angle draw at stationary piece of paper
• Electrostatic Plotters: draws on negatively charged paper with positively charger toner

2) Monitor
Monitor is an output device which is used to display information to the user on screen
Basic types of monitors
The two basic types of monitors are:
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors

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CRT works by moving an electron beam across the back of the screen to light up phosphor dots on the
inside of the glass tube, thereby illuminating the active portions of the screen.
LCD/Flat Panel monitors
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) uses two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between
them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass
through them. Color LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing color:
 Passive matrix is the less expensive of the two technologies.
 Thin film transistor (TFT) or active-matrix, produces color images that are as sharp as traditional
CRT displays, but the technology is expensive

Differentiate between CRT and LCD monitors?

 Both types of monitors provide bright and vibrant color display. However, LCDs cannot
display the maximum color range that a CRT can.
 A CRT monitor can be viewed from almost any angle, but in LCD this is often a problem.
 The CRT monitors cause flicker. LCDs are flicker-free and refresh rate is not important
 CRT monitors are big, bulky and heavy. An LCD is small, compact and lightweight.
 LCDs are thin, take up far less space and are easy to move around.
 LCD monitors are more expensive than CRT monitors.
 CRT monitors consumes more power than LCD monitors
Categories of monitors in terms of display color
– Monochrome: Displays only one color, with black background
– Grey-Scale: Display a varying intensities of grey, with white or off-white background
– Color Monitors: can display 16 -16 million colors
Factors affecting display of monitors
There are a few factors which needed to be considered when comparing and purchasing monitors:
• Screen size: measured as a diagonal line across the screen
• Resolution: number of pixels displayed on the screen
• Pixels: (or picture element) dots that make up the image on your screen
• Dot pitch: is the distance between the centers of a pair of like-colored pixels
• Refresh rate(Hertz): the speed with which a monitor redraws the image of the screen, and is
measured in hertz

Other Types of Monitors

Paper-White Display
Paper-White Displays are sometimes used by document engineers such as desktop publishing
specialists, newspaper or magazines compositors, and other persons who create high-quality printed
documents. It procures very high contrast between the monitors white background and displayed text
or graphics, which usually appears in black. An LCD version of Paper-White display is called page-white
display (user supertwist to create higher contrasts)
Electroluminescent Displays
They are similar to LCD monitors but use a phosphorescent film held between two sheets of glass. A grid
of wires send current through the film to create an image.
Plasma Display
Plasma Display is created by sandwiching a special gas (such as neon or xenon) between two sheets of
glass. When electricity is supplied to gas through grid of electrodes, it glows. By controlling the amount
of voltage applied at various points on the grid, each point acts as a pixel to display an image.
Video Cards
The quality of the image that a monitor can display is defined as much by the video card, (also called as
video controller or video adapter) as by the monitor itself. Video controller is an intermediary device
between CPU and monitor. In most computers, the video card is a separate device that is plugged onto
the motherboard. The resolution of monitors is determined by the video controller e.g. Video Graphic
Adapter (VGA) has resolution 640x480, SVGA (Super VGA) has 1024x786 etc.
3) Speakers
Speakers are popular output devices used with computer systems. They receive audio input from the
computer's sound card and produce audio output in the form of sound waves. Most computer speakers

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are active speakers, meaning they have an internal amplifier which allows you to increase the volume, or
amplitude, of the sound. Speakers usually come in pairs, which allow them to produce stereo sound
from two separate audio channels.

Ergonomics for using computers and to avoid eyestrain

 Should sit up straight at your computer
 Position your screen about the length of your arm
 Your elbows, knees, and hips should form right angles
 Your back should be at a right angle to the floor
 Rest your eyes by looking away from the screen frequently, to avoid eye strain
 Stretch your shoulders, back, arms, wrists every 30 minute
 Stretch your hands downward and backward frequently
 Always listen to your body when you’re uncomfortable

Computer Software
A set of programs and instructions used to operate computers is called software. It is the part of
computer which we cannot touch. There are two main types of software.
 Application Software
 System Software
System Software
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System Software is a set of programs that coordinates the functions of the hardware and various other
programs i.e. Operating system, utilities, device drivers etc.
Functions of system software
 loading programs and data into memory
 executing programs
 saving data to disks
 displaying information on the monitor
 Transmitting data through a port to a peripheral device
Different types of system software
System software may include
 Operating System: a software that acts as an intermediary between user and computer e.g.
Window XP
 Utilities: a program that performs specific task related to the management of computer
functions such as copying files between storage devices, repair of damaged data files, translating
files so programs can read them, guard against viruses and harmful programs, Compress files so
they take up less space. File Compression, Zip file, antivirus, screen savers, disk fragmentation
are the examples of utilities
 Disk Drivers: programs that enable I/O devices to communicate with the computer such as
keyboard, mice, printer. Some device drivers are included in the operating systems, many are
bundled with peripherals, and others are sold as separate products.
 Compilers and translator programs: enable programmers to create other software. These are
the system software which convert high level language program into machine language.
Application Software
A set of programs that help users solve particular computing problems is called application software i.e.
Microsoft office, Adobe, Video games etc.
Commercial Software
Any software that must be purchased or paid for in some way are called commercial software.
Commercial software come in many different forms:
Standalone programs
Standalone program is an application having many features but perform one type of task such as word
processing software, email program, graphics programs.
Software suite or package
Software suits or packages are integrated tools that are designed to work together e.g. MS office, Corel
family, Graphics software etc.

Shareware
These are the software shared to the users for trial, which may be deactivated after a certain period,
after which the user is bound to purchase the software to get full services.
Freeware Software
Freeware is a close cousin to Shareware. It is the software that is made available to the users for free. It
may sound like a Public Domain Software but it is not. In case of freeware and shareware, the original
author maintains an ownership concern, even though it is free. The user has to abide by the license
agreement, and is not allowed to modify or sell it to others.
Public Domain Software
Public domain software is freeware (no compensation is expected usually) and their source code is
available for free for anyone to use for any purpose.
Open Source Software
Open source software is the program distributed with source code with editable formats, allowing users
to modify or customize the source code at will e.g. Apache (web server)
Word processing software
A word processor is computer software application that performs the task of composing, editing,
formatting, and printing of documents e.g. Microsoft word. Word processor’s interface may have
following features:

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 Menu bar: it displays titles on menus (lists of commands and options). Latest word processors
have ribbon and tabs instead of menu items.
 Title Bar: Tile bar is at the top of the document showing the name of the documents
 Status Bar: Displays the status related to your position in the document, page count and the
status of keyboard keys
 Tool Bar: Displays buttons which represent frequently used commands
 Ruler: used to show the position of the text, margins, tabs, indents, other elements on the page
 Scroll Bars: Lets you scroll through the document if it is too large
Spreadsheet Program
Spreadsheet software is a software application capable of organizing, storing and analyzing data in
tabular form, performing calculations using formulas e.g. Microsoft Excel
In a spreadsheet, spaces that hold items of data are called cells. Each cell is labeled according to its
placement (for example, A1, A2, A3...) and may have an absolute or relative reference to the cells
around it. A spreadsheet is generally designed to hold numerical data and short text strings.
Presentation Software
Presentation program is software used to display information in the form of a slide show. It is often used
to prepare lectures and presentations for demonstration e.g. MS Power Point

Database software
Database program is software used to create database so that information could be easily stored,
accessed or modified e.g. MS Access
Graphics Software
Graphics software refers to a program or collection of programs that enable a person to manipulate
images on a computer. Computer graphics can be classified into Bitmap and Vector images:
Raster Graphics (Bitmap)
Bitmap is an image which is drawn using a pixel grid/2-D array of pixels, where each grid has a color. It is
used to store drawings and pictures. Resizing a bitmapped image can reduce its quality. Common bitmap
formats are GIF, TIFF, JPG, BMP, etc. Following are the programs which work with bitmap graphics:

Paint Program
A paint program is a software graphics program that allows the user to draw or paint bitmapped
images on a computer. Though most are discontinued, examples include: Kolour Paint, X Paint,
Deluxe Paint, Map Paint, and Microsoft Paint etc.
Photo-editing software
Photo-editing software is a graphics program which is used to modify and manipulate digital images.
It works at the pixel level in order to enhance pictures and images e.g. Adobe Photoshop, GIMP etc.
Vector Graphics
Vector images use set of vectors drawn using mathematical formulas describing the properties of shapes
drawn. Resizing image will not reduce quality. Common vector images formats are DXF and IGES.
Draw Programs
Draw programs are graphics programs which are used to create vector based images. The objects
drawn in this program are treated as distinct objects. This tool is used when accuracy is critical.
Adobe Illustrator is an example of draw programs
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
CAD is a computerized version of hand-drafting process. CAD software is used by architects,
engineers, drafters, artists, and others to create precision drawings or technical
illustrations. CAD software can be used to create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-
dimensional (3-D) models. AutoCAD is an example of such software
3D modeling software
3D modeling is the process of using software to create a mathematical representation of a 3-
dimensional object or shape, which is then animated frame by frame. The created object is called a
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3D model and these 3-dimensional models are used in a variety of industries. The film, television,
video games, architecture, construction, product development, science and medical industries all
use 3D models to visualize, simulate, and render graphic designs. 3D Max, Maya are the examples of
3D modeling software
Acquiring images into the computer
Images can be loaded into the computer through

Scanners
An image scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting or an object and
converts it to a digital image and then stores it into the computers. Commonly used in offices are
variations of the desktop flatbed scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning.
Clip art
Clip art, in the graphic arts, is pre-made images used to illustrate any medium. Most office suites include
a selection of clip art. Clip art comes in many forms, both electronic and printed. However, most clip art
today is created, distributed, and used in an electronic form. Additional clip art is available online.
Digital cameras
A digital camera a device that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a
screen and printed. Image created by a digital camera is usually a JPG file
Digital video cameras
A camera that captures moving images and converts them into electronic signals so that they can be
saved on a storage device is called Digital Video Camera or Video Camcorder, or Digital Camcorder.
Important Features of Software
• Documentation: Instructions for installing and using software—may be printed manuals or
digital files (Read Me, Help Files)
• Updating and Upgrading Software: Free updates provided by companies for bug fixes and
improvements several times a year, often provided every year or two
• Compatibility Requirement: Specify computer or OS required for a software package i.e.
Windows 7 required, Requires 2 GB of RAM
• Disclaimer—end-user license agreement(EULA)—protects companies from errors in programs
• Licensing: Buy software license not program

Operating System Basics

Operating System
 Operating system is a system software that provides and an interface between user and
computer
 Operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and computer
Kinds of operating systems
Main types of operating system are:

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Real-time operating system (RTOS): very fast and relatively small OS, used to run real-time applications
and computers embedded in machinery, robots, scientific instruments and industrial systems. An
important part of an RTOS is managing the resources of the computer so that a particular operation
executes in precisely the same amount of time every time it occurs
Examples: QNX, Real-time Linux
Single-user/single-tasking operating system: allows a single user to perform only a single task at a time
e.g. DOS
Single User/Multitasking OS: allows a single user to perform multiple tasks at a time e.g. Windows OS,
Macintosh OS etc.
Multi-User/Multi-tasking OS: allows multiple users to use programs running simultaneously on a single
network server called Terminal Server. Examples of such OS are Linux, UNIX, and Windows Terminal
Server.
Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
The BIOS , an acronym for Basic Input/output System and also known as the System BIOS, ROM BIOS or
PC BIOS) is a type of firmware used to perform hardware initialization during the booting process
(power-on startup) and to provide runtime services for operating systems
Functions of operating system
Processor management
Various programs compete for the attention of the microprocessor. The OS plays the role of the honest
referee, making sure that each application gets the necessary attention required for its proper
execution. It tries to optimally manage the limited processing capacity of the microprocessor to the
greatest good of all the users & apps.
Memory management
Memory management is straight forward for a single-user, single tasking. In case of multi-tasking,vthe
OS ensures that each application has enough private memory and applications do not run into other
application’s private memory. The OS is responsible for efficient utilization of hierarchical system
memory (e.g. RAM, cache, etc.).
Device management
Applications talk to devices through the OS. OS talks to and manages devices through I/O device drivers
Example: When we print to a laser printer, we do not need to know its details. All we do is to tell the
printer device driver about what needs to be printed and it takes care of the details.
Storage management
A file system is a collection of directories, subdirectories, and files organized in a logical order. The OS is
responsible for maintaining the file system through indexing of filenames and their disk location. The OS
can find any file in a logical and timely fashion
Application Interface
Application developers do not need to know much about the hardware. The OS provides all applications
with a straight-forward and consistent interface to hardware
Example: An application uses the OS to store data on the disk drive without knowing exact physical
characteristics of the disk.
User interface
User interface are the means by which the user and a computer system interact using a consistent user
interface provided by the OS, in particular the use of input devices and software. There are two main
types of user interfaces:

Graphical User Interface (GUI):

The graphical user interface is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic
devices through graphical icons and visual indicators by using mouse e.g. MS Windows
Example: With the help of the mouse, drag file1.html from drive A to drive C
Command Line Interface (CLI):
A command-line interface or command language interpreter (CLI), also known as command-line user
interface, console user interface, and character user interface (CUI), is a means of interacting with
a computer program where the user (or client) issues commands to the program in the form of
successive lines of text (command lines). DOS is an example of CLI.

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Example: copy a:/file1.html c:/file1.html

Operating system kernel and shell
Shell acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. It is like a command line interface to your
operating system.
Kernel is the center of the operating system that manages everything. A kernel is a low level program
interfacing with the hardware (CPU, RAM, disks, network) on top of which applications are running.
Some Features of Operating System
Dialog Box is a small area on screen in which the user is prompted to provide information or select
commands
Icon is a graphic that represents printers, fonts, document files, folders, and so on.
Task Switching: In multitasking, the CPU switches back and forth quickly between programs, giving the
appearance that all programs are running simultaneously.
Clipboard is a temporary holding space in computer’s memory for the data that is being copied or
moved.
Windows Explorer displays the hierarchical structure of files, folders, and drives on your computer. It
also shows any network drives that have been mapped to drive letters on your computer.
Using Windows Explorer, you can copy, move, rename, and search for files and folders. For example, you
can open a folder that contains a file you want to copy or move, and then drag the file to another folder
or drive.
Utility Programs
Running a screen saver
Today, screensavers do not serve the same protective purpose as they did in the past, when they
actually saved your screen from what is called "image burn-in". On certain types of computer displays, a
prolonged, non-moving image would literally be burned into the screen if it was kept on and no
screensaver was used to replace that image.
Defragmentation
It is the process of locating the noncontiguous fragments of data into which a computer file may be
divided as it is stored on a hard disk, and rearranging the fragments and restoring them into fewer
fragments or into the whole file
The process of reducing the fragmentation of (a file) by concatenating parts stored in separate locations
on a disk, for faster data access.
Antivirus
Antivirus is a Utility software designed to detect and remove viruses from the computer i.e. Norton
Antivirus
Firewall
A firewall is a software utility or hardware device that limits outside network access to a computer or
local network by blocking or restricting network ports.
Interrupt request (IRQ)
Interrupt is a signal to the processor emitted by hardware or software indicating an event needs
immediate attention
Interrupt Request is used by the operating system to send requests to use memory and other hardware
devices attached to the computer system.

Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)

 Object embedding means that data is copied from one type of document and embedded into
another.
 Object linking means the data that is copied retains a link with the original document.
Operating System Services

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Operating System provides

services to both the users
and to the programs. It
provides programs an
environment to execute
and users the services to
execute the programs in a
convenient manner.
Services provided by the
operating system are as
follows:
 User interface
 Program execution
 I/o operation
 file manipulation
 Error detection
 Resource management
 Protection and security
 Accountability
System Calls
System calls are the programs written by programmers (usually in C, C++) with built-in instructions that
request services from the operating system. It can also be defined as an Interface between a process
and the services made available by the OS
Types of system calls
Process Management: End, abort, load, execute, create process, terminate process, allocate and de-
allocate free memory
File Management: Create, delete, open, close, read, write, reposition, get and set file attributes
Device Management: request and release devise, read, write, reposition, attach and detach devices
Information Management: get or set system data, get and set process, file, or device attributes
Communication: send & receive messages, transfer status information, attach & detach remote devices

Storage devices
Storage Devices are the data storage devices that are used in the computers to store the data. The
computer has many types of data storage devices. Some of them can be classified as the removable data
Storage Devices and the others as the non-removable data Storage Devices.
Storage Hierarchy
A ranking of computer memory devices, with devices having the fastest access time at the top of the
hierarchy, and devices with slower access times but larger capacity and lower cost at lower levels. The
hierarchical arrangement of storage in current computer architectures is called the memory hierarchy.
The levels of memory in a computer from fastest to slowest speed, they are:
• Processor registers – fastest possible access (usually 1 CPU cycle), only hundreds of bytes in size
• Level 1 (L1) cache – often accessed in a few cycles, usually tens of KB
• Level 2 (L2) cache – higher latency L1 by 2-10 times, often 512KB or more
• Main memory – may take hundreds of cycles, but can be multiple GB’s
R
• Secondary and Tertiary storage – several seconds latency, can be huge
C
R
e
Kinds of storage devices
Ha
• Magnetic devices use a magnet
Optical devices use lasers A
g
c
•
• Solid-state devices have physical switches
ar
Magnetic Disk M
.
dh
e
Di
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Magnetic disk is a metal or plastic disk coated with magnetic material. Data is recorded into the
magnetic material in machine code. Disks have become popular due to their random access. There are
four different types of magnetic disks
Diskette Drives
A diskette or a floppy disk is a random access, removable data storage medium that can be used with
personal computers. The term usually refers to the magnetic medium housed in a rigid plastic cartridge
measuring 3.5 inches square and about 2millimeters thick. Also called a "3.5-inch diskette," it can store
up to 1.44 megabytes (MB) of data.
Hard Disk
A hard drive is a primary storage device in a computer. It is a magnetic disk on which you can store
computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it from a soft, or floppy disk. Hard disk holds more
data and is faster than floppy disks. In general, hard disks are less portable than floppies, although it is
possible to buy removable hard disks. Today’s computers typically come with a hard disk that contains
several billion bytes (GBs) of storage. It has following features:
• spins at 5400, 7200, 10000, 15000 RPM;
• takes 6 to 12 milliseconds to find data;
• holds up to 1.5 TB data
Removable high capacity magnetic disks
Although manufacturers always are concerned about software piracy, many recommended that users
create a backup of programs before installing them on a computer, to guard against system failures,
such as a head crash, and human errors, such as inadvertently deleting key files. The three types of high-
capacity disks were developed by three different manufacturers for backup purposes: Super Disk™ is
from Imation, HiFD™ is from Sony Electronics, Inc., and the Zip® drive is from Iomega.
The Zip-drive is a medium-to-high-capacity (at the time of its release) removable floppy disk
storage system that was introduced by Iomega in late 1994. Originally, Zip disks launched with capacities
of 100 MB, but later versions increased this to first 250 MB and then 750 MB.
Magnetic Tape
A magnetic tape is also a storage device from which you can access data serially like an audio cassette
from which you can hear the songs in the order in which they are stored. When you want to access
some particular data from the tape, the device has to scan through all the data you do not need but that
data is stored before the required one. The access speed can be quite slow when the tape is long and
what you want is not near the start. So the best use of the magnetic tape is for the data that you do not
use very often.
How Data is Stored on a Disk
The surface of magnetic disks and tapes
is coated with millions of tiny iron
particles (acting as a magnet, taking) so
that data can be stored on them.
Read/write head is a magnet that
generates magnetic field in iron on the
storage medium as the head moves on
the disk or tape. The read/write head records strings of 0’s and 1’s by alternating the direction of
current in the electromagnets (Positive charge means 1, and negative charge is 0).
To read the process is reversed. The head passes over the disk while no current is flowing through the
magnet. Head possesses no charge but storage medium is covered with magnetic field, which represent
bits of data. The storage medium charges the magnet in the head which causes a small current to flow
through the head in one direction or other depending on the field polarity. The storage medium senses
the direction of flow of charges, and data is sent from read-write head to the memory.
How Data is organized on a Disk
Before data can be stored on a magnetic disk, the disk must first be divided into numbered (labeled)
areas so the data can be easily retrieved. Dividing the disk so that the data could be easily written and
retrieved is known as formatting the disk. The format program divides each data surface into tracks and
sectors

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Tracks
Concentric rings, called tracks, are written on the disk during the formatting process. Floppy
disks have 40 or 80 tracks per side. Fixed disks and disk packs can have from 300 to over 1,000 tracks per
side. Each track is assigned a number. The outermost track on a disk is assigned number 0. The
innermost track is assigned the highest consecutive number.
Sectors
Each track is divided into sectors. Sectors are numbered divisions of the tracks designed to make
data storage more manageable. Without sectors, each track would hold more than 4500 bytes of
information and small files would use an entire track
S
Formatting e
T
Disk formatting is the process of preparing a hard disk or other storage medium for use, including setting
up an empty file system.
Operating system can easily locate data on the disks because each track and sector is labeled. (Logical c
formatting)
r
Levels of formatting:
t
a
Low-level: drawing tracks and sectors on disk
High-level: creating file system and boot sector (sometimes called quick or logical format-labeling tracks
and sectors)
o
c
A commonly used logical format performed by windows is on FAT file system because it relied on
standardized file allocation table (FAT) to keep track on the information on the disk. When a disk is
formatted with FAT, following four areas are created on the disk
• The Boot Sector: contains a program that rums when you first start the computer r
k
• File Allocation Table: is a log that records the location of each file and the status of each sector
• Root Folder: is a master folder on any disk
• Data Area: this is where data and program files are actually stored on the disk
File System
A file system is a logical method of configuring data on a disk’s surface. Common file systems include:
1. File Allocation Table (FAT)
2. FAT32
3. NTFS
4. EXT2/EXT3 (Linux)

Time Considerations (Hard Drive)

Some Time Considerations are also observed when we are accessing or storing the data onto the hard
disk.
Seek Time (Access time) : - The Total Time which is Taken to Move on the Desired track is known as the
seek Time. And time is always measured by using the Milliseconds.
Latency Time: The time required to bring the Particular Track to the Desired Location Means the Total
Time to bring the Correct the Sector for Reading or for the read and Write head. This is also called as
the Average Time.
Data Transfer Time: The Total Time which is required for Reading and Writing the data into the Disk is
known as the Data transfer Time.
Optical Storage
Optical storage devices are any storage methods that use a laser to store and retrieve data from optical
media. Optical storage media includes CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, and Recordable optical technologies.
CD-ROM
CD-ROM (Compact Disc, Read Only Memory) is an adaption of the CD that is designed to store computer
data in the form of text and graphics, as well as hi-fi stereo sound. It is a non-volatile optical data storage
medium that is physically the same as an audio CD and is capable of storing large amounts of data up to
1 GB, although the most common size is 650 MB about 12 million bytes per pound weight. A standard
CD is 120mm (4.75 inches) in diameter and 1.2 mm (0.05 inches) thick. Data on a CD-ROM can be
written in form of lands, which are flat areas on metal surface and pits, which are depressions or
hollows.
DVD-ROM

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Digital versatile disc, read only memory (DVD-ROM) is a read-only digital versatile disc (DVD) commonly
used for storing large software applications. It is similar to a compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM)
but has a larger capacity. A DVD-ROM stores around 4.38 GB of data. A DVD-ROM permanently stores
data files which cannot be changed, written over or erased. A personal computer (PC) with a DVD-ROM
or a DVD-RAM drive is designed to read a DVD-ROM disc.
Compared to a CD-ROM, a DVD-ROM has the same 5 inch diameter and 1.2 millimeter (mm) thickness.
But because a DVD-ROM uses a shorter wavelength laser with tighter compacted pits, the disc capacity
is increased. In fact, the smallest DVD-ROM can store approximately 7 times more data than a CD-ROM.
Recordable Optical Technologies
Here is some writeable CD or writeable DVD technologies:
CD-Recordable (CD-R)
A CD-Recordable drive allows you to create your own data or audio discs that can be read by most
CD-ROM drives. After information has been written on the CD-R, it cannot be deleted.

CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)
Using CD-RW, you can overwrite the existing data with new data. In other words you can change the
contents of CD-RW in same manner as a floppy disk. It has same capacity as a standard CD, and most
can be written over 100 times. However, unlike CD-R, CD-RW cannot be played on every CD-ROM
and most of them cannot store audio data.
Phonto-CD
Kodak developed the PhotoCD system to store digitized photographs on a recordable compact disk.
Many film developing stores have PhotoCD drives that can record your photos on a CD. You can
continue adding photos in it until it is full.
DVD-Recordable
Like CD-R, a DVD-R system lets you record data on special recordable DVD, using a special drive.
After information has been written on the DVD-R, it cannot be changed.
DVD-RAM
The newest optical technology to reach consumers, sophisticated DVD-RAM drives let you record,
erase and re-record data on special disc. Using video editing software, you can record your own
digitized videos onto a DVD-RAM disc, they play them back in DVD player. DVD-RAM drives can read
DVDs, DVD-R, CD-R discs, CD-RW and standard CDs.
Solid State Devices
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a data storage device that uses solid-state memory to store persistent data. It
is neither magnetic nor optical; it uses integrated circuits to store data physically.
SSD may be volatile or non-volatile depending upon the circuit they use. SSDs have no moving
mechanical components. This distinguishes them from traditional electromechanical magnetic disks such
as hard disk drives (HDDs) or floppy disks, which contain spinning disks and movable read/write
heads. Compared with electromechanical disks, SSDs are typically more resistant to physical shock, run
silently, have lower access time, and lower latency.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is electronic (solid-state) non-volatile computer storage medium that can be electrically
erased and reprogrammed.
• Found in cameras and USB drives
• Combination of RAM and ROM
• Long term updateable storage
Smart Cards
A plastic card with a built-in microprocessor, used typically to perform financial transactions.
• Credit cards with a chip
• Chip stores data
• May be used as electronic cash
• Hotels use for electronic keys

Introduction to Databases
Database
A collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated is
called as Database
Where are databases used?
At Home

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• Maintaining address-books
• Managing household budgets
• Maintaining a home book-library
Business of Offices
• Inventory tracking system
• Human resources/ payroll
• Discipline specific databases
Government and public organization
• Police
• Vehicle Registry
• Banks
• Tax records/ National IDs
• All dynamic websites
World Wide Web
• Google
• Amazon
• YouTube
• Websites having search facility

File organization Terms and Concepts

In computer system data is organized in following ways
 Database: Group of related files
 File: Group of records of same type
 Record: Group of related fields
 Field: Group of characters word(s)
 Entity & attributes (person, place, thing)
Data Hierarchy
A computer system organizes data in a hierarchy that
starts with the bit, which represents either a 0 or a 1.
Bits can be grouped to form a byte to represent one
character, number, or symbol. Bytes can be grouped to
form a field, and related fields can be grouped to form
a record. Related records can be collected to form a
file, and related files can be organized into a database.
Problems of Traditional File System
 Data redundancy: Duplication
 Lack of flexibility
 Poor security, Lack of data sharing
 Data inconsistency (Same attribute has different values)
Database Types
There are two main types of a database
Flat-File Database
A Database file that consists of only one data table is known as Flat-File Database . A flat file
database is basically a giant collection of data in which the tables and records have no relation
between any other tables. In fact, one could have a single table with everything stored in it i.e. Excel
Spreadsheet
Relational Database
A relational database is a collection of data items organized as a set of formally-described tables
from which data can be accessed in many different ways without having to reorganize the
database tables. Databases consisting of two or more related tables are relational databases. A
typical relational database may have anywhere from 10 to over a thousand tables. The relational
database was invented by E. F. Cod at IBM in 1970.
Relational database represent data as two-dimensional tables, each containing data on entity and
attributes

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Table: grid of columns and rows is called table

 Rows (tuples): Records for different entities
 Fields (columns): Represents attribute for entity i.e. as name, address, city of a person
 Primary key: Field to uniquely identify each record
 Foreign key: Primary key used in second table as look-up field to identify records from
original table
Database Management System (DBMS)
A database management system is a software system that manages databases.
A typical DBMS is able to perform:
• Data Housekeeping (e.g., creating/ deleting/ backing up tables; data entry)
• Data Sorting
• Data Searching
• Data Query Response and Report Generation
A DBMS ensures the following:
• Data Integrity (correctness and consistency)
o Type Integrity (e.g., char input instead of numeric)
o Limit Integrity (e.g., age cannot be negative)
o Referential Integrity (e.g., referred item must exist)
• Data Accessibility (support for concurrency)
• Data Security (proper access control)

Elements of databases
A database stores information in an organized way, and makes it easy to get information in and out.
Tables store data within the database.
Forms make it easy to put data into tables.
Queries pull out specific data.
Reports put data in an easily-read format.

Working with a Database

The DBMS interface presents the user with data and tools
required to work with data. Following data management function are performed using the DMBS.
Creating Tables
The first step in building any database is to create one or more tables. To create a new database,
you must first determine what kind of data will be stored in each table. In other words, you must
define each field in the table by following a three step process such as Name the field, Specify the
field type, and Specify the field size
Entering data
After the tables has been setup, data can be entered into the table through forms
Viewing Records
The way data appears on the screen contributes to how easily users can work with it. With many
DBMS you can use table views (sometimes called datasheet view, design view in MS Access) to
create a database tables and modify field specification. Sometimes viewing entire table is very
difficult because there are too many entries in the database. Filters are used in DBMS to display
selected fields in the database.
Sorting Records
One of the most popular features of DBMS is to sort a table of data, either for printed reports or for
displaying on screens or dashboards. Sorting arranges the records on the basis of given criteria. For
example sorting student’s records according to their Roll Numbers in ascending order.
Creating Queries
In a manner similar to sorting, you can enter expression or criteria that allow DBMS to:
 Locate Records
 Establish links are relationships between tables

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 List a subset of records

 Perform calculations
 Delete records
 Perform other database management tasks
Any of the above requests is called a query in terms of DBMS
Generating Reports
A report is printed information on pre-defined formats, retrieved from the database by using SQL
queries.
Database Query Language
Query languages used by most of the DBMS is Structured Query Language (SQL), which is a 4G
Computer language (non-procedural query specification language)

SQL
SQL is used for:

1) Database schema creation/ modification

Schema refers to the organization of data as a blueprint of how the database is

example
SELECT isbn,
constructed (divided into database tables in the case of relational databases).

dateThe
2) Retrieving/ manipulating database data title, price,
SQL queries are used to retrieve and manipulate data
Data Mining
FROM Book
database
Data mining is the process of (automatically) extracting useful information from data retrieved
WHERE price >
from the data ware houses. Data mining is also known as Knowledge Discovery in Databases
(KDD).
100.00 AND (date
Data mining is a process used by companies to turn raw data into useful information. By

table:
= '2004-04-16'
using software to look for patterns in large batches of data, businesses can learn more about
OR date = '2005-
their customers and develop more effective marketing strategies as well as increase sales and
decrease costs. Following application use data mining for information extraction and analysis:
1) Recommender systems 04-16') ORDER BY

Book
title;
Recommender systems or recommendation systems are a subclass of information
filtering system that seek to predict the "rating" or "preference" that a user would give
to an item.
Recommender systems have become increasingly popular in recent years, and are
utilized in a variety of areas including movies, music, news, books, research articles, search
queries, social tags, and products in general.
There are also recommender systems for experts, collaborators, jokes, restaurants, garments,
financial services, life insurance, and Twitter pages.
2) Pattern mining
Pattern mining is one of the most important topics in data mining. The core idea is to extract
relevant "nuggets or chunk" of knowledge describing parts of a database. NZ cricket team uses
SAS data mining software for making team strategy

Enterprise Software
Enterprise software, also known as enterprise application software (EAS), is computer software used to
satisfy the needs of an organization rather than individual users. Such organizations would include
businesses, schools, interest-based user groups, clubs, charities, or governments.
Enterprise application software includes content, communication, and collaboration software; CRM
software; digital and content creation software, ERP software; office suites; project and portfolio
management; and SCM software.
Commonly used DBMS
MySQL Database
MySQL was found in the year of 1995. Sun Microsystems acquired MySQL in 2008 and Sun Microsystems
was acquired by oracle in 2010. MySQL comes among the largest open source company of the world.
MySQL is so famous due its high efficiency, reliability and cost.

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Oracle Database
Oracle database is developed by Oracle Corporation and it is the fourth generation of Relational
database management system (RDBMS). Oracle database is used mostly by big companies that need to
manage a large amount of data. Oracle database is very flexible and it most useful features are integrity
constrains, triggers, shared SQL.
DB2: DB2 database is developed by IBM Corporation. DB2 is also used to store data for large companies.
It is a RDBMS and its extended version also supports object –oriented features. The main problem with
DB2 is its cost.
Microsoft SQL Server
As its name shows, it was developed by Microsoft. It is an RDBMS that is used to create computer
database for MS-Windows. MS SQL Server create database that can be accessed from workstations with
internet. Microsoft has produced many versions of SQL server depending upon the customer demands.
Other enterprise database application include
 IBM DB2. ...
 SAP Sybase ASE. ...
 Microsoft Dynamics
 PostgreSQL. ...
 MariaDB Enterprise. ...

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PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS AND SOFTWARE

ENGINEERING
A computer program is a clear, step-by-step, finite set of instructions. The functions of a computer
system are controlled by computer programs.
To write a program for a computer, we must use a computer language. A computer language is a set of
predefined words that are combined into a program according to predefined rules (syntax). Over the
years, computer languages have evolved from machine language to high-level languages.
There are three main categories of programming languages:
 Machine languages.
 Assembly languages.
 High-level languages
Machine language and assembly languages are also called as low-level languages.
Machine language
In the earliest days of computers, the only programming languages available were machine languages.
Each computer had its own machine language, which was made of streams of 0s and 1s. Machine
languages is the only language which could be understood by the computer
Advantages:
 Fast and efficient
 Machine oriented
 No translation required
Disadvantages:
 Not portable
 Not programmer friendly
Assembly Language
The next evolution in programming came with the idea of replacing binary code for instruction and
addresses with symbols or mnemonics. Because they used symbols, these languages were first known as
symbolic languages. The set of these mnemonic languages were later referred to as assembly
languages.

High-Level Language
A High-level language program consists of English-like statements that are governed by a strict syntax. It
has two primary components such as built-in language primitives and grammatical rules a translator

Advantages:
 Portable or machine independent
 Programmer-friendly
Disadvantages:
 Not as efficient as low-level languages
 Need to be translated

Examples: C, C++, Java, FORTRAN, Visual Basic, Delphi etc.

Fourth Generation Programming Languages

Fourth generation languages (4GL’s) are easier to use than third-generation languages, generally, a 4GL
uses either a text environment, much like 3GL, or visual environment. In the text environment, the
programmers use English-like words when generating source code. Typically a single statement in 4GL
may perform the same task as many lines of 3GL. In a 4GL, most programmers use a toolbar to drag and
drop various items like buttons, labels, and text boxes to create visual definition of an application.
Examples of 4GL include .NET (Visual Basic, C# and J#...NET.), SQL, Microsoft Front Page etc.

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Fifth Generation Programming Languages

Fifth-generation languages are used mainly in artificial intelligence research. Prolog, OPS5 and Mercury
are examples of fifth-generation languages. These types of languages were also built upon LISP, many
originating on the Lisp machine, such as ICAD. Then, there are many frame languages, such as KL-ONE.

Translation
Programs today are normally written in one of the high-level languages. To run the program on a
computer, the program needs to be translated into the machine language of the computer on which it
will run.
Systems software that converts a programmer’s source code into machine language is called Language
Translator.
The program in a high-level language is called the source program. The translated program in machine
language is called the object program.
Interpreter Machi
A language translator that translates one program statement at a time into machine cod
Progra ne
m Interpre langua
stateme ter ge
nt statem
ent Statemen
t
execution
Compiler
A language translator that converts a complete program into machine language
Machin
StepComput
1: Translate e
er Compil languag
Machin
program
progra er e
e
Stepm2: Execute
languag program progra
m
e Program
progra
execution
m
Programming Paradigms
A Paradigm is a way in which a computer language looks at the problem to be solved.
Today, computer languages are categorized according to the approach they use to solve a problem. We
divide computer languages into four paradigms: procedural, object-oriented, functional and declarative.

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Categories of programming languages

Procedural Paradigm
In the procedural paradigm (or imperative paradigm) we can think of a program as an active agent that
manipulates passive objects. We encounter many passive objects in our daily life: a stone, a book, a
lamp, and so on. A passive object cannot initiate an action by itself, but it can receive actions from active
agents. A program in a procedural paradigm is an active agent that uses passive objects that we refer to
as data or data items. To manipulate a piece of data, the active agent (program) issues an action,
referred to as a procedure. For example, think of a program that prints the contents of a file. The file is a
passive object. To print the file, the program uses a procedure, which we call print.

A program in this paradigm is made

up of three parts: a part for object
creation, a set of procedure calls
and a set of code for each
procedure. Some procedures have
already been defined in the
language itself. By combining this
code, the programmer can create
new procedures.
Object Oriented Paradigm
The object-oriented paradigm deals with active objects
instead of passive objects. We encounter many active
objects in our daily life: a vehicle, an automatic door, a
dishwasher and so on. The action to be performed on
these objects is included in the object: the objects need
only to receive the appropriate stimulus from outside to
perform one of the actions.

A file in an object-oriented paradigm can be packed with

all the procedures—called methods in the object-oriented
paradigm—to be performed by the file: printing, copying,
deleting and so on. The program in this paradigm just sends the corresponding request to the object.

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Classes
Objects of the same type (files, for example) need a set of
methods that show how an object of this type reacts to
stimuli from outside the object’s “territories”. To create
these methods, a unit called a class is used
Methods
In general, the format of methods is very similar to the
functions used in some procedural languages. Each method
has its header, its local variables and its statement. This
means that most of the features we discussed for procedural
languages are also applied to methods written for an object-
oriented program. In other words, we can claim that object-
oriented languages are actually an extension of procedural
languages with some new ideas and some new features.
The C++ language, for example, is an object-oriented extension of the C language.
Inheritance
In the object-oriented paradigm, as in nature, an object can inherit from another object. This concept is
called Inheritance.
When a general class is defined, we can define a more specific class that inherits some of the
characteristics of the general class, but also has some new characteristics.
For example, when an object of the type Geometrical Shapes is defined, we can define a class called
Rectangles. Rectangles are geometrical shapes with additional characteristics.
Polymorphism
Polymorphism means “many forms”. Polymorphism in the object-oriented paradigm means that we can
define several operations with the same name that can do different things in related classes.
For example, assume that we define two classes, Rectangles and Circles, both inherited from the class
Geometrical Shapes. We define two operations both named area, one in Rectangles and one in Circles,
that calculate the area of a rectangle or a circle. The two operations have the same name

The Functional Paradigm

In the functional paradigm a program is
considered a mathematical function. In
this context, a function is a black box
that maps a list of inputs to a list of
outputs.
For example, we can define a primitive function called first that extracts the first element of a list. It may
also have a function called rest that extracts all the elements except the first. A program can define a
function that extracts the third element of a list by combining these two function

The Declarative Paradigm

A declarative paradigm uses the principle of logical reasoning to answer queries. It is based on formal
logic defined by Greek mathematicians and later developed into first-order predicate calculus. Logical
reasoning is based on deduction. Some statements (facts) are given that are assumed to be true, and the
logician uses solid rules of logical reasoning to deduce new statements (facts). For example, the famous
rule of deduction in logic is:

Prolog
Using this rule and the two
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following facts,
we can deduce a new fact:
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One of the famous declarative languages is Prolog (Programming in Logic), developed by A. Colmerauer
in France in 1972. A program in Prolog is made up of facts and rules. For example, the previous facts
about human beings can be stated as:

The user can then ask:

and the program will respond with
yes.
Common Programming Concepts
In this section we conduct a quick navigation through some procedural languages to find common
concepts. Some of these concepts are also available in most object-oriented languages because, as we
explained, an object-oriented paradigm uses the procedural paradigm when creating methods.
Identifiers
One feature present in all procedural languages, as well as in other languages, is the identifier—that is,
the name of objects. Identifiers allow us to name objects in the program. For example, each piece of
data in a computer is stored at a unique address. If there were no identifiers to represent data locations
symbolically, we would have to know and use data addresses to manipulate them. Instead, we simply
give data names and let the compiler keep track of where they are physically located.
Data Types
A data type defines a set of values and operations that can be applied to those values. The set of values
for each type is known as the domain for the type. Most languages define two categories of data types:
simple types and composite types.
A simple type is a data type that cannot be broken into smaller data types. E.g. char , int, float, Boolean.
A composite type is a set of elements in which each element is a simple type or a composite type e.g.
array, object, movie clip, class, functions.
Variables
Variables are names for memory locations, each has an address. Although the addresses are used by the
computer internally, it is very inconvenient for the programmer to use addresses.
Example
A programmer can use a variable, such as score, to store the integer value of a score received in a test.
Since a variable holds a data item, it has a type.
Literals
A literal is a predetermined value used in a program. For example, if we need to calculate the area of
circle when the value of the radius is stored in the variable r, we can use the expression 3.14 × r2, in
which the approximate value of π (pi) is used as a literal.
Constants
The use of literals is not considered good programming practice unless we are sure that the value of the
literal will not change with time (such as the value of π in geometry). However, most literals may change
value with time.
For this reason, most programming languages define constants. A constant, like a variable, is a named
location that can store a value, but the value cannot be changed after it has been defined at the
beginning of the program. However, if we want to use the program later, we can change just one line at
the beginning of the program, the value of the constant.
Input and Output
Almost every program needs to read and/or write data. These operations can be quite complex,
especially when we read and write large files. Most programming languages use a predefined function
for input and output.

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For example: Data is input by either a statement or a predefined function such as scanf in the C
language. Data is output by either a statement or a predefined function such as printf in the C language.
Expressions
An expression is a sequence of operands and operators that reduces to a single value. For example, the
following is an expression
with a value of 13:
An operator is a language-
specific token that requires
an action to be taken. The
most familiar operators are
drawn from mathematics.
Relational operators compare data to see
if a value is greater than, less than, or equal
to another value. The result of applying
relational operators is a Boolean value (true
or false). C, C++ and Java use six relational
operators:

Logical operators combine Boolean values

(true or false) to get a new value. The C
language uses three logical operators:

Statements
A statement causes an action to be performed by the program. It translates directly into one or more
executable computer instructions. For example, C, C++ and Java define many types of statements.
An assignment statement assigns a value to a variable. In other words, it stores the value in the
variable, which has already been created in the declaration section.
A compound statement is a unit of code consisting of zero or more statements. It is also known as a
block. A compound statement allows a group of statements to be treated as a single entity.
Structured programming strongly recommends the use of the three types of control statements:
sequence, selection and repetition

Software Development Life Cycle

Programs are the building blocks of an information system. When they create software product,
programmers follow a process or life cycle that is similar to the life cycle for entire information system.
The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is detailed in.
Phase I: Need Analysis

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Need Analysis is the stage when a need or problem is identified and understood. At this early stage, the
programmer looks at the program design to what the user needs for an interface and starting point and
what the user needs the program to do. Typically, the end-user should have a lot of input in the needs
analysis stage. Once the programmer has determined the programs starting and stopping points, he or
she can begin to design the code.
Phase II: Program Design
Program Design is the stage at which
programmers begin roughing out the
logic they will use when the actual
coding begins. Many tools are used in
the program design process, although
programmers often rely on whiteboards
and the back of napkins. Three of the
design tools are IPO charts (for
structured programming), circles and
message pipes (OOP), and pseudo
codes.
Algorithm:
 Set of finite steps that solves a problem
Heuristics
 Set of steps that usually solves a problem; these algorithms are not always perfect, but work
well most of the time.
 The goal of heuristics is to develop a simple process that generates accurate results in an
acceptable amount of time.
Program’s design details:
2 ways to show details:
i) Pseudo code: describes logic and processing flow in human-language statements
ii) Flow chart: graphically represents logic flow.
Most projects use both methods
Phase III: Development
Development, also called coding involves writing and testing source code. The software development
phase is similar to the system life cycle’s development phase, but instead of determining the system’s
overall layout, the programmer writes the code that implement the user’s requirements. The
programmer might write source code in text editor and heuristics. This problem solving technique is
something like a recipe for problem-solving approach rather than an algorithm that solves a specific
problem. Program testing may include the following:
1) Perform desk checking
2) Quality assurance
3) Debug the program
4) Run real world data
Phase IV: Implementation
Implementation involves installing software and allowing users to test it. This step often includes a lot of
documenting, both inside the code and in form of manuals for the users. Many programmers will tell
you that they do most of their debugging at this stage. Certainly the implementation stage is when any
misconceptions the programmer has about the code are found and fixed. Following type of
documentation is done:
1) Prepare user documentation
2) Prepare operator documentation
3) Write programmer documentation
Phase V: Maintenance
Maintenance starts as soon as the program is installed. Work continues on products for several reasons.
Some minor bugs may not have been fixed at the time the program was released. The programmers may
also add major new functioning, in response to either market demands or user requests. This the
longest phase of the program development life cycle, sometimes spanning many years.

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MICROSOFT OFFICE 2007

Introduction to word processing
Microsoft Word is word processing software that allows users to create and edit text documents. Users
can start with blank documents or work from pre-configured templates for projects with frequently used
formats. Microsoft Word is often packaged with the Microsoft Office Suite, but it is also sold
independently. Some of the features of MS word 2007 interface are
Title bar
The title bar shows the name of the document on screen. When a new document is started, Word
2007 gives it a generic name like 'Document1’
Quick Access Toolbar
The quick access toolbar is a customizable toolbar that contains commands that you may want to
use frequently. You can add items to it. Right click on any item in the Office Button or the Ribbon
and click on Add to Quick Access Toolbar and a shortcut will be added to the Quick Access Toolbar.
The Office button
You click on it to see these options: New, Open, Save, Save As, Print, Prepare, Send, Publish and
Close.
The Word Ribbon
The Ribbon the Ribbon is the panel above the document. It has seven tabs: Home, Insert, Page
Layout, References, Mailings, Review, and View. Each tab is divided into groups.
Groups
The groups are collections of features designed to perform functions. Commonly used features are
displayed on the Ribbon, to view additional features within each group, click on the arrow at the
bottom right of each group. A blue information box will pop up just below where you stop your
pointer.
• Home: Clipboard, Fonts, Paragraph, Styles, and Editing.
• Insert: Pages, Tables, Illustrations, Links, Header & Footer, Text, and Symbols
• Page Layout: Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph,
• Arrange References: Table of Contents, Footnote, Citation & Bibliography, Captions, Index,
and Table of Authorities
• Mailings: Create, Start Mail Merge, Write & Insert Fields, Preview Results, Finish
• Review: Proofing, Comments, Tracking, Changes, Compare, Protect
• View: Document Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros
To remove the toolbar, right click on the blue section beside the Ribbon. Choose Minimize the
Ribbon. To view again, do the same.
Status Bar
The status bar is the area at the bottom of the Word window that indicates information about the
current document. It displays information about what page you are on, as well as your line number
on the page and character number on the line

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Navigating through the word document

The Cursor
The cursor is the short vertical flashing line on your screen. It shows you where you will start typing in a
Word document. When you are using the Tools in Microsoft Word your cursor will change to an arrow.
This is called a pointer.
Scrolling
Your scroll bar is at the right-hand side of your screen. Click on the up/down arrow to go up/down the
page. Hold down the left mouse button to scroll up and down the screen more quickly.
Selecting text
Put the cursor at the beginning or end of the words you want to select. Put your finger on the left
mouse button. Hold down the left mouse button. Move the mouse across the words. Lift up your
finger. The word will be highlighted in blue. When this is done, you can move words or change the size,
the color, and the style of the words on the computer. We can select the whole document through
Home/Editing/Select/Select All or press Ctrl+A
Drag Text: Highlight the text you wish to move, click on it and drag it to the place where you want the
text in the document.
Undo and Redo
Commands that allow you to correct mistakes by moving backward or forward in time, you can click the
Undo Button on the Quick Access Toolbar. You can also use following shortcut keys to revert changes
made in the document. Shortcut keys are Undo - Ctrl+Z and Redo - Ctrl+Y
Rulers
 On the Ribbon, select the View tab > in the Show/Hide group > click Ruler
 The rulers show the page by inches
Orientation
Orientation are the different ways to layout your document. There are two different orientations of a
word document, portrait and landscape. On the Ribbon, select the Page Layout tab > in the Page Setup
group > click Orientation > Portrait or Landscape

Margins
A margin is the space between the text and the edge of the printed paper at the top, bottom, left, and
right of the page. To change the margin by using exact numbers
 On the Ribbon, select the Page Layout tab > in the Page Setup group > click Margins
 Select one of the predesigned margins or select Custom Margins and change the settings in the
new window
Page Size
Page size option is used to choose the paper size for the current section or the whole document. To
change the page size, move on the Ribbon, select the Page Layout tab > in the Page Setup group > click
Page Size
Thesaurus
Thesaurus is a dictionary of synonyms and antonyms. To find a synonym quickly, just right-click inside
the word you want to change, hover your mouse pointer over Synonyms and select the appropriate
word.
Document Views
Print Layout: This is a view of the document as it would appear when printed. It includes all tables,
text, graphics, and images.
Full Screen Reading: This is a full view length view of a document.
Web Layout: This is a view of the document as it would appear in a web browser.
Outline: This is an outline form of the document in the form of bullets.

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Draft: This view does not display pictures or layouts, just text
Create a New Document
There are several ways to create new documents, open existing documents, and save documents in
Word:
 Microsoft Office Button / New / Blank document
 By pressing CTRL+N from the keyboard
Save and exit file
While you are creating a document, it is often important to save it for future use. The saved document
becomes a file. We can save a word document by following different ways
 Microsoft Office Button / Save or Save as
 by pressing Ctrl+S on the keyboard
 Click the File icon on the Quick Access Toolbar
Word Document will save as a Word 2007 document (.docx) and is not compatible with older versions
unless the compatibility package was installed on the computer that tries to open the file
Exit Word
Exit is a command on the File menu used for quitting the Microsoft Word application when you are
through working in your document. When you exit Word, the open document is also closed.
There are several ways of exiting/quitting the Word application. The methods use:
 Microsoft Office Button->Close/Exit word
 The Close button on the title bar
 Shortcut keys ALT+F4
Open and close file
Open a file
We can open a saved file from the computer hard disk by following ways
 Microsoft Office Button -> Open -> Choose from the list
 Pressing CTRL +O from the keyboard

Close a Document Using the Close Window Button on the Menu Bar
Simply click the Close Window (X) button to the extreme right of the Menu bar. The active document
will be closed, leaving the Word program still running. Word or the Office Assistant will prompt you to
save your document, if you have unsaved changes in the document.
Close a Document Using Shortcut Keys
To close the current document without exiting Word, you can use any of the following shortcut keys, if
you are a keyboard fan:
 Press Ctrl and F4 keys simultaneously on the keyboard (Ctrl + F4).
 Press Ctrl and W keys simultaneously on the keyboard (Ctrl + W).
Inserting, deleting text
Inserting Text:
Put your cursor where you want to add the text and begin typing
Deleting the text
We can delete any text by simply pressing delete key from the keyboard. Text to be deleted should
be selected for deleting
Cut, Copy and Paste Data
Copy and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to copy and right click and click Copy (or Ctrl+C ),
put your cursor where you want the text in the document and right click and click Paste (or Ctrl+V ).
Cut and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to cut and right click and click Cut (or Ctrl+X ) , put your
cursor where you want the text in the document and right click and click Paste (or Ctrl+V ).

Find and replace contents

A function used to search throughout your document for occurrences of specific text. And, if you
wanted to you could automatically replace other text in each location where the text occurs.
 On the Home tab, in the Editing group, choose Find. Or press Ctrl+F on your keyboard.
 In the Find what box, type the text that you want to search for and replace.
 In the Replace with box, type the replacement text.
Formatting Text:
Formatted text has control codes indicating the fonts, bold or italic type, margins, indents, columns,
tabs, headers and footers, and other attributes. On the Home Tab of the Ribbon, there are several areas

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controlling the style of the document: Font, Paragraph, and Styles. A style is a format enhancing tool
that includes font typefaces, font size, effects (bold, italics, underline, etc.), colors and more.
Change Font Typeface and Size
Click the arrow next to the font name and choose a font and size. You can preview how the new font will
look by highlighting the text, and hovering over the new font typeface.
Font Styles and Effects
Font styles are predefined formatting options that are used to emphasize text: Bold, Italic, and
Underline.
 Select the text and click the Font Styles included on the Font Group of the Ribbon, or
 Select the text and right click to display the font tools
 Bold: by pressing CTRL + B or through font group
 Italic: by pressing CTRL +I or through font group
 Underline: by pressing CTRL + U or through font group
Change Text Color
 Select the text and click the Colors button included on the Font Group of the Ribbon, or
 Highlight the text and right click and choose the colors tool.
 Select the color by clicking the down arrow next to the font color button.
Highlight Text
 Select the text
 Click the Highlight Button on the Font Group of the Ribbon, or
 Select the text and right click and select the highlight tool
 To change the color of the highlighter click on down arrow next to the highlight button.
Copy Formatting (Format Painter)
If you have already formatted text the way you want it and would like another portion of the document
to have the same formatting, you can copy the formatting. To copy the formatting, do the following:
 Select the text with the formatting you want to copy.
 Copy the format of the text selected by clicking the Format Painter button on the Clipboard
Group of the Home Tab
 Apply the copied format by selecting the text and clicking on it.

Clear Formatting
 Select the text you wish to clear the formatting.
 Click the Styles dialogue box on the Styles Group on the Home Tab.
 Click Clear All.
Paragraph Setting
Formatting paragraphs allows you to change the look of the overall document. You can access many of
the tools of paragraph formatting by clicking the Page Layout Tab of the Ribbon or the Paragraph Group
on the Home Tab of the Ribbon.
Change Paragraph Alignment
 Click the Home Tab
 Choose the appropriate button for alignment on the Paragraph Group.
o Align Left (CTRL+L): the text is aligned with your left margin
o Center(CTRL+E) : The text is centered within your margins
o Align Right (CTRL+R) : Aligns text with the right margin
o Justify (CTRL+J): Aligns text to both the left and right margins.
Indent Paragraphs
Indenting paragraphs allows you set text within a paragraph at different margins. There are several
options for indenting:
To indent paragraphs, you can do the following:
• Click the Indent buttons to control the indent.
• Click the Indent button repeated times to increase the size of the indent.
• Click the dialog box of the Paragraph Group
• Click the Indents and Spacing Tab
• Select your indents
• Alignment also can be changed within this Tab.

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Change Spacing Between Paragraphs and Lines

This feature is used to change the space between the lines of a paragraph. We can also customize the
amount of space before and after the paragraph. Select the paragraph or paragraphs you wish to
change.
 On the Home Tab, Click the Paragraph Dialog Box
 Click the Indents and Spacing Tab
 In the Spacing section, adjust your spacing accordingly
Bullets and Numbering
Lists allow you to format and organize text with numbers, bullets, or in an outline. Bulleted lists have
bullet points, numbered lists have numbers, and outline lists combine numbers and letters depending on
the organization of the list.
To create a list from an existing text:
• Select the text you wish to make a list
From the Paragraph Group on the Home Tab, Click the Bulleted or Numbered Lists button
Nested Lists: a list with several levels of indented text:
Create your list following the directions above
Click the Increase or Decrease Indent button
Formatting Lists
The bullet image and numbering format can be changed by using the Bullets or Numbering dialog box.
 Select the entire list to change all the bullets or numbers, or Place the cursor on one line within
the list to change a single bullet
 Right click
 Click the arrow next to the bulleted or numbered list and choose a bullet or numbering style.
Border and Shading
Borders are rules you can add to any or all of the four sides of a paragraph. Shading is the color or
artistic design you use as background for a paragraph. Borders and shading are formatting tools for
enhancing text, paragraphs, table cells or frames. You can add borders and shading to paragraphs and
entire pages.
Columns
Columns can help to separate sections of your document and make them look more inviting to read.
Columns are a good way to separate sections of your document on one page. For example, when
creating a newsletter or bulletin, columns can be used to give the document a more professional look.

Creating Columns: Button Option

Columns are easy to apply using the presets found on the COLUMNS button.
1. Select the text to be formatted into columns
2. From the Page Layout command tab, within the Page Setup section, click COLUMNS
3. Select the desired number and style of columns
Drop Cap A drop cap is a large capital letter at the beginning of a text block that has the depth of two
or more lines of regular text.
Change case
You can change the case of text in Word 2007 by using the Change Case button in font group of Home
tab. The choices include UPPERCASE, lowercase, Sentence case, Capitalize Each Word, and even toggle
case.
Header and Footers
You can create headers and footers in your Word document so that information such as the author's
name, document title, or page numbers will appear in the top and/or bottom margin of your document.
You can create a header and footer that appears the same on every page, or you can customize the
pages with different headers and footers.
Inserting Header or Footer
From the Insert command tab, in the Header & Footer section, click HEADER or FOOTER
The scroll list of preset headers or footers appear. Select the desired header or footer style and press
enter from the keyboards
Print Preview and print
Print preview option is used to see the preview of a document before being printed to know would it
appear on the paper after printing. Print option is available in the office button, which is used to print a
document. It can also be done by pressing CTRL+P. After selecting the available printer and number of
copies to print, you can simply press print button on the dialog box and the document will be sent to the
selected printer
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Insert Page
Insert option is used to insert a fully formatted cover page or a new page at the cursor position. We can
find this option in inset tab->pages
Page Break
Page break option is available in inset tab->pages. It is used to start the new page at the current position
in the document
Date and time
MS word feature which is used to insert current date and time into the current document by clicking the
Insert tab-> Click on Date & Time->Select the appropriate language and format.
Spelling and Grammar
Microsoft Word makes it easy to check that your document is spelt correctly and uses good grammar.
You can either correct the spelling as you type, or run the Spelling and Grammar check at any time while
producing your document. Click the Spelling and Grammar button in the Proofing group of the
Review tab (press F7) to correct spelling.
Check Spelling and Grammar as you Type
Word 2007 checks for spelling and grammar errors whilst you type. Spelling errors are underlined in red
and grammar errors are underlined in green.
This feature makes it easy to recognize errors and correct them on the move.
 Right click on the error
 A shortcut menu appears offering suggestions to the error
 Select the required change. Word corrects the text and removes the red or green underline
Mail Merge
Facility provided by most word processing program whereby a form-letter can be sent to many
recipients, each letter personalized for each recipient. The program takes each recipients name and
address (from a mailing list) and enters it in its usual place on the letter, and also prints out mailing
labels. To use Mail Merge:
 Select the Mailings on the Ribbon.
 Select the Start Mail Merge command.
 Select Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard.
Tables
You can add a table to your Word 2007 document, using either a grid in a drop-down menu or a dialog
box. The grid method is the fastest way to create a simple table, although it is limited to eight rows and
ten columns.
INSERTING AND DELETING ROWS OR COLUMNS IN TABLES
You can add and delete cells, columns, and rows in your Word 2007 tables. Word makes this easy by
offering various commands in the Rows & Columns group of the Table Tools Layout tab.
DELETING CELLS, COLUMNS, OR ROWS IN A WORD 2007 TABLE
The key to deleting part of a table is to first position the insertion pointer in the part of the table you
want to remove. Then use the Delete button’s drop-down menu to choose the table element you want
to remove (this button is located in the Rows & Columns group of the Layout tab). The table’s contents
are also deleted when you delete parts of a table.
The Delete Cells command displays a dialog box asking what to do with the other cells in the row or
column: move them up or to the left. Keep in mind that deleting a cell may make your table
asymmetrical.

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MICROSOFT EXCEL 2007

Starting Excel
Excel is a spreadsheet program that allows you to store, organize, and analyze
information.
To begin, load the spreadsheet by quickly clicking twice on the Excel 2007
Windows Icon in the Windows Desktop. If you do not see an Excel Icon, click
the Start Button in the lower left corner of the screen, move the cursor up to
Programs, then move to Microsoft Office. Move down to Microsoft Excel 2007 and click.
Exploring the Excel environment
The tabbed Ribbon menu system is how you navigate Excel and access its various commands.
Above the Ribbon in the upper-left corner is the Microsoft Office button. From here, you can access
important options such as New, Save, Save As, and Print. By default, the Quick Access toolbar is
pinned next to the Microsoft Office button and includes commands such as Undo and Redo.
At the bottom-left area of the spreadsheet, you will find worksheet tabs. By default, three
worksheet tabs appear each time you create a new workbook. On the bottom-right area of the
spreadsheet you will find page view commands, the zoom tool, and the horizontal scrolling bar.
To scroll horizontally in a worksheet:
 Locate the horizontal scroll bar in the bottom-right corner.
 Left-click the bar, and move it from left to right.
To change page views:
 Locate the Page View options in the bottom-right corner. Options are Normal, Page
Layout, and Page Break.
 Left-click an option to select it.
Main Elements of Spreadsheet
Main part of the spreadsheet is composed of Rows (Labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) and Columns (Labeled A, B,
C, D, etc.). There are a lot of rows and columns in a spreadsheet.

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Cell
The “intersection” of each row and column is called a cell.
Cell Address
In the image above the cursor is on the “home” cell – A1. Notice Row 1 and Column A are “bold,”
and colored “orange.” This indicates what is called the “address of the cell.
Name Box
Notice right above cell A1, that A1 is displayed in a small box called the Name Box. Whenever you
“click” on a cell the address of that cell will be shown in the Name Box.
How to select cells, ranges, rows, or columns
To select Do this
A single cell Click the cell, or press the arrow keys to move to the cell.
A range of Click the first cell in the range, and then drag to the last cell, or hold down SHIFT
cells while you press the arrow keys to extend the selection. You can also select the first
cell in the range, and then press F8 to extend the selection by using the arrow keys.
To stop extending the selection, press F8 again.
A large range Click the first cell in the range, and then hold down SHIFT while you click the last
of cells cell in the range. You can scroll to make the last cell visible.
All cells on a Click the Select All button.
worksheet
To select the entire worksheet, you can also press CTRL+A. If the
worksheet contains data, CTRL+A selects the current region.
Pressing CTRL+A a second time selects the entire worksheet
Create a New Workbook
There are several ways to create new workbook, open existing workbook, and save documents in Excel:
 Microsoft Office Button / New / Blank Workbook
 By pressing CTRL+N from the keyboard
Save and exit file
While you are creating a worksheet, it is often important to save it for future use. The saved worksheet
becomes a file. We can save a work sheet by using Microsoft Office Button / Save or Save as or by
pressing Ctrl+S on the keyboard or clicking the File icon on the Quick Access Toolbar Word Document
will save as a Excel 2007 document (.xlsx) and is not compatible with older versions unless the
compatibility package was installed on the computer that tries to open the file
Exit Excel
Exit is a command on the File menu used for quitting the Microsoft Excel application when you are
through working in your document. When you exit Word, the open document is also closed. Use
Microsoft Office Button->Close/Exit word or close button on the title bar or press shortcut keys ALT+F4
Open and close file
Open a file
We can open a saved file from the computer hard disk by following ways
 Microsoft Office Button -> Open -> Choose from the list
 Pressing CTRL +O from the keyboard
Close a workbook using the Close Window Button on the Menu Bar
Simply click the Close Window (X) button to the extreme right of the Menu bar. The active document
will be closed, leaving the Excel program still running.
Close a Document Using Shortcut Keys
To close the current worksheet without exiting excel, you can use any of the following shortcut keys, if
you are a keyboard fan:
 Press Ctrl and F4 keys simultaneously on the keyboard (Ctrl + F4).
 Press Ctrl and W keys simultaneously on the keyboard (Ctrl + W).

Inserting data into worksheet

To enter data into the worksheet, select any cell in which you want to enter data and start typing from
the keyboard. You can also do it by selecting a cell and then entering your data into the formula bar
under the menus.
Cut, Copy, Paste or Delete Data
You can use the Cut, Copy, and Paste commands to move or copy information in an Office Excel 2007
worksheet. These commands use the Office Clipboard as a kind of electronic halfway house where the
information you cut or copy remains until you decide to paste it somewhere.

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MOVING A CELL SELECTION

To move a cell selection with Cut and Paste, select the cell(s) you want to move. Click the Cut command
button in the Clipboard group on the Home tab (the button with the scissors icon) or press Ctrl+X from
the keyboard.
Move the cell cursor to, or click the cell in the upper-left corner of, the destination range. When you
indicate the destination range, you don’t have to select a range of blank cells that matches the shape
and size of the cell selection you’re moving. Excel only needs to know the location of the cell in the
upper-left corner of the destination range. Press Enter or Ctrl+V to complete the move operation or click
the Paste button in the Clipboard group on the Home tab.
COPYING A CELL SELECTION
Copying a cell selection with the Copy and Paste commands follows a nearly identical procedure to the
one you use with the Cut and Paste commands. After selecting the range to copy, you click the Copy
button on the Home tab or press Ctrl+C.
An advantage to copying a selection with the Copy and Paste commands and the Clipboard is that you
can paste the information multiple times. Just make sure that, instead of pressing Enter to complete the
first copy operation, you click the Paste button on the Home tab in the Ribbon or press Ctrl+V.
DELETING A CELL SELECTION
In order to delete any text you can just select the cells from which you intend to delete data, press
delete button from the keyboard and the data will be deleted.
Formatting Cells, columns
Microsoft Office Excel 2007 lets you change many of the ways that it displays data in a cell. For example,
you can specify the number of digits to the right of a decimal point. You can also add a pattern and a
border to the cell. You can access and modify most of these settings in the Format Cells dialog box.
To access the Format Cells dialog box, click the Format Cells Dialog Box Launcher in the Font group on
the Home tab or by simply right clicking at the cell and selecting Format cell command. The Format Cells
dialog box contains the following tabs:
Number Tab
By default, all worksheet cells are formatted with the General number format. With the General number
format, anything that you type in the cell is usually left as-is.
Alignment Tab
You can position text and numbers, change the orientation, and specify text control in cells by using the
settings on the Alignment tab in the Format Cells dialog box.
Text alignment is used to control the horizontal alignment, the vertical alignment, and the indention
of the text in a cell. There are some additional text alignment controls in the Text Control section of
the Alignment tab. These controls are Wrap Text, Shrink to Fit and Merge Cells.
• Wrap Text is used to wrap the text in the selected cell. The number of wrapped lines depends on
the width of the column and on the length of the cell contents.
• Shrink to Fit is used to decrease the font size of the text in a cell until all the contents of the cell can
be displayed.
• Merge Cells is used to combine two or more selected cells into a single cell. A merged cell is a single
cell that is created by combining two or more selected cells. The cell reference for a merged cell is
the upper-left cell in the original selected range.
Orientation Orientation is used to set the text rotation in the selected cell. Use a positive number in
the Degree box to rotate the selected text from lower-left to upper-right in the selected cell. Use
negative degrees to rotate text from upper-left to lower-right in the selected cell. To display text
vertically from top to bottom, click Text under Orientation. This gives a stacked appearance to text,
numbers, and formulas in the cell.
Font Tab
The term "font" refers to a typeface (for example, Arial) together with the attributes of the typeface
(point size, font style, underlining, color, and effects). Use the settings on the Font tab in the Format
Cells dialog box to control these settings. You can see a preview of your settings by viewing the Preview
section of the dialog box. You can also find this option in font group of home tab.
Border Tab
In Excel 2007, you can put a border around a single cell or around a range of cells. You can also have a
line drawn from the upper-left corner of the cell to the lower-right corner or from the lower-left corner
of the cell to the upper-right corner. To customize the borders of these cells from their default settings,
change the line style, the line thickness, or the line color. You can also find this option in font group of
home tab.
Fill Tab

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Use the settings on the Fill tab to set the background color of the selected cells. You can also use
the Pattern Color and the Pattern Style lists to apply two-color patterns or shading for the background
of the cell. You can also find this option in font group of home tab as fill color.
Protection
The Protection tab provides the settings that you can use to protect your worksheet data and formulas:
However, neither of these options takes effect unless you also protect your worksheet. To protect a
worksheet, on the Review tab, click Protect Sheet in the Changes group.
Formula Writing
A formula performs calculations or other actions on the data in your worksheet. A formula always starts
with an equal sign (=), which can be followed by numbers, math operators (like a + or - sign for addition
or subtraction), and built-in Excel functions, which can really expand the power of a formula. Here are
some additional examples of formulas that you can enter in a worksheet.
 =A1+A2+A3 Adds the values in cells A1, A2, and A3.
 =SUM(A1:A10) Uses the SUM function to return sum of the values in A1 through A10.

 =TODAY() Returns the current date.

 =UPPER("hello") Converts the text "hello" to "HELLO" by using the UPPER function.

 =IF(A1>0) IF function is used to test if cell A1 contains a value greater than 0.

We can insert formulas by add in method (by manually typing cell reference), Pointing method (by
pointing the cells) or by Functions (by using built-in functions i.e. sum, max, min etc)
Print Preview and Print
Save wasted paper and your sanity by using the Print Preview feature in Excel 2007 before you print any
worksheet, section of worksheet, or entire workbook. You can use Print Preview to see exactly how the
worksheet data will be paged when printed and to make last-minute changes to the page settings before
sending the report to the printer.
Insert: Cells, rows, columns, pictures, full and filter data
You can insert blank cells above or to the left of the active cell on a worksheet. Microsoft Office Excel
2007 has more rows and columns than ever before, with the following new limits: 16,384 (A to XFD)
columns wide by 1,048,576 rows tall.
Insert rows on a worksheet
 To insert a single row, select either the whole row or a cell in the row above which you want to
insert the new row. For example, to insert a new row above row 5, click a cell in row 5.
 To insert multiple rows, select the rows above which you want to insert rows. Select the same
number of rows as you want to insert. E.g. to insert three new rows, you select three rows.
 To insert nonadjacent rows, hold down CTRL while you select nonadjacent rows.
Insert columns on a worksheet
 To insert a single column, select the column or a cell in the column immediately to the right of
where you want to insert the new column. For example, to insert a new column to the left of
column B, click a cell in column B.
 To insert multiple columns, select the columns immediately to the right of where you want to insert
columns. Select the same number of columns as you want to insert. For example, to insert three
new columns, you select three columns.
 To insert nonadjacent columns, hold down CTRL while you select nonadjacent columns.
Insert Pictures in Worksheet
In Excel 2007, you can insert pictures such as digital photos or scanned images that are saved as graphics
files into your worksheets. If you want to bring in a graphic image created in another graphics program
that’s not saved in its own file, you select the graphic in that program and then copy it to the Clipboard
(press Ctrl+C). When you get back to your worksheet, place the cursor where you want the picture to go
and then paste the image in place (press Ctrl+V) or click the Paste command button on the Home tab).
Insert Filters
Use the AutoFilter feature in Excel 2007 to hide everything in a table except the records you want to
view. Filtering displays a subset of a table, providing you with an easy way to break down your data into
smaller, more manageable chunks. Filtering does not rearrange your data; it simply temporarily hides
rows that don’t match the criteria you specify.
Filter a range of data
 Select the data you want to filter. For best results, the columns should have headings.
 Click the arrow in the column header, and then click Text Filters or Number Filters.

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 Click one of the comparison operators. For example, to show numbers within a lower and
upper limit, select between.

 In the Custom AutoFilter box, type or select the criteria for filtering your data. For example,
to show all numbers between 1,000 and 7,000, in the is greater than or equal to box,
type 1000, and in the is less than or equal to box, type 7000.

 Click OK to apply the filter.

Generating charts
Charts are used to display series of numeric data in a graphical
format to make it easier to understand large quantities of data
and the relationship between series of data.
Microsoft Excel no longer provides the chart wizard. To create a
chart in Excel, you start by entering the numeric data for the
chart on a worksheet. Then you can plot that data into a chart by
selecting the chart type that you want to use on the Insert tab, in
the Charts group.
Spell checker
Microsoft Office Excel 2007 includes a built-in spell checker that can catch and get rid of spelling errors
and typos in your worksheets. Excel 2007’s spell checker normally looks for misspellings only in the
current worksheet.
If you have a multiple-sheet workbook, you can select the sheets you want to check before you start the
spell checker. Also, you can check the spelling of just a particular group of entries by selecting the cells
first. To check the spelling in a worksheet, follow these steps: Click the Spelling command button in the
Proofing group of the Review tab (or press F7).
Find and replace
Excel 2007’s Find and Replace feature can be a powerful tool. Use Find and Replace to locate — and
optionally replace — text or values in a worksheet. You can narrow the search results by specifying
formatting to look for as well as other search options, including Match Case.

REPLACING DATA
To find and replace data in a worksheet, Choose Find & Select in the Editing group on the Home tab, and
then select Replace (or press Ctrl+H). The Find and Replace dialog box appears with the Replace tab on
top. Here you can replace the data you intended to.

Microsoft Power Point 2007

PowerPoint is a presentation software package. With PowerPoint, you can easily create slide shows.
Trainers and other presenters use slide shows to illustrate their presentations. This tutorial teaches
PowerPoint basics. This lesson introduces you to the PowerPoint window. You use the window to
interact with PowerPoint.
The Ribbon is the completely new user interface in PowerPoint 2007, designed to make it easier and
faster to create fantastic presentations. The Ribbon together with the Microsoft Office Button and Quick
Access Toolbar will give you access to everything you'll need to do for a presentation.
The main tabs are Home, Insert, Design, Animations, Slide Show, Review and View. When we cover the
main tabs in more detail, you'll learn about the other tabs - Contextual tools and Program tabs - that
only appear when you need them while performing certain tasks.
Creating a Basic Presentation
We can create a Title Slide for your presentation using the Blank Presentation template. You will be
working in Slide View. Open the PowerPoint program. PowerPoint automatically opens a new
presentation. A new title slide will appear for you to work with. Alternatively, let's say you are already
working in Power point and want to create a new presentation. In the Open window, click the Microsoft
Office Button. From the drop-down list, select New or press CTRL +N from the keyboard.
Adding text to a slide
The Title Slide layout contains text boxes for a title and a subtitle. Try typing text into these boxes. Click
in the Title text box. A dashed line border with a circle in each corner and a square box at each midpoint

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appears around the text box indicating that it is selected. Type a title. Click the Subtitle text box and type
a subtitle. Congratulations! You've just created your first slide in PowerPoint.
Adding another slide
In the Slides Group in the Home tab, click on the top part of the New Slide button. A new slide is added
which by default is the Title and Content layout slide. Alternatively, to add a new slide with a different
layout than the default, click the bottom part of New Slide button with the arrow beside the text, "New
Slide". A drop-down list appears with all the slide layouts you can choose from. Click on the layout you
want to use. A new slide with that layout is now added.
Moving from slide to slide
let’s say you've created several slides for your presentation. You've finished working on the last slide,
and now you want to take a look at your other slides. Here's how you move from slide to slide in Slide
View.
To move to a previous slide:
Click the upper double-arrow button on the lower right corner of the PowerPoint window. The
previous slide will appear.
To move to the next slide:
Click the lower double-arrow button on the lower right corner of the PowerPoint window
Formatting and checking texts the formatting options available in PowerPoint are very
similar to other Office 2007 programs. To format your text, first select it. Once the text you wish to
format is highlighted, use the options in the Font and Paragraph groups under the Home tab to format
your text.
Most of the formatting options are the same in all Office 07 programs, however there are a few that are
unique to PowerPoint.
Text Adds a shadow behind the selected text to help it stand out on the
Shadow slide.
Character Adjusts the spacing between characters.
Spacing
Text Change the orientation of text to vertical, stacked, or rotate it to the
Direction desired direction.
Align Text Change how text is aligned within the text box.
Convert to Convert text to a Smart Art graphic to visually communicate
Smart Art information. Smart Art graphics range from graphical lists and
Graphic process diagrams to more complex graphics, such as Venn diagrams
and organization charts.
You can click the down arrow on either the paragraph or the font group to access the menu.

Formatting a Text Box Using the Ribbon

When you select a text box or the text within the box, the Drawing Tools: Format tab will appear on the
Ribbon. From this tab you can preview and choose from a variety of preformatted styles, or create your
own, using the options under Shape Styles. You can also use the WordArt Styles to change the look of
your text or add a completely new object to your project using Insert Shapes.
You can change the Size of the text box from this tab. Also, if your project has a number of objects
layered on top of each other, you can arrange your objects and move them to the front or the back.
Lists
To add a list to a text box, click on either the bulleted list or the numbered list button under
the Paragraph group in the Home tab.
To format your list, select the text and click on the down arrow beside the list button to choose a style. If
you would prefer to use the dialog box to select a style rather than the drop down menu, click on Bullets
and Numbering at the bottom of the drop down.
Inserting objects
The second tab in the Ribbon is the Insert tab. This contains the basic set of Objects which you can insert
into a slide. The PowerPoint 2007 Insert tab has 5 sections; tables, illustrations, links, text, and media
clips
Tables
If you click on the Tables button, a grid of rows and columns will appear:

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You can select the number of columns and rows by dragging the mouse over the grid. Notice that while
you drag the mouse, the table dynamically draws itself in the slide, giving you a preview of what the
table will look like when you decide on a size:
Illustrations
This section of the Insert tab on the Ribbon lets you add special graphics.
 Picture: add a photograph to your slide; choose any image file on your computer.
 Clip Art: choose from artwork already made and available.
 Photo Album: this creates instant photo slideshows. Just add images and they will be applied to
slides.
 Shapes: add any of more than 100 pre-made shapes.
 SmartArt: a new feature which allows quick construction of charts and nice-looking graphics
with text.
 Chart: create a chart from an Excel table.
Text

this area allows you to add text in many forms.

 Text Box: create a box with text that can be resized and placed anywhere on the slide.
 Header and Footer: add information (slide numbers, date/time, titles, etc.) to the top and
bottom of any or all slides.
 Word Art: create styled, 3-D art using text.
 Date & Time: adds date and or time stamps to the Header or Footer.
 Slide Number: adds slide numbers to the Header or Footer.
 Symbol: need to add a symbol that you can't type using the keyboard? Look for it here. (Only
works where you can type text, as in a text box.)
 Object: add special objects to the slide.
Most of the time, you will not use Headers and Footers, and probably you will not use Objects. Symbols
are for special circumstances. Therefore, the Text Box and Word Art are the more important buttons in
this area.
Applying transitions
Slide transitions are like the effects used in films to change from scene to scene. While they shouldn't be
overused, sometimes they can add a little spice when changing from slide to slide.
Tip: Choose one or two slide transitions and stick with them! A different transition for each slide is
distracting and looks unprofessional.
Adding Slide Transitions
Transitions are easy to add to your slide by using PowerPoint's Transitions Gallery.
1. Select the slide you wish to add a transition to.
Note: Adding a transition will determine how a slide appears, not how it disappears.
2. In the Animations tab under the Transition to This Slide group choose an effect from
the Transition gallery. Use the arrow to scroll through the options. PowerPoint will show you a
preview of the transition when you hover your mouse over a gallery item.
3. To set the speed of a transition, select a speed from the Transition Speed pull-down menu.
4. OPTIONAL: If you wish to add a sound effect to your transition (again, use this sparingly!) choose
a preset sound from the Transition Sound pull-down menu or choose "Other Sound" to use a
sound from your computer. PowerPoint also provides an option to loop your chosen sound.
5. OPTIONAL: If you want to apply your transition settings to all of your slides, click Apply To All.
6. OPTIONAL: You also have the option to customize how your slide advances. You can advance
slides by clicking the mouse of the "On Mouse Click" option is checked, or choose to have your
slide automatically advance after a certain time. You can even have both options checked so
that you can advance the slide early if you need.
Removing Transitions
1. Select the slide(s) from which you would like to remove the transition.
2. On the Animation tab in the Transitions gallery choose No Transition. The transition will be
removed from the slide(s).
Preparing handouts and slides for display
You can use PowerPoint to print your slides (one slide per page), print slides with presenter notes, or
print an outline. You can also print handouts of your presentation — with one, two, three, four, six, or
nine slides on a page. Your audience can then use these handouts to follow along as you give your
presentation or they can keep them for future reference. Follow the below given steps to print the
handouts:
1. Open the Presentation for which you want to print the handouts
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2. Click Office Button | Print | Print Preview

The example shown below displays the print preview of a handout with 3 slides per page. Below each
slide is space for taking notes for the audience during the presentation. The presentation can also be
printed in grayscale or pure black and white.
4. If you want directly print without going to the preview option then click Office Button | Print | Print
Here before clicking the OK button you can set options like name of the printer, printing the number of
slides, Color scheme for the printouts, Slides per page and number of copies of the printout. There is
option to preview the print before actually printing it. In this way you can print the handouts as per the
specifications mentioned.

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND INTERNET

Networking
Networks is a set of technologies – including hardware, software and media – that can be used to
connect computers together, enabling them to communicate, exchange information and share
resources in real time [Peter Norton]
Some benefits of networks are:
 Resource sharing (cost savings): Sometimes in organizations workers may need to use the same
data at the same time e.g. company’s quarterly sales report to be viewed by many users. For this
companies can common data is stored on a network servers, which is a central computer with a
large storage and other resources which users (clients) have to share. If the server stores data
files for users to access, it is commonly called a file server.
Peripheral Devices like printer and photocopiers can also be shared using networks instead of
installing a printer to each client. Printers can be shared either by connecting a printer directly
to the network or it can be attached to a print server, which is a computer that manages one or
more computers

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 Personal communication: emails, teleconferencing (video, audio, data), VOIP.

 Data backups: Data backups are done by the managers either through shared storage devices or
using special backup software to backup data, without copying it to the server first.
 Reliability (reduced errors/inconsistencies)
 Greater performance (distributed computing)

Common Types of Networks

There are two common types of networks such as Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network
(WAN). Between LAN and WAN structure we can also find some Hybrid networks i.e. CAN, MAN, HAN
etc.
Local Area Network (LAN):
LAN is a type of network that contains com`puters that are relatively near each other and are physically
connected using cables, infrared links or wireless media. A LAN may consist of two or three PCs
connected together to share resources, or can include hundreds of computers. Any type of network that
exists within a single building is considered LAN, if it is not using internet. It can also connect separate
LANs e.g. two floors of a same building can be connected through LANs.
Computers that are to be connected to a network, needs to have a network interface card (NIC). To
connect together different devices to make up a network, you need cables, Hub, Switch, Router, firewall
etc.
Wide area Network (WAN):
A computer network that spans a relatively large
geographical area inter-connecting two more local-area
networks (LANs), is called Wide Area Network or
WAN. Computers connected to a wide-area network are
often connected through public networks, such as the
telephone system or via internet through an Internet Service
Provider (ISP) that contracts with telecommunication
networks to gain access to internet’s backbone.
Campus Area Network (CAN):
A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a computer network that links the buildings and consists of two or
more local area networks (LANs) within the limited geographical area. It can be the college campus,
enterprise campus, office buildings, military base, and industrial complex. A CAN is smaller than a
wide area network (WAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN). A CAN is also known as a
corporate area network (CAN).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a
local area network (LAN) but spans an entire city or
campus. MANs are formed by connecting multiple
LANs. Thus, MANs are larger than LANs but smaller
than wide area networks (WAN).
Mans are not usually owned by a single organization;
their communication devices and equipments are
usually maintained by a group or single network
provider that sells its networking services to corporate
customers. Mans can also provide a shared
connection to other networks using WAN link.
Home Area Network (HAN):
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A home area network (HAN) is a network that is deployed and operated within a small boundary,
typically a house or small office/home office (SOHO). It enables the communication and sharing of
resources (like the Internet) between computers, mobile, televisions, video games, home security
systems, “smart appliances”, fax machines, and other digital devices that are wired over a network.
Intranet and Extranet:
An intranet is a private network accessible only to an organization's staff. An extranet is a private
network that uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication system to securely share part
of a business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other
businesses.
How are networks structured?
Networks can be categorized by the roles the servers and PCs play in terms of hierarchical and security
interaction. Some networks use servers (server-based networks) and some don’t (peer-to-peer).
Server-based Networks
To understand server based networks it is important to understand the term node. A node is processing
location that can be a PC other some other device such as a printer. Usually server based networks
contain many nodes and one or more servers, which control user access to networks resources i.e. file
server, network server, application server, database server etc.
Client-Server Networks
A client/server network is a server based
system where one or more computers
called clients connect to a central
computer named a server to share or use
resources. Examples of computer
applications that use the client–server
model are Email, network printing, and
the World Wide Web.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In peer-to-peer (P2P) all nodes on a
network have equal relationship to all
others, and all have similar type of
software that supports the sharing of
resources. Instead of having a central
server to act as a shared drive, each
computer acts as the server for the files
stored upon it. Many client operating
systems like Windows 9x, Windows
2000, Windows Me, Windows Xp and
Macintosh OS, have builtiin support for
P2P networking.
Network Topologies
An important feature of any LAN is its topology-the logical layout of the cables and the devices that
connect nodes of the network.
Data moves in a network in a structure called packet (datagram), which are the pieces of a message
broken down into units the sending PC. Payload is the actual data that is being transmitted between two
nodes. Network topologies help move data packets as efficiently as possible and also avoid collision.
Topology types:
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology, all the nodes (computers as
well as servers) are connected to the single cable (called bus), by the help of interface connectors. This
central cable is the backbone of the network and is known as Bus (thus the name). Every workstation
communicates with the other device through this Bus.
A signal from the source is broadcasted and it
travels to all workstations connected to bus cable.
Although the message is broadcasted but only the
intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP
address matches, accepts it. If the MAC /IP address
of machine doesn’t match with the intended

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address, machine discards the signal.

A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector
can be used to extend it. Below I have given a basic diagram of a bus topology and then have discussed
advantages and disadvantages of Bus Network Topology.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Cable fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
 It is slower than the ring topology.
Star Topology:-
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network
features a central connection point called a "hub node" that may
be a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to
the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Data packets
are sent to the hub which then sends it to the intended node.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires
more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take
down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If
the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.
Advantages of Star Topology
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
Ring Topology
A token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which all
computers are connected in a ring or star topology and pass
one or more logical tokens from host to host. Only a host that
holds a token can send data, and tokens are released when
receipt of the data is confirmed. Each node examines data as
it moves through the network. If the data, known as token, is
not addressed to the node examining it, that node passes it to
the next node. There is no danger of collision because only
one token moves in the network at a time.
A token ring LAN is physically wired as a star topology but configured as a ring topology. If the ring is
broken, the entire network is down.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
Mesh Topology:-
In a mesh network topology, each of the network node,
computer and other devices, are interconnected with one

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another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes. In fact a true
mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network. This type
of topology is very expensive as there are many redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in
computer networks. It is commonly used in wireless networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in
mesh topology. Mesh can be partial of full.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.
Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an
office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these
topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Network Protocols
Network Protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network.
These are the rules governing the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication. A single
LAN may utilize more than one protocol. Some of the most common protocols in use today include:
TCP/IP:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP) is the protocol of internet and is required on
any computer that must communicate across the internet. TCP/IP is now a default protocol for Windows
2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003 and many other operating systems

When information is sent over the Internet, it is generally broken up into smaller pieces or "packets".
The use of packets facilitates speedy transmission since different parts of a message can be sent by
different routes and then reassembled at the destination. It is also a safety measure to minimize the
chances of losing information in the transmission process. TCP is the means for creating the packets,
putting them back together in the correct order at the end, and checking to make sure that no packets
got lost in transmission. If necessary, TCP will request that a packet be resent.

Internet Protocol (IP) is the method used to route information to the proper address. Every computer on
the Internet has to have its own unique address known as the IP address. Every packet sent will contain
an IP address showing where it is supposed to go. A packet may go through a number of computer

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routers before arriving at its final destination and IP controls the process of getting everything to the
designated computer.

Note: IP does not make physical connections between computers but relies on TCP for this function. IP
is also used in conjunction with other protocols that create connections.

IPX/ SPX: A proprietary protocol of Novell, used in most versions of NetWare network operating
system for networking offices throughout the world. Newer versions of NetWare also support TCP/IP.

NetBIOS/ NetBEUI: A relatively simple protocol that has not real configurable parameters, it sends
messages to every computer that can receive them. It is an excellent protocol for networking small
offices or homes, but not for large environments.
Transmission Media
With computer networks, media refers to the means which are used to link a network’s nodes together.
Transmission media or channels may be wired or wireless.

Wired/Guided Media
Three types of wired (guided) channels are the following.
Twisted-pair cable:
A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper
wires twisted together to form a single media. Out of these two
wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for
ground reference. The twists between wires are helpful in
reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk. It
is used for both voice and data transmission.

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which
encases each pair of insulated conductors. Electromagnetic
noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial
cable. It is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted
pair.
Unshielded Twisted Pair:
It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own color plastic insulator. Identification
is the reason behind colored plastic insulation. UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable
with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-
45 connector.
UTP cables are easy to install, flexible, cheap, have high speed
capacity, but their bandwidth is limited when compared with
coaxial cable. UTP also provides less protection from
interference.
UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6
cables are mostly used.

Coaxial Cable:
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Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. Copper
is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is surrounded by PVC
installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, or both.
Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which completes
the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the plastic
cover which protects the whole cable.
Here the most common coaxial standards.

There are two types of Coaxial cables:

Baseband:-
This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used for
LAN’s. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is
that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.

Broadband:-
This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several
simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with
Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Fiber Optic Cable:-
Fiber-optic cable consists of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmits beams of light rather than
electricity; it is very fast and noise-resistant. Fiber optic are Used for both analog and digital signals.
These are similar to coaxial cable. It uses electric
signals to transmit data. At the centre is the glass
core through which light propagates. In multimode
fibers, the core is 50 microns, and in single mode
fibers, the thickness is 8 to 10 microns.

The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index of refraction as compared
to core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding. The
fibers are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield. Fiber optic cable has bandwidth
more than 2 gbps(Gigabytes per Second). Fiber optic are however, very expensive and difficult to install.

Wireless Media:-
Wireless networks use radio or infrared signals that travel through the air (called
other) for transmitting data. Office LANs can use radio signals to transmit data between nodes in a
building. Laptops equipped with cellular modems allow users to connect to the office networks when
they travel. Corporate WANs often use microwave transmission to connect LANs within the same
metropolitan area. WANs that cover long distances often use satellites and microwave communication.

Network Hardware:
All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect
network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers.
Network Interface Cards (NICs):
A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card)
is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer
network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC addresses. Each network interface card has its unique id. This is written
on a chip which is mounted on the card.
Hub:
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A hub is an affordable connection point for different type of devices on a network. This is not a
particularly fast connection because it broadcasts the packets it receives to all nodes attached to its
ports. This technology is becoming obsolete due to reduction in price of switches. Hub is also considered
to be a dumb device.

Bridges:
A bridge is a device that connects two LANs or two segments of the same LAN. A bridge looks
at the information in each packet header and forwards data that is travelling from one LAN to another.
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model.
Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do
not copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific
ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port
only.

Switches:
Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components.
Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device addresses in each
incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right destination or port. Like Hub, switch
don’t broadcast the received message to entire network, rather before sending it checks to which
system or port should the message be sent. In other words switch connects the source and destination
directly which increases the speed of the network. Modern switches can even function as routers,
allowing multiple LANs to be interconnected by linking each LAN’s switches together. This is called an
uplink

Routers:
A router is a complicated device that stores the routing information for network. A router
looks at each packet’s header to determine where the packet should go and them determines the best
route for the packet to take towards its destination. A router will not allow broadcast traffic to cross the
device unless modified to do so. Thus, a packet must be addressed to a specifically identified
destination to pass through a router. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two
LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or
more networks connect. Routers have NAT (Network Address Table) to hide company’s internal node IP
addresses from the internet for security purposes.

Gateway:

A Gateway is a node on a network that servers

as an entrance to another network. In small business,
gateway is a device that routes data from local PC to
external network such as internet. It takes packet from
one type of network, reads its header, and then adds a
second header that is understood by the second network.
We can add gateway IP manually or automatically by
using DHCP.

Firewalls:
Firewalls are the most important aspect of a network with respect to security. A firewalled
system does not need every interaction or data transfer monitored by a human, as automated processes
can be set up to assist in rejecting access requests from unsafe sources, and allowing actions from
recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant
increase in 'cyber' attacks for the purpose of stealing/corrupting data, planting viruses, etc.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also called communication
mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission
mode. They are :

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 Simplex Mode
 Half duplex Mode
 Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode data can be sent only through one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is done in
Simplex Systems.
Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and
monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

In half duplex system we can send data in both directions but it is done one at a time that is when the
sender is sending the data then at that time we can’t send the sender our message. The data is sent in
one direction.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent
in both the directions.

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both directions as it is bidirectional. Data can be sent in both
directions simultaneously. We can send as well as we receive the data.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons
by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.

Internet
Internet is the network of networks—it is the global system of interconnected computer networks that
use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide.
History of Internet
The Internet was the result of thinking by people in the early 1960s who saw great potential value in
allowing computers to share information on research and development in scientific and military fields.
J.C.R. Licklider of MIT first proposed a global network of computers in 1962, and moved over to the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in late 1962 to head the work to develop it.
Leonard Kleinrock of MIT and later UCLA developed the theory of packet switching, which was to form

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the basis of Internet connections. Lawrence Roberts of MIT connected a computer with a California
computer in 1965 over dial-up telephone lines.
The early Internet was used by computer experts, engineers, scientists, and librarians. There was
nothing friendly about it. There were no home or office personal computers in those days, and anyone
who used it, whether a computer professional or an engineer or scientist or librarian, had to learn to use
a very complex system.
Major Services of Internet
Internet provides different services, each having distinct features and purposes. The most commonly
used internet services include:
 World Wide Web (WWW)
 Electronic Mail (E-mail)
 News
 File Transfer Protocol
 Chat
 Instant Messaging
 Online Services
 Peer-t-Peer Services
User connects their computers modem to telephone lines or DSL in order to set up an account with an
ISP, which provides users with internet backbone.
World Wide Web (WWW)
World Wide Web or ‘Web’ was created in 1989 by a British
computer scientist, Sir Tim Berners-Lee, at Physics Laboratory in
Geneva, Switzerland, as a method for incorporating footnotes,
figures and cross-references into online documents. The web
creator wanted to create a simple way to access any document
on a network without searching through indexes or directories.
Millions of documents are collected, all stored on different
places, are linked together in some manner by creating a web of
interconnected information.

The Web is the worldwide collection of text pages, digital photographs, music files, videos, and
animations, identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), interlinked by hypertext links, and can be
accessed via the Internet. The basic building blocks of the Web are pages of text, like this one— Web
page as we call them. A collection of Web pages on the same computer is called a website. Every web
page (including this one) has highlighted phrases called links (or hypertext links) all over it. Clicking one
of these takes you to another page on this website or another website entirely.
How Web Works?
Web documents can be linked together because they are created in a format known as hypertext.
Hypertext system provides easy way to manage large collection of data, which can include text files,
pictures, sounds, movies, and more.
To support hypertext documents, Web uses a special protocol, called hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP).
A hypertext documents is a specially encoded file that uses the hypertext markup language, HTML. This
language allows a documents author to embed hypertext links, also called hyperlinks or just links in the
document. This means you can jump from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots.
A web browser or a browser is application software designed to find hypertext documents on the web
and then open the documents on user’s computer. Two of the most popular are Firefox and Microsoft's
Internet Explorer.

Internet telephony
Internet telephony is a type of communications technology that allows voice calls and other telephony
services like fax, SMS and other voice-messaging applications to be transmitted using the Internet as a
connection medium. Skype for business, IMO, Face Time etc can be the examples of inter

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Video Conferencing - provides real-time two-way audio/video communication between two or

more locations. Video Conferencing requires specialized equipment on both ends for a successful
connection.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), commonly informally termed a web address (a term which is not
defined identically) is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer
network and a mechanism for retrieving it. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http),
but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other
applications.
Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL could
have the form http://www.example.com/index.html, which indicates a protocol (http),
a hostname (www.example.com), and a file name (index.html).

Search Engine
Search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web
(WWW). A user enters keywords or key phrases into a search engine and receives a list of Web content
results in the form of websites, images, videos or other online data. The list of content returned via a
search engine to a user is known as a search engine results page (SERP). Examples of search engines
include google.com, yahoo, ask.com etc.

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a system of exchanging messages through computer network. People most
commonly use email to send and receive messages, but depending on the software you use, you may be
able to exchange audio or video messages with someone else. E-mail was the first use of internet, and
quickly became a popular feature because it lets users exchange message from anywhere in the world.
E-mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text. The first e-mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971.
By 1996, more electronic mail was being sent than postal mail.
How to send and receive e-mail

E-mail Program
To send and receive e-mail messages, you can use an e-mail program, also known as an e-mail client,
such as Microsoft Outlook or Mozilla Thunderbird. When using an e-mail client, you must have a server
that stores and delivers your messages, which is provided by your ISP or in some cases, another
company. An e-mail client needs to connect to a server to download new e-mail, whereas email stored
online (see next section) updates automatically when you visit the site.
E-mail Online
An alternative way of sending and receiving e-mail (and the more popular solution for most people) is an
online e-mail service or webmail. Examples include Hotmail (now Outlook.com), Gmail, and Yahoo Mail.
Many of the online e-mail services, including the ones we just mentioned, are free or have a free
account option.
Writing an e-mail
When writing an e-mail message, it should look something like the example window below. As you can
see, several fields are required when sending an e-mail:

 The To field is where you type the e-mail address of the person who is the recipient of your
message.
 The From field should contain your e-mail address.
 If you are replying to a message, the To and From
fields are automatically filled out; if it's a new
message, you'll need to enter them manually.
 The CC or Carbon Copy field allows you to send a
copy of the message to another e-mail address, but
is not mandatory.
 The Subject Line, although not required, should
consist of a few words describing the e-mail's
contents.
 Finally, the Message Body is the location you type
your main message.

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File Transfer Protocol

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer computer files between
a client and server on a computer network. FTP is built on client-server model architecture and uses
separate control and data connections between the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate
themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, but can
connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. FileZilla is an example of free FTP solution
for both client and server.

Electronic Business & E-Commerce

Electronic Business or e-business is a term which can be used for any kind of business or commercial
transaction that includes sharing information across the internet. Commerce constitutes the exchange
of products and services between businesses, groups and individuals and can be seen a as one of the
essential activities of any business. Electronic commerce focuses on the use of ICT to enable the
external activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups and other businesses or e
business refers to business with help of internet i.e. doing business with the help of internet
network. The term "e-business" was coined by IBM's marketing and Internet team in 1996.

Definitions:

 E-Business is the conduct of business on internet

 E-Business (e-Business), or Electronic Business, is the administration of conducting business via
the Internet. This would include the buying and selling of goods and services, along with
providing technical or customer support through the Internet.

E-Business Vs. E-Commerce

Although the terms e-commerce and e-business are often used interchangeably, there are differences.

E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services on the Internet or other computer network.
Business transactions that involve the exchange of money are covered by the term e-commerce.

E-business includes all aspects of running a business that sells goods and services, including
marketing, earning and retaining customers, procurement, developing business partners and customer
education. E-business became an extension of e-commerce to encompass all aspects of businesses
that function online.

Note: E-business involves e-commerce, but e-commerce does not cover all aspects of e-business.

Goals of e-Business

 High reach ability

 Customer satisfaction
 Social popularity
 Convenience

Advantages of E-Business
Costs and Setup: E-businesses are becoming famous for their low-cost start-up compared with a
tradition business. It has become easier to start a business: all you need is a computer and internet.

Speed and Efficiency: Online ordering systems can process payments and orders in real-time, usually
faster, more accurately and cheaper than human workers e.g. products, such as music, files, e-books.

Flexible Business Hours: E-business breaks down the time barriers that location-based businesses
encounter, as the Internet is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, your business never closes.

Eliminates Geographic Boundaries: e-business also allows you to broaden your reach. An online
business can reach customers in the four corners of the Earth

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Reduces Transaction Cost: Running an online business reduces the cost per transaction because it takes
less manpower to complete an online transaction
Everyone is Equal: When you are interacting with your clients or vendors using e-business, it is difficult
for them to tell how big your business is.

Order Entry: An Internet order interface that is hooked directly into your real-time inventory software
can allow customers to order products from your company 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

Customer Service: E-Business can save you money on your customer service as well. By making your
client's account information available on the Internet, customers can check their accounts any time.

Marketing: An e-business presence can help put your company in touch with this growing retail sector.

Limitations or Demerits of E-Business

Some of the limitations of an e-business include:

 Less security: The biggest obstacle in the growth of E-business is the issue of security. Internet
is not a secured medium of communication. There may be credit card theft
 Technological dependence: is threat of sudden technical difficulties that can disturb business
flow at any time
 Minimal consumer interaction: e-business blocks sensory consumer interactions
 No physical interaction with items purchased: unable to examine products
 Not for Everyone: Some people might not have any internet access
 Less Privacy: personal information is compromised

Social Networking
A social networking service (also social networking site, or SNS or social media) is an online platform
which people use to build social networks or social relations with other people who share similar
personal or career interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections. Examples of such websites
include Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Google+ etc

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is ability of computers to mimic or duplicate the functions of the human brain.
AI-based computer systems have many applications in different fields, such as:

– Medical diagnoses

– Exploration for natural resources

– Determining what is wrong with mechanical devices

– Assisting in designing and developing other computer systems

Artificial intelligence systems is defined as the people, procedures, hardware, software, data, and
knowledge needed to develop computer systems and machines that demonstrate the characteristics of
intelligence

Nature of Artificial Intelligence

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• Understand visual images

– Perceptive system: approximates the way humans hear, see, or feel objects

• Process and manipulate symbols

– On a limited basis with machine-vision hardware and software

• Be creative and imaginative

– Example: writing short stories

• Use heuristics

– Obtaining good solutions (rather than the optimal) through approximation

Major Branches of Artificial Intelligence

The main branches of artificial intelligence
include:
 Expert System
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Expert System
 Natural Language Processing
 Vision System

Expert Systems:

Hardware and software that stores knowledge and makes inferences, similar to a human expert. Like
human experts, computerized expert systems use heuristics, or rules of thumb, to arrive at conclusions
or make suggestions

Robotics:
Devices that perform tasks requiring a high degree of precision or that are deadly or hazardous for
humans. Contemporary robotics combines high-precision machine capabilities with sophisticated
controlling software. Many applications of robotics exist today. Robots can be used in situations that are
hazardous or inaccessible to human. The Rover was a remote controlled robot used by NASA to explore
the surface of Mars. Three basic parts of a robot include sensors, computer and actuators.

Vision Systems:
Hardware and software that permit computers to capture, store, and manipulate visual images and
pictures i.e. identifying people based on facial features

Neural Network:

Computer systems that can simulate the functioning of a human brain are called as neural networks.
They have an ability to solve complex problems for which all the information is not present

Natural Language Processing:

Allows the computer to understand and react to statements and Commands made in a “natural”
language, such as English, Urdu, Punjabi Voice recognition involves converting sound waves to words

Learning System

Combination of software and hardware that allows the computer to change how it functions or reacts to
situations based on feedback it receives. Learning systems software requires feedback on the results of
actions or decisions. Feedback is used to alter what the system will do in the future

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Voice recognition

Voice recognition involves converting sound waves into words

Applications of Expert system and artificial intelligence

• Employee performance evaluation

• Virus detection: uses neural network technology

• Repair and maintenance: Telephone networks, aerospace equipment

• Shipping and marketing

• Warehouse optimization: Restocking, location

Information Security
Security
Security can be defines as the policies, procedures and technical measures used to prevent unauthorized
access, alteration, theft, or physical damage to information systems. Following are the goals of
information security:

– Data Confidentiality

– Data Integrity

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– System Availability

Malware Software (Attack on integrity and confidentiality)

Malware are the types of software programs which may be harmful to your system. Malware attacks on
integrity and confidentiality. Following are different malware software:

 Viruses: program that attaches itself to other software programs or file in order to be executed

 Trojan horse: program that appears to be harmless but then does something other than expected

 Key Loggers: Record every keystroke on computer to steal serial numbers, passwords, launch
Internet attacks

 Spyware: Small programs install themselves secretly on computers to monitor user Web surfing
activity

Spoofing Attacks (Attacks on authenticity)

The kind of attacks in which the attacker/hacker mis-represents oneself by using fake e-mail addresses,
taking you away from intended destination. Following are different type of spoofing attacks:

 URL Spoofing: URL spoofing is the attempt to mislead a user to a different (often malicious) website
by imitating or “spoofing” a legitimate URL.

 DNS Spoofing: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a system that associates domain names with IP
addresses. In a DNS server spoofing attack, attacker modifies the DNS server in order to reroute a
specific domain name to a different IP address. In many cases, the new IP address will be for a server
that is actually controlled by the attacker and contains files infected with malware. DNS server
spoofing attacks are often used to spread computer worms and viruses.

 IP Spoofing: In an IP address spoofing attack, an attacker sends IP packets from a false (or
“spoofed”) source address in order to disguise itself. Denial-of-service attacks often use IP spoofing
to overload networks and devices with packets that appear to be from legitimate source IP
addresses.

 MAC Spoofing: MAC spoofing is a technique for changing a factory-assigned Media Access Control
(MAC) address of a network interface on a networked device. The MAC address that is hard-coded
on a network interface controller (NIC) cannot be changed.

 Email/Caller ID Spoofing: Email spoofing is the creation of email messages with a forged sender
address. Because the core email protocols do not have any mechanism for authentication, it is
common for spam and phishing emails to use such spoofing to mislead the recipient about the origin
of the message.

Network-Based Attacks (Attacks on availability)

Denial of Service Attacks (DoS): A denial-of-service (DoS) is any type of attack where the attackers
(hackers) attempt to prevent legitimate users from accessing the service. In a DoS attack, the attacker
usually sends excessive messages asking the network or server to authenticate requests that have
invalid return addresses.

Worms: Independent programs that copy itself from one computer to other computers over a network.

Social Engineering Attacks

These are the attacks that target the weakest
component of a security system---the users

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Phishing:
Phishing is the attempt to obtain sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and
credit card details (and, indirectly, money), often for malicious reasons, by disguising as a trustworthy
entity in an electronic communication i.e. Greeting Cards, Lottery Wins etc.
Protection against Attacks
Firewalls:
A network security system that monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined security rules. Firewalls can be implemented in
both hardware and software, or a combination of both. Network firewalls are frequently used to prevent
unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet,
especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which
examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
Antivirus:
Antivirus software is a type of utility used for scanning and removing viruses from your
computer. While many types of antivirus programs exist, their primary purpose is to protect computers
from viruses and remove any viruses that are found. Antivirus require continuous updating
Countermeasures:

 Limiting times when someone can log in

 Limited number of login tries: prevents attackers from trying lots of combinations quickly

 A database of all logins

 Open only trusted sites

Social, Ethical, Professional and Legal Issues

Introduction:

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We must understand the scope of an organization’s legal and ethical responsibilities in

order to minimize liabilities/reduce risks. The information security practitioner must understand current
legal environment, stay current with laws and regulations and must watch for new issues that emerge.
Laws:
Rules that mandate or prohibit certain behavior in society; drawn from ethics
Ethics:
Ethics is a major branch of philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life. It defines socially
acceptable behaviors; based on cultural mores (fixed moral attitudes or customs of a particular group).
Potential ICT related Harms:
Basic principle of social conduct is that there should be no harm or ‘the harm must be eliminated’. ICT
related harms may be personal or network based.
Personal:
•Honor/ integrity
•Time; Privacy
•Economical, Equipment
Network:
• Network bandwidth
• Network availability

Netiquette (Network Etiquette)

It's a term that references how individuals that are using instant messaging or e-mail conduct
themselves during these activities. Simply put, netiquette is an approved set of rules for behaving
properly online. It is a social code of network communication. A few netiquettes are as follows:
 Remember the humans
 Don’t abuse your newly found anonymity (mystery). Adhere to the same standards of behavior
online that you follow in real life
 Respect people’s time and bandwidth. Avoid chain emails; large attachments; use a subject that
defines your email; always read FAQs (discussion lists).
 Avoid sloppy language/grammar. Don’t use ALL CAPS (which denotes shouting) or too many
exclamation marks. Also avoid using short forms in formal communication
 Respect/acknowledge intellectual property i.e. copy rights
 Respect other people’s privacy
 Don’t abuse the power entrusted to you
 Protect you Haya (modesty),means see no evil, hear no evil, do no evil
ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) Code of Ethics:
The ACM (www.acm.org) is a respected professional society, originally established in 1947, as “the
world's first educational and scientific computing society”. The ACM’s code of ethics requires members
to perform their duties in a manner befitting an ethical computing professional. The code contains
specific references to protecting the confidentiality of information, causing no harm, protecting the
privacy of others, and respecting the intellectual property and copyrights of others.

General Moral Imperatives:

 Contribute to society and human well-being.
 Avoid harm to others.
 Be honest and trustworthy.
 Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
 Honor property rights including copyrights and patent.
 Give proper credit for intellectual property.
 Respect the privacy of others.
 Honor confidentiality.

International Information Systems Security Certification Consortium:

The (ISC)2 is a non-profit organization that focuses on the development and implementation of
information security certifications and credentials. The code of ethics put forth by (ISC) is primarily
designed for information security professionals who have earned a certification from (ISC).
This code focuses on four mandatory canons:
 Protect society, the commonwealth, and the infrastructure;
 Act honorably, honestly, justly, responsibly, and legally;
 Provide diligent and competent service to principals; and

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 Advance and protect the profession.

Computer Crime
Definition:
The act of using a computer to commit an illegal act or gaining unauthorized computer access
Examples:
Stealing time on company computers, breaking into government Web sites, Stealing credit
card information

Hacking and Cracking:

 Hacker – one who gains unauthorized computer access, but without doing damage
 Cracker – one who breaks into computer systems for the purpose of doing damage

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