UNIT CODE: TFD 200

UNIT NAME: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION

LECTURE: Dr. KITHUNGU ROSE MWIKALI

TEL NO: 0726-208 363 Email rmwikali@seku.ac.ke

MEANING OF KEY CONCEPTS:

1. EDUCATION

Etymological definition
Etymology is the study of the origin of terms/words. Accordingly, education is said to be derived
from the Latin educare. In the ancient Rome, the Verb referred to the general process of growing
up, rearing or bringing up. Originally, it designated both the rearing of plants, animals and
bringing up of children. Based on this definition, education has come to be viewed as the art of
modeling, or giving form to an incomplete or delicate person i.e, a child. It presupposes the role
of an adult molding the character, mind and psychomotor of the learner. Other scholars trace the
origin of the the term education to a latin word educare’ meaning to lead out or to bring out. In
other words,the adult assists the child to come of age and realize his potential without any shade
of coerce. The assumption is that the child is in possession of abilities/potential awaiting to be
elicited by proper guidance.
 The more we pursue the definition of the concept of education along the foregoing paths,the
more complex it becomes. Realizing these, analytic philosophers have suggested necessary
conditions/criteria of education.
Etymological definition of education
- grammatical

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 - lingual
- dialectal
 Education is derived form 2 Latin words Educere or Educare
- Educere – To lead out, to launch, beget or give birth to.
- Educare- A verb which refers to the physical process of rearing /bringing up
children.
- Instrucio – a specific process of formal and systematic living.
- Education -Means leading out all the potential of a person.
- Refer to the process of being and becoming or a must from ignorance to
darkness
- Knowledge, foolishness to wisdom, darkness to light
Definitions of education (scholars)
R.S. Refers (1966)
 Education is a process of initiation /commencement)
BUETON (1988)
 Education is a process of initiating people into knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that
are acceptable by the society.
Julius Nyerere (1963)
 Education is the transmission of knowledge form one generation to the other.
Philosophy of education is an academic discipline that uses principles/methods of technical
to solve issues in education.
2. COMPETENCY

The ability to do something successfully or efficiently. The quality of being adequately or well
qualified physically and intellectually
Competency refers to the combination of knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviors that a person
needs to effectively perform tasks or responsibilities in a specific role or job. It can also refer to
the capacity to perform a particular task or function to a defined standard or level of proficiency.
Competencies are typically measured against specific criteria or performance standards in
various professional or educational contexts.

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Competency is a set of demonstrable characteristics and skills that enable, and improve the
efficiency of, performance of a job. Competencies are not skills, although they are similar. Skills
are learned, while competencies are inherent qualities an individual possesses – collaboration
skills, knowledge and ability. During job interviews and assessments, competencies are used as
benchmarks against which assessors can evaluate candidates.
Competencies usually fall into three categories:

1. Behavioural Competencies – an expression of the softer skills involved in an

employee’s performance.
2. Technical Competencies – usually concerned with the effective use of IT
systems and computers, or any hard skills necessary for a job.
3. Leadership Competencies – an expression of the qualities that make a good
leader, turned into measurable behaviours.

3. COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION

A system of instruction, assessment, feedback, self-reflection, and academic reporting that is

based on students demonstrating that they have learned the knowledge, attitudes, motivations,
self-perceptions, and skills expected of them as they progress through their education.”

In basic terms, competency-based education means that, instead of focusing on grades and yearly
curriculum schedules, the main focus is placed on how competent each student is in the subject.

This means that students can only move forward when they can demonstrate mastery.

Competency based education and personalized learning really go hand-in-hand. By personalizing

the learning experience for each individual student, teachers ensure that each student has full
mastery before they can move forward.

This way, the goal of equity is achieved: students move forward at their own pace, but everyone
in the class achieves mastery.

Competency based education gives a clear focus on preparing students for the next stage of their
life, whether it be college or a career.

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Competency-Based Education (CBE) is an educational approach where students progress
through a curriculum based on their ability to demonstrate mastery of specific skills or
knowledge, rather than moving through the material based on time spent in class or the
completion of assignments. In CBE, learners are assessed on their proficiency in key
competencies, and they move forward only when they have shown they can effectively apply
what they've learned.

Key features of competency-based education include:

1. Personalized Learning: Students can progress at their own pace, allowing them to spend
more time on challenging areas and move faster through topics they already understand.

2. Clear Learning Outcomes: Competencies or learning goals are clearly defined, so

students know what they need to master to advance.

3. Mastery-Based Progression: Students advance when they demonstrate mastery of the

required skills or knowledge, not based on the traditional grading system.

4. Flexible Learning Paths: CBE often allows students to engage with content in various
ways—through online modules, projects, and other forms of instruction—providing
flexibility in how they learn.

5. Frequent and Ongoing Assessments: Students are continuously assessed through

practical evaluations, projects, or exams to ensure they meet the defined competencies.

4. COMPETENCY BASED CURRICULUM

A curriculum that emphasizes what learners are expected to do rather than mainly focusing on
what they are expected to know. In principle, such a curriculum is learner-centred and adaptive
to the changing needs of students, teachers, and society.

The Competency Based Curriculum (CBC): As Kenya transitioned into the 21st century, calls for
educational reform grew louder. In 2017, the government introduced the Competency Based
Curriculum (CBC), a learner-centered approach focused on developing critical thinking,
creativity, and practical skills.

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A Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) is an educational framework that focuses on
ensuring students develop specific competencies (skills, knowledge, and abilities) necessary to
perform effectively in real-life situations or professional roles. The curriculum is structured
around clearly defined learning outcomes that describe the competencies students are expected to
master.

Key features of a competency-based curriculum include:

1. Clear Competency Outcomes: The curriculum outlines the specific competencies
students need to achieve at each level of their education. These competencies are
typically described in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
2. Student-Centered Approach: The curriculum is designed to meet the individual
learning needs of students, allowing them to progress at their own pace, ensuring that
they master each competency before moving on to the next.
3. Assessment for Mastery: Students are assessed based on their ability to demonstrate
mastery of the competencies, rather than on time spent in class or the completion of
traditional assignments. Assessment can include practical tasks, projects, exams, and
other performance-based evaluations.
4. Flexibility and Personalization: The CBC allows for flexible learning pathways,
meaning students can engage with the material in various ways (e.g., self-paced learning,
collaborative work, or hands-on activities) based on their learning styles and needs.
5. Focus on Real-World Application: The curriculum is designed to ensure that the
competencies align with the demands of real-world situations, so students are equipped
with practical, job-ready skills and knowledge.
6. Continuous Progression: Students advance through the curriculum only when they
demonstrate sufficient mastery of the competencies. This approach contrasts with
traditional education systems where students move through a set timeframe or grade
level, regardless of mastery.

BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK PILLARS

In addition to National Goals of Education, the basic education curriculum framework vision and

mission is supported by three important pillars: Life values, theoretical approaches and guiding

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principles.

1. LIFE VALUES
Values are standards that guide an individual on how to respond or behave in a given
circumstance.
Our values influence how we feel, act and make choices in life. Internationally, there has been a
rise in the challenges and issues related with cultural integration, ethnic and religious diversity.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, scholars have argued that the way ethnic groups interact has been
responsible for Africa’s low economic growth, political instability and conflict, high
inequality, and low provision of public goods and services.
In Kenya, there is a noticeable values and behavioural crisis among the general population and
young people in particular (Pernell, 1990). Many youngsters are growing up without the desired
values, positive attitudes and psychosocial competencies needed to function as responsible
citizens.
The primary responsibility for inculcating values rests with parents and the community,
but education too has an important role to play in this regard.
The Framework recognises that values are important to the socio-economic development and
stability of the country, in the same way that competencies in academics are important.
According to the Constitution of Kenya, it is imperative that the State Department responsible
for education develops and incorporates values into the curricula at all levels of education.
The values stated in the Constitution include responsibility, respect, excellence, care and
compassion, understanding and tolerance, honesty and trustworthiness, trust, and being
ethical.
The Framework incorporates these and other important values that may emerge with time.
The Framework takes advantage of the fact that learners spend most of their formative years in
school, which presents opportunities for the curriculum to mould and reinforce values upon
which the learner’s character is formed.
The Framework adopts a values-based approach to education that creates learning
opportunities within the formal, non-formal and informal curriculum dimensions to inculcate the
desired values in all learners.

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The teaching of values facilitates the achievement of the curriculum reform vision, particularly
with respect to developing ethical citizens. The thrust of this is to nurture learners who do the
right thing because it is the right thing to do.
Learners are guided to learn about and appreciate the effort and sacrifice that built the country
and to see beyond their self-interests to the needs of the community. As a result, they are
provided with opportunities to contribute fully to the world around them – economically,
culturally, socially and politically.
Basic education builds capacities in learners that enables them to be stewards of the earth, and to
minimise negative environmental impacts. It also nurtures them to build relationships through
humility, fairness and open-mindedness, and with teamwork and communication.
The teaching and learning of values also enable them to value diversity, and to demonstrate
respect, empathy and compassion for all people.

2. THEORETICAL APPROACHES
A theory is an abstract general explanation of observations or a subject under study that can
provide guidance for practice. It attempts to predict behaviour or reach a reasonable and general
set of explanations for an underlying issue. Several theories underpin the Basic Education
Curriculum Framework. These are:
a) Instructional Design Theory
This theory offers explicit guidance towards a new curriculum that explains how to help learners
learn and develop in the wake of emerging globalisation. Perkins, (1992) describes the
instructional design theory which offers guidance for fostering cognitive learning as "Clear
information, in terms of goals, knowledge needed and performance expected; Thoughtful
practice, in terms of opportunities for learners to engage in learning actively and reflectively;
Informative feedback, in terms of clear and thorough counsel to learners, and; Strong intrinsic or
extrinsic motivation."
Instructional design theory is design-oriented because it focuses on the means to attain given
goals for learning and offers guidelines on methods to use in different situations in curriculum
implementation. Values play an important role in instructional design theory. They underlie both
the goals the curriculum pursues and the methods it offers to attain the goals. All these are
articulated in BECF, which takes cognizance of the place of values as an anchor for the pillars of

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the curriculum. The BECF also provides a vision for the reform and engages critical stakeholders
and policy makers to identify with it. This provides a strong momentum for change in achieving
the reform vision.
b) Visible Learning Theory
John Hattie (2012) observes that globally, fundamental changes in education systems have
important implications for curriculum reform. Learners need to be able to think about and solve
problems, work in teams, communicate through discussions, take initiatives and bring diverse
perspectives to their learning. In addition, learners need to learn more, yet they have little time
available to learn it (Lee and Zemke, 1995). Learners also need to demonstrate the impact of the
achievement of national goals of education. Visible learning means an enhanced role for teachers
as they become evaluators of their own teaching. Hattie asserts that visible learning and teaching
occurs when teachers see learning through the eyes of learners and help them become their own
teachers. It entails making the learner’s learning visible to teachers so that they can know
whether they are having an impact on learning; an important component of becoming a lifelong
learner. This resonates with the Sustainable Development Goals. The ‘learning’ part of visible
learning is the need to think of teaching with learning in the forefront and with the idea that we
should consider teaching primarily in terms of its impact on learner learning. When the teaching
is visible, the learner knows what to do and how to do it. When the learning is visible, the teacher
knows if learning is occurring or not. Teaching and learning are visible when the learning goal is
not only challenging but is explicit. Furthermore, both the teacher and the learner work together
to attain the goal, provide feedback, and ascertain whether the learner has attained the goal.
Evidence shows that the greatest effects on learner learning come when not only the learners
become their own teachers (through self-monitoring, and self-assessment), but when the teachers
become learners of their own teaching. In successful classrooms, both the teaching and learning
are visible. This theory is important in designing a competency based curriculum. It provides
directions on the nature of engagement in the learning process between the teacher, the learner
and the environment. It also provides a basis for designing a formative and criterion referenced
assessment, which is the bedrock of a competency-based curriculum.
c) Constructivism Theories
Different proponents of the constructivist theory have opined that human beings construct all
knowledge while participating in different mental and physical experiences. In constructivism,

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 the learner builds a personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions
and learning is a process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring or communicating it.
Among its proponents are Dewey, Vygotsky, Piaget, Brunner, and more recently Gardner and
Hattie.
i. Dewey’s Social Constructivism
Dewey argued that the curriculum should ultimately produce learners who would be able to deal
effectively with the modern world. Therefore, curricula should not be presented as finished
abstractions, but should include the child’s preconceptions and should incorporate how the child
views his or her own world. Dewey uses four instincts, or impulses, to describe how to
characterize children’s behaviour. The four instincts according to Dewey are social, constructive,
expressive, and artistic. Curricula should build an orderly sense of the world where the child
lives. He hoped to use occupations to connect miniature versions of fundamental activities of life
with classroom activities. The way Dewey hoped to accomplish this goal was to combine subject
areas and materials.
By doing this, he made connections between subjects and the child’s life. According to Dewey,
education is growth and not an end in itself. Therefore, the curriculum should arise from learners'
interests, be hands-on and experience based rather than abstract. The theory underscores the need
for continuous, participatory and experiential learning, with an emphasis on the practical aspect
of the basic education curriculum.
ii. Vygotsky’s Social-Cultural Development Theory
Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory emphasized that teaching and learning are highly social
activities and that interactions with teachers, peers and instructional materials influence the
cognitive and affective developments of learners (Kim and Baylor, 2006). The theory argues that
learning takes place when learners interact with each other, or have other social contact. Learners
negotiate meanings with people in the environment, and they achieve goals through interacting,
both explicitly and implicitly, with the teacher, peers, materials, and atmosphere embedded in the
context. The theory underpins the basic education curriculum framework in terms of
conceptualising and designing the necessary paradigm shifts that facilitates creating rich learning
environments which stimulates all learners and helps them to fulfil their potential. Vygotsky’s
theory emphasizes that while adults may learn independently, children require mediation from
others before they can learn on their own. He called this process of moving from being mediated

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 by others to learning independently as scaffolding. Within scaffolding, he identified an optimal
point where learning takes place and called this the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The
concepts of scaffolding and ZPD will be useful in designing the pedagogical shifts that teachers
can be trained on to facilitate adoption of a competency-based curriculum in basic education.
Activities in the classroom includes journaling, experiential activities, collaborative and co-
operative learning.
iii. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory
Gardner’s theory grew out of constructivism. It states that learners possess different kinds of
minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways. He argues that
we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial
representation, musical thinking, use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an
understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Recognising this enables
learners to leverage their strengths and purposively target and develop their weaknesses.
Pedagogical approaches under this theory emphasize the importance of a learner centred
classroom, self-directed learning and delivery of instruction via multiple media. Individuals
differ in the strength of intelligences (profile of intelligences) and in the ways in which such
intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and
progress in various domains. Gardner says that these differences challenge an educational system
which assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform,
universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our
educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and,
to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well. Given the need to
identify, develop and nurture the
talents of learners in the reformed curriculum, Gardner's argument that learners can leverage
their strengths is more likely to be educationally effective since learners learn in ways that are
identifiably distinct. The broad spectrum of learners – and perhaps society as a whole – would be
better served if disciplines could be presented in a number of ways and learning could be
assessed through a variety of means. Criterion referenced assessment that is aligned to a learner’s
competencies can be situated within Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory. This type of
assessment is emphasized in the BECF.
iv. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

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 Piaget’s theory deals with how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use knowledge.
He looked at the impact a person's childhood had on their development, and the ways in which
maturation affect a child's increasing capacity to understand their world. Piaget asserted that
children cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so.
According to this theory, there is progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from
biological maturation and environmental experience. It is important to note that children's
thinking does not develop entirely smoothly, instead, there are certain points at which it "takes
off" and moves into completely new areas and capabilities. These points are in four stages of
cognitive development: sensory motor (0-2 years), language development and conceptual
thought (2-7 years), concrete operations (7-11 years) and formal operations (11 years and above).

This has been taken to mean that before these ages, children are not capable (no matter how
bright) of understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling the
school curriculum. Parents are encouraged to provide a rich, supportive environment for their
child's natural propensity to grow and learn. Parent involvement in learning is an active element
in reforming the basic education curriculum.
v. Bruner’s Cognitive Development Theory
Bruner's constructionist theoretical framework is based on the theme that learners construct new
ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge. According to Brunner (1976) the facets of the
learning process include selection and transformation of information, decision making,
generating hypotheses, and making meaning from information and experiences. The theory
emphasises the significance of categorisation in learning as "to perceive, to conceptualize, to
learn, to make decisions." Interpreting information and experiences by similarities and
differences is a key concept. The theory identifies four key themes:
a) The role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers
to relationships among factual elements and techniques.
b) Readiness for learning and spiral curriculum. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught
at any stage of development in a way that fit the child's cognitive abilities. Spiral curriculum
refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to
the level of full understanding and mastery.

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 c) Intuitive and analytical thinking should both be encouraged and rewarded. He
believed the intuitive skills were under-emphasized and he reflected on the ability of experts in
every field to make intuitive leaps.
d) Motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus
for learning. Bruner was against external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.
Just like the other constructivists, Bruner placed emphasis on learning instruction that allows
learners to discover principles for themselves and knowledge being structured in a way that is
readily grasped by learners.
vi. Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
This theory attempts to describe personality development throughout the entire lifespan of an
individual in eight distinct stages. Erikson proposed a lifespan model of development that entails
five stages in childhood (from birth to the age of 18 years) and three stages in adulthood.
According to Erikson, there is plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout
one’s life. The theory is underpinned by the epigenetic principle that presupposes that personality
develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. Application of this
theory serves to ensure that education tasks given to the child are in alignment with their stage of
development thereby minimising learner frustration. Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each
stage of development. These crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve the
psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e.
social). Successful negotiation of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition
of basic virtues. Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore an unhealthier personality and sense of self. To help each learner achieve the
expected learning outcomes, a competence-based curriculum will ensure that outcomes are
commensurate with the learner's stage of development.
The following table gives a summary of the tasks or crises a human being is expected to
negotiate in order to move to the next stage of development:
Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age
1. Trust vs Mistrust Hope Infancy (0 to1 ½ )

2. Autonomy vs Shame Will Early Childhood (1 ½ to 3)

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 3. Initiative vs Guilt Purpose Play Age (3 to 5)

4. Industry vs Inferiority Competency School Age (5 to 12)

5. Ego Identity vs Role Confusion Fidelity Adolescence (12 to 18)

6. Intimacy vs Isolation Love Young Adult (18 to 40)

7. Generativity vs Stagnation Care Adulthood (40 to 65)

8. Ego Integrity vs Despair Wisdom Maturity (65+)

According to Erikson (Mcheod, 2016), the curriculum aims at fostering both lower and high level
skills concurrently where the teacher remains a guide or facilitator while learners construct their own
knowledge through exploration and experiential learning. Learners are active participants in the
learning process through collaborating with others through hands-on exploration and group projects.
Learning goals are stated in terms of growth and increased ability to work independently and
collaboratively. Pedagogy and assessment therefore as discussed in this theory are inclined towards the
21st century skills and competencies, which the basic education curriculum aspires to achieve in the
curriculum reforms.
3. GUIDING PRINCIPLES
The Framework is based on the following guiding principles:
1. Opportunity
In order to achieve the reform vision and mission, the curriculum provides learners with a variety
of opportunities to enable them to identify their needs, talents and potential. This enables them to
participate in the world of work and the development of the nation. The emphasis is on equal
access to education for all that enables learners to enjoy learning and reduce wastage in terms of
dropping out of school because the curriculum is not relevant to their needs.

2. Excellence

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Learners are nurtured to excel in their areas of greatest interest and ability. The Framework
values excellence and competitiveness rather than raw competition for examination grades,
thereby reducing the challenge of malpractice in examinations because learners are guided to
excel in their areas of interest and ability.
3. Diversity and Inclusion
There are two dimensions in the guiding principle of diversity and inclusion. The first dimension
offers learners the opportunity to appreciate Kenya’s diversity in terms of race, ethnicity, gender,
language, culture, and religion. The second dimension relates to the fact that learners are
different in terms of their learning needs and abilities and these differences need to be respected
and valued within an inclusive learning environment. Inclusion entails ensuring that all learning
institutions accommodate all learners regardless of their physical, emotional, intellectual, or any
other need. It involves provision of reasonable accommodation characterised by flexibility,
responsiveness and support. The Framework recognises that not all learners are academically
gifted but considers every learner’s social and cognitive capabilities, his/her needs and desires,
and respects the differences in the way children learn. The ultimate aim is to guarantee basic
education for every learner according to his/her abilities and needs.
The curriculum reform addresses the needs of children, youth and adults who are out of school,
to increase their access to and participation in education, and hence, raise their literacy levels for
personal and national social economic development.
4. Differentiated Curriculum and Learning
Differentiated curriculum and learning builds on the principle of diversity and inclusion. It
ensures that the curriculum content and instructional approaches are appropriate for each learner.
It provides space for teachers to adapt the curriculum to suit the learner. It does not demand that
every learner learns the same content in the same way, in the same number of hours and at the
same time.
5. Parental Empowerment and Engagement
Parents play a very important role in determining the success of a child’s education. They have a
shared responsibility with schools to provide an enabling environment that is conducive to
learning and, which motivates children to achieve their full potential. The Framework provides
opportunities for schools to empower parents to contribute to the learning outcomes for their
children and to be engaged at all tiers and levels of basic education.

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6. Community Service Learning
Involving learners in community service is a form of experiential education that enables learners
to apply their knowledge and skills in a different setting. Teachers then support learners to
analyse what they have learned by taking part in this activity and how it might be applied to their
academic and personal development. Community service learning entails a balanced emphasis on
both learners’ learning and addressing real needs in the community. Learning outcomes are
linked to meaningful human, safety, educational, and environmental needs that are co-
determined with community partners and service recipients. The service experience is brought
back to the classroom to enhance learning. Learners work on real problems that make academic
learning relevant while simultaneously enhancing their social skills, analytical ability, civic and
ethical responsibility, self-efficacy, and career development.

CORE COMPETENCIES FOR BASIC EDUCATION

Sessional Paper No. 2 of 2015 on ‘Reforming Education and Training in Kenya’ recommends a
reformed curriculum that adopts a competency-based approach. The EAC Curriculum
Harmonisation Structures and Framework also recommends the same approach. A competency-
based approach enables meaningful connections within and between learning areas through a
focus on competencies. The learning areas serve as vehicles through which the core
competencies are developed over time. In view of the different interpretations of the meaning of
a Competency Based Curriculum, and specifically for basic education, the Framework provides
clarity on the concept itself and also how the curriculum is designed, implemented and assessed.
In the context of the Kenyan Competency Based Curriculum (KCBC), a competency is
understood as ‘the ability to apply appropriate knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to
successfully perform a function’. Within this context, the curriculum is designed to emphasise
the importance of not only developing skills and knowledge but also applying these to real life
situations. The integration of pertinent and contemporary issues and service learning into the
framework provides the opportunity for learners to develop and apply their skills and knowledge,
or in other words, their competencies.

Based on the Needs Assessment Study carried out by KICD, and the vision and mission of the
BECF, the seven core competencies to be achieved by every learner in basic education are:

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1. Communication and Collaboration
2. Self-efficacy
3. Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
4. Creativity and Imagination
5. Citizenship
6. Digital Literacy
7. Learning to Learn

The Framework seeks to develop these competencies so that all Kenyans can thrive in the 21st
century.
Communication and Collaboration
Communication is the act of transferring information from one place to another, whether vocally,
visually, or non-verbally. The discipline of communication focuses on how people use messages
to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels, and media. The
discipline promotes the effective and ethical practice of human communication. Spitzberg (1988)
defines communication competence as the ability to interact well with others in terms of
accuracy, clarity, comprehensibility, coherence, expertise, effectiveness and appropriateness. On
the other hand, Friedrich (1994) suggests that communication competence is best understood as
"a situational ability to set realistic and appropriate goals and to maximize their achievement. In
this respect, it can be argued that being able to communicate effectively as intended is the most
important of all life skills. How well information can be transmitted and received is a measure of
how good our communication skills are. Developing communication skills helps in all aspects of
an individual’s life.
Parks (1985) maintains that communicative competency can effectively be measured by
determining if, and to what degree, the goals of interaction are achieved. He emphasises three
interdependent themes: control, responsibility, and foresight; and argues that to be competent,
learners must not only 'know' and 'know how,' but rather they must also 'do' and 'know that we
did'. He defines communicative competency as the degree to which individuals perceive they
have satisfied their goals in a given social context without jeopardizing their ability or
opportunity to pursue their other goals.

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A useful framework for understanding communication competence was designed by Spitzberg
and Cupach (1984). They proposed a model that can be used to understand communication
referred to as the component model of competency. The model asserts that communication
competency is mutually defined by the interdependency of the cognitive component (concerned
with knowledge and understanding), the behavioural component (concerned with behavioural
skills), and the affective component (concerned with attitudes and feelings about the knowledge
and behaviours).
The foregoing assertions then imply that education at each level should endeavour to enhance the
learner’s acquisition of effective communication skills through which they can interact and
express themselves during the learning process. In this respect, caution and care prevailed upon
the decision on the language to be used as a medium of instruction at the Early Year’s Education
level. It is also important to take cognizance of appropriate modes of communication for learners
with special educational needs.
Collaboration is the process of two or more people or organizations working together to realise
shared goals. Collaboration may require leadership, although this can be social within
decentralised or egalitarian groups or teams that work collaboratively in relation to gaining
greater resources, recognition and motivation.
Strategies for effective communication enhance the attainment of greater collaboration among
groups and ultimately increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem
solving. Collaborative learning is a system in which two or more people co-operate in a learning
experience to share and contribute to each member's understanding of a topic and to complete a
given task. Collaborative learning is designed to help learners learn from each other and can be
an important aspect of the school curriculum. There are many team building games and activities
that can be done in a classroom that force learners to work together to complete a task. Other
collaborative learning exercises are designed around a particular school subject. For instance, in
a speech class, a teacher might put learners up into teams and have them work together to make a
presentation on a subject together. In this scenario, learners can learn just as much as if they were
developing a presentation on their own, but they get the added benefit of learning how to
collaborate. Lesson plans for collaborative learning may vary greatly. Sometimes teachers can
develop a lesson designed specifically to teach collaborative learning and teamwork.
Self-efficacy

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Self-efficacy is a person’s belief about his or her capabilities to perform tasks or assignments that
can change and transform his or her life. It determines how the person feels, thinks, behaves and
motivates themselves. Self-efficacy has the potential to determine four major processes namely
cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes.
A strong sense of self-efficacy enhances a learner’s accomplishment and personal well-being in
many ways. Learners with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as
challenges to be mastered, rather than as threats to be avoided. Self-efficacy fosters intrinsic
interest and deep engrossment in activities. Learners set themselves challenging goals and
maintain a strong commitment to them. Self-efficacy as a competency enables learners to
develop and nurture intra-personal skills and values such as self-awareness, self-esteem,
confidence and personal integrity. These competencies enhance the learner’s ability to heighten
and sustain efforts in the face of failure and effectively manage stressful situations. A learner
with a strong sense of self-efficacy is courageous and bold enough to set and pursue personal
educational, family, community, entrepreneurial, professional, and career goals in all forms of
employment that leads to personal accomplishment (British Council, 2016). An efficacious
learner is aware of the resources at their disposal and takes personal responsibility for the use,
care, management, protection and preservation of these resources. A learner with strong self-
efficacy is internally motivated to establish and maintain healthy interpersonal relationships.
They demonstrate interpersonal relationship skills such as assertiveness, empathy, effective
communication, negotiation skills, non-violent conflict resolution skills and peer pressure
resistance skills. Creative and critical thinking that leads to effective decision making and
problem solving is based on a strong sense of self-efficacy (British Council, 2016). Capacity
building of teachers and parental engagement are two crucial factors in the acquisition of self-
efficacy. The school provides opportunities for parents to be empowered and engaged in the
affairs and welfare of their children’s education.

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

An important outcome of quality education is teaching learners how to think critically. The
British Council (2015) identifies three types of thinking: reasoning, making judgements, and
problem solving. When learners are empowered with critical thinking, they avoid being
subjective, and use logic and evidence to arrive at conclusions. Critical thinking also facilitates

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exploring new ways of doing things and learner autonomy. Learners learn that for every issue
there are multiple perspectives that they can explore, rather than a rigid recall and regurgitation
of information. Critical thinking is important for lifelong learning. It helps learners to exercise
flexibility and open-mindedness to opinions that may sometimes conflict with their own beliefs
and positions.
Critical thinking and problem solving are useful for learners of all ages and in all the learning
areas and disciplines offered in the basic education curriculum. For example, in the sciences
learners need to think critically about observations and patterns to develop ideas on how to solve
problems. These competencies are also important for solving problems in their lives and
communities, and ultimately help them to fulfil their potential, which is the vision for the basic
education curriculum. This contributes to addressing the unemployment challenge in Kenya. One
way of developing critical thinking and problem solving is through provision of age-appropriate
activities and implementation of suitable programmes in the school curriculum.
For example, at pre-primary school level learners can be asked to come up with the best ways of
using and keeping their books, stationery and other personal items safe. At the other end of the
basic education spectrum, learners can be asked to come up with the best ways of addressing the
challenge of scarce resources such as water in the school and community.
Creativity and Imagination
Creativity and imagination refer to the ability to form new images and sensations in the mind,
and to turn them into reality (British Council, 2016). It is the ability to imagine things that are not
real, to form pictures in the mind of things that one has not seen or experienced, and turn those
pictures into real things. It also refers to the act or power of forming mental images of things that
are not present to the senses, or that are never wholly perceived in reality, and creating physical
representations of those images. Imagination only exists or happens in the mind, and it remains
in the mind. Creativity and imagination on the other hand, is characterized by the ability to
perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden patterns, to make connections between seemingly
unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions. It is a phenomenon whereby something new and
valuable is formed. In educational terms, creativity and imagination refers to the ability of
learners and their teachers to form images and ideas in their minds, and turn them into real,
visible creations. Learners who are imaginative and creative are able to make life interesting for
themselves and others around them. They are able to use the knowledge, skills and values

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acquired in the learning process to create new ideas that result in products that add value to their
lives and to the lives of others around them. The competence-based curriculum recognizes this
hidden ability in learners. It therefore, endeavours to inspire learners’ imagination by presenting
knowledge in ways that encourage learners to think as individuals. It creates scenarios that help
learners to engage in imagination and encourage them to develop creations steered by the
imagination. Their ability to imagine is stretched through exposure to challenging situations that
help to expand their thinking and creativity skills. The curriculum also creates room for
innovative ways of teaching as well as creating an environment conducive to learning that offers
all learners opportunities to explore their full potential in and through creativity and imagination.
Citizenship
Historically, human beings have always formed communities based on a shared identity. Such
identities are forged in response to a variety of human needs, which might be economic, political,
religious or social. As group identities grow stronger, those who hold them in commonality with
others organize themselves into communities, articulate their shared values, and build
governance structures to support their beliefs. The individuals in these communities identify
themselves as citizens. Citizenship is the state of being vested with the rights, privileges, and
duties of a citizen. It creates a sense of belonging and attachment to one’s nation. A sense of
citizenship helps to equip young people to deal with situations of conflict and controversy
knowledgeably and tolerantly. They are able to understand the consequences of their actions, and
those of the adults around them.
Global citizenship is a way of living which recognizes that our world is an increasingly complex
web of connections and interdependencies. A world in which our choices and actions may have
repercussions for people and communities locally, nationally or internationally. It nurtures
personal respect and respect for others, wherever they live. It encourages individuals to think
deeply and critically about what is equitable and just, and what minimizes harm to our planet.
Digital Literacy
Digital literacy can be described as having the knowledge, skills and behaviours which are
necessary to effectively and safely use a wide range of digital content and devices. Such devices
include mobile phones, smart phones, tablets, laptops and desktops among others. All these falls
within the category of network enabled devices. Digital literacy focuses mainly on network
enabled devices and should not be confused with computer literacy skills. However, traditional

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forms of literacy and computer literacy are enhancers in the acquisition of digital literacy skills.
Individuals are presumed to be digitally literate if they possess a broad range of digital skills and
knowledge, and have a basic understanding of the potential uses of computing devices.
Digital literacy skills also include being able to use computer communication networks, being
able to engage in online communication and social networks, being aware of and adhering to
ethical behaviour protocols, being aware of societal issues raised through digital media, and
being able to search, evaluate and use information channelled through digital platforms.
Furthermore, the digital literate individual should also have the ability to safely and securely use
technology while being able to assess the nature of the information acquired in order to support
and enhance the environment (British Council, 2015).
Digital literacy as a competence therefore encompasses knowledge and skills concerning the
appropriate application of a variety of hardware platforms such as computers, tablets and mobile
devices, and their software including but not limited to web search or internet application
software. Digital literacy is a dynamic competence due to the fast-changing world of information
communication technology and the ongoing development of technological devices as well as
their related software. This is an area in which there is constant innovation and development as
the industry attempts to keep up with a globally increasing demand for efficient and effective
communication technologies. Currently, digital literacy is considered as one of the main core
competencies for learning and life in the 21st century. It challenges existing thinking and
practice while leading to a more innovative, creative and often transformational learning.
Learning to Learn
Learning is a continuous process that begins at birth and continues until death; it is the process
through which we use our experience to deal with new situations and to develop relationships.
As a concept, it involves far more than thinking as it incorporates the whole personality – senses,
feelings, intuition, beliefs, values and will. If we do not have the will to learn, we will not learn
and if we have learned, we are actually changed in some way. If the learning makes no
difference, it can have very little significance beyond being random ideas that float through our
consciousness.
Learning to learn is the ability to pursue and persist in learning, to organise one’s own learning
by the effective management of time and information, both individually and in groups. This
competence includes awareness of one’s learning process and needs, identifying available

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opportunities, and the ability to overcome obstacles in order to learn successfully. This
competence means gaining, processing and assimilating new knowledge and skills as well as
seeking and making use of guidance. Learning to learn helps learners to build on prior learning
and life experiences in order to use and apply knowledge and skills in a variety of contexts.
There are four pillars of learning: Learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and learning
to live together.

PERTINENT AND CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN COMPETENCY-BASED

EDUCATION (CBE)
Competency-Based Education (CBE) is designed to equip learners with essential competencies,
skills, and knowledge that they can apply to real-world situations. As CBE evolves, it needs to
address a broad range of contemporary issues that are critical for the holistic development of
learners and for aligning education with societal needs. These issues include topics related to
citizenship, health, life skills, sustainability, non-formal education, and community engagement.
1. Citizenship in Education
Citizenship education is essential in preparing learners to become responsible, active, and
informed citizens who contribute positively to their societies. In the context of CBE, these are
the key components:
 Peace Education: In a multicultural and diverse society like Kenya, peace education
teaches students the importance of conflict resolution, tolerance, and non-violence. It
focuses on creating harmony among different ethnic, racial, and religious groups.
 Integrity and Ethics: Integrity is vital in building trust and accountability in society.
CBE emphasizes the need for students to practice ethical behavior, honesty, and
transparency, fostering good governance and a just society.
 Ethnic and Racial Relations: CBE promotes social cohesion by teaching learners to
appreciate diversity, respect different cultures, and work towards overcoming ethnic and
racial tensions. This is key to Kenya’s national unity.
 Patriotism and Good Governance: CBE instills in students the value of patriotism,
fostering a sense of national pride and responsibility. It also encourages the
understanding of democratic principles and governance.

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  Human Rights and Responsibilities: Learners are taught about the rights and freedoms
of individuals, including the importance of upholding these rights. They are also educated
about their social responsibilities.
 Child’s Rights, Care, and Protection: CBE ensures that students learn about child
rights, including protection from abuse and exploitation, access to education, and the
right to live in a safe environment.
 Gender Issues: Gender equality is a critical issue in education, and CBE addresses the
importance of breaking down gender stereotypes and ensuring equal opportunities for
both male and female learners. It promotes women’s empowerment and tackles gender-
based violence.

2. Health Education
Health education is central to CBE as it fosters awareness and encourages the adoption of
healthy lifestyles. Key aspects include:
 HIV and AIDS Education: CBE incorporates HIV prevention and awareness into the
curriculum. Learners are educated on safe practices, the importance of regular testing,
and how to combat stigma.
 Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention: Students are taught the risks associated with
substance abuse and encouraged to make healthy choices.
 Lifestyle Diseases: The curriculum addresses the growing problem of non-communicable
diseases (NCDs) such as obesity, diabetes, and hypertension, focusing on prevention
through healthy eating, exercise, and stress management.
 Personal Hygiene: Learners are educated on the importance of personal hygiene
practices such as handwashing, dental care, and proper sanitation to prevent the spread of
diseases.
 Preventive Health: CBE emphasizes the importance of preventive healthcare, teaching
students how to avoid common illnesses and manage their health proactively.
 Common Communicable and Chronic Diseases: Topics like malaria, tuberculosis, and
respiratory infections are covered, with an emphasis on prevention, proper treatment, and
seeking medical help.

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 3. Life Skills and Values Education
Life skills education in CBE aims to prepare students for challenges in everyday life,
emphasizing personal development and social well-being. Key areas include:
 Life Skills: CBE incorporates practical skills such as problem-solving, communication,
decision-making, time management, and emotional intelligence. These skills empower
learners to handle life’s challenges confidently.
 Moral Education and Human Sexuality: CBE covers moral values, ethical decision-
making, and responsible behaviors. Education on human sexuality focuses on healthy
relationships, respect for personal boundaries, and responsible sexual health practices.
 Etiquette: Learners are taught appropriate social behaviors, communication skills, and
cultural norms to help them navigate social interactions effectively and with respect.

4. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) focuses on teaching learners how to live in
harmony with the environment, promote sustainability, and contribute to the welfare of society.
Key components include:
 Environmental Education: CBE incorporates lessons on environmental conservation,
climate change, biodiversity, and sustainability. Learners are educated on the importance
of protecting natural resources for future generations.
 Disaster Risk Reduction: Students learn how to prepare for and respond to natural
disasters such as floods, droughts, and earthquakes. This includes strategies for disaster
preparedness and resilience.
 Safety and Security Education: CBE addresses safety issues such as small arms
proliferation, human trafficking, and community safety. It educates learners on how to
protect themselves and others from violence and exploitation.
 Financial Literacy: Learners are taught the basics of managing money, budgeting,
saving, and investing. This is essential for developing economic independence and
contributing to national economic development.
 Poverty Eradication: CBE incorporates education on poverty, inequality, and the
importance of socio-economic empowerment, encouraging students to think critically
about ways to reduce poverty in their communities.

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  Countering Terrorism, Extremism, and Radicalization: CBE emphasizes the
importance of social cohesion, understanding radicalization, and promoting peace and
tolerance to prevent the spread of terrorism and extremism.
5. Non-Formal / Learner Support Programmes
Non-formal education and support programs are crucial in complementing formal education,
offering additional resources for students to thrive. These include:
 Guidance and Counseling Services: CBE promotes emotional and psychological well-
being by offering guidance and counseling services to support learners’ mental health,
career decisions, and personal issues.
 Career Guidance: Students are provided with information on different career paths,
vocational skills, and the job market to help them make informed decisions about their
futures.
 Peer Education: Peer education initiatives are encouraged, where students support and
educate each other on issues like health, life skills, and personal development.
 Mentorship: CBE supports mentorship programs where experienced individuals guide
and nurture learners, helping them navigate challenges and achieve personal and
academic success.
 Clubs and Societies: Extracurricular activities such as sports, arts, and academic clubs
help students develop social, leadership, and teamwork skills, contributing to their overall
development.
 Learning to Live Together: CBE emphasizes the importance of collaboration,
cooperation, and peaceful coexistence among diverse groups within schools and
communities.

6. Community Service Learning and Parental Engagement

CBE recognizes the importance of engaging the community and parents in the educational
process to create a supportive learning environment. Key areas include:
 Service Learning and Community Involvement: Learners participate in community
service projects, developing a sense of responsibility and giving back to society. This
fosters social awareness and strengthens community ties.

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  Parental Empowerment and Engagement: Parents are encouraged to be actively
involved in their children’s education. This includes attending school meetings,
supporting learning at home, and being engaged in decision-making processes to improve
education quality.
NOTE: Competency-Based Education (CBE) addresses several contemporary issues that are
crucial for the holistic development of learners. By focusing on citizenship, health, life skills,
sustainable development, non-formal education, and community engagement, CBE aims to equip
students with not only academic knowledge but also practical skills and values needed to succeed
in the modern world. These issues are essential for creating responsible, informed, and engaged
citizens who can contribute to social cohesion, peace, and sustainable development in Kenya and
beyond.

Learning Areas
These are the subjects taught at various levels of education such as English, Mathematics,
Science and Technology. They are the means through which the key competencies, values and
knowledge are taught and attitudes instilled across all levels of learning. However, they are not
static and may change to address the ever-changing needs of society.

Organisation of Basic Education

Basic Education is organised into three (3) levels: Early Years Education, Middle School
Education and Senior School.

Early Years Education

This comprises two years of pre-primary and three years of lower primary school education.
Learning Outcomes for Early Years Education
By the end of Early Years Education, the learner should be able to:
1. Demonstrate basic literacy and numeracy skills for learning.
2. Communicate appropriately using verbal and/or non-verbal modes in a variety of contexts.
3. Demonstrate appropriate etiquette in social relationships.
4. Apply creativity and critical thinking skills in problem solving.
5. Explore the immediate environment for learning and enjoyment.

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6. Practice hygiene, nutrition, sanitation and safety skills to promote health and wellbeing.
7. Develop emotionally, physically, spiritually, morally and aesthetically for balanced living.
8. Appreciate the country's rich and diverse cultural heritage for harmonious co-existence.
9. Apply digital literacy skills for learning and enjoyment.

Pre-primary Education
All learners are expected to begin their education at this level. It is a two-year programme.
Learning areas for Pre-primary
1. Language Activities
2. Mathematical Activities
3. Environmental Activities
4. Psychomotor and Creative Activities
5. Religious Education Activities
6. Pre Braille-Activities
NB: Digital literacy and pertinent and contemporary issues are integrated across all learning
areas.

Lower Primary
The learners from pre-primary 2 will join lower primary in grade 1 at about 6 years of age and
spend 3 more years in this part of Early Years Education before exiting to middle school at the
end of grade 3.
Learning areas for Lower Primary
The learning areas in lower primary are:
1. Literacy Activities/ Braille Literacy Activities
2. Kiswahili Language Activities/Kenya Sign Language for learners who are deaf
3. English Language Activities
4. Mathematical Activities
5. Environmental Activities
6. Hygiene and Nutrition Activities
7. Religious Education Activities
8. Movement and Creative Activities

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Note
 ICT serves as a learning tool in all areas.
 Pertinent and contemporary issues are mainstreamed in all learning areas.

Middle School Education

This level comprises three years of upper primary and three years junior secondary education
Learning Outcomes for Middle School
By the end of middle school, the learner should be able to:
1. Apply literacy, numeracy and logical thinking skills for appropriate self-expression.
2. Communicate effectively, verbally and non-verbally, in diverse contexts.
3. Demonstrate social skills, spiritual and moral values for peaceful co-existence.
4. Explore, manipulate, manage and conserve the environment effectively for learning and
sustainable development.
5. Practice relevant hygiene, sanitation and nutrition skills to promote health.
6. Demonstrate ethical behaviour and exhibit good citizenship as a civic responsibility.
7. Appreciate the country's rich and diverse cultural heritage for harmonious co-existence.
8. Manage pertinent and contemporary issues in society effectively.
9. Apply digital literacy skills for communication and learning.

Upper Primary
Upper primary is part of middle school (Figure 5). It is a three-year programme where learners
are exposed to a broad curriculum and given an opportunity for exploration and experimentation.
Learning areas for Upper Primary
1. English
2. Kiswahili or Kenya Sign Language
3. Home Science
4. Agriculture
5. Science and Technology
6. Mathematics
7. Religious Education (CRE/IRE/HRE)

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8. Creative Arts
9. Physical and Health Education
10. Social Studies

Optional
11. Foreign Languages (Arabic, French, German, Mandarin)
12. Indigenous languages
13. Kenyan Sign Language
14. Braille literacy

N/B
 ICT is cross cutting in all learning areas.
 Pertinent and contemporary issues and life skills are mainstreamed in all learning areas.
 A pastoral program of instruction is conducted once a week.

Secondary Education
Secondary education is organised into two levels namely, junior secondary (Grades 7, 8 and 9)
and senior school (Grades 10, 11 and 12).
Junior Secondary
Graduates of primary school Grade 6 shall join junior secondary at Grade 7. Junior secondary
exposes learners to a broad-based curriculum to enable them to explore their own abilities,
personality and potential as a basis for choosing subjects according to career paths of interest at
the senior school. At Grade 4, learners are introduced to the optional subjects offered at upper
primary so as to make informed choices at Grade 7. Learners in junior er secondary undergo a
rigorous career guidance programme and are exposed to the related learning areas to enable them
make informed choices as they transit to senior school.

Subjects for Junior Secondary School

The subjects are in two categories; core and optional subjects. At this level, a broad-based
curriculum is offered to enable learners to explore their own interests and potential as a basis for
choosing subjects according to career paths of interest at senior school.

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Core Subjects
Learners are required to take the 12 core subjects provided:
1. English
2. Kiswahili or Kenyan Sign Language
3. Mathematics
4. Integrated Science
5. Health Education
6. Pre-Technical and Pre-Career Education
7. Social Studies
8. Religious Education – learners choose one of the following:
i) Christian Religious Education
ii) Islamic Religious Education
iii) Hindu Religious Education
9. Business Studies
10. Agriculture
11. Life Skills
12. Sports and Physical Education

NB: ICT is a delivery tool for all subjects.

Optional Subjects
Learners are provided with an opportunity to choose a minimum of one and a maximum of two
subjects according to personality, abilities, interests and career choices from the list provided:
1. Visual Arts
2. Performing Arts
3. Home Science
4. Computer Science
5. Foreign Languages:
i. German
ii. French

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 iii. Mandarin
iv. Arabic
6. Kenyan Sign Language
7. Indigenous Languages

Senior School
Senior school comprises three years of education for learners in the age bracket of 16 to 18 years
and lays the foundation for further education and training at the tertiary level and the world of
work. It marks the end of Basic Education as defined in the Education Act, 2013. Learners
exiting this level are expected to be “engaged, empowered and ethical citizens” ready to
participate in the socio-economic development of the nation.
At this level, learners are ready to specialise in a career path of choice since they have had
opportunities to explore their own potential, interests and personality. The specialisation entails
choosing to pursue studies in one of the three pathways available in senior school namely:
1. Arts and Sports Science Pathway
2. Social Sciences Pathways
3. Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Pathway

Senior schools are institutions of specialisation that provide opportunities for learners to focus in
a field of their choice to form a foundation for further education and training and/or gain
employable skills. The schools should therefore organise open days to enable learners and
parents to glean the information necessary for effective decision-making. Additionally, a robust
parental empowerment and engagement programme is necessary to strengthen the involvement
of parents in this process.

Learning Outcomes for Senior School

By the end of senior school, the learner should be able to:
1. Communicate effectively and utilise information and communication technology across varied
contexts.
2. Apply mathematical, logical and critical thinking skills for problem solving.
3. Apply basic research and scientific skills to manipulate the environment and solve problems.

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4. Exploit individual talents for leisure, self-fulfilment, career growth, further education and
training.
5. Uphold national, moral and religious values and apply them in day-to-day life.
6. Apply and promote health care strategies in day-to-day life.
7. Protect, preserve and improve the environment for sustainability.
8. Demonstrate active local and global citizenship for harmonious co-existence.
9. Demonstrate appreciation of diversity in people and cultures.
10. Manage pertinent and contemporary issues responsibly.

Pathways
The provision of pathways at senior school is based on the aspiration that all learners can be
successful in life. The Basic Education Act, 2013 (54(b)) states that all children who have
undertaken a full subject of primary education shall be eligible for admission to a secondary
school regardless of their scores. Despite this requirement, many learners drop out of the
education system. The Economic Survey 2014 indicates that the highest dropout rate (about
50%) is between standard six (6) and form one (1). Among many, the rigidity of the secondary
education curriculum has been cited as one of the causes for this dropout rate.
The Basic Education Act, 2013 (54(b)) states that all children who have undertaken a full subject
of primary education shall be eligible for admission to a secondary school regardless of their
scores. Despite this requirement, many learners drop out of the education system. The Economic
Survey 2014 indicates that the highest dropout rate (about 50%) is between standard six (6) and
form one (1). Among many, the rigidity of the secondary education curriculum has been cited as
one of the causes for this dropout rate.
Success comes in many forms and there are various pathways that lead to it (NESP 2, 2015). It is
therefore imperative for the senior school structure to facilitate learners to pursue their own
interests and fulfil their potential in line with the curriculum mission of ‘nurturing every
learner’s potential’.
Various government documents have recommended the introduction of pathways at secondary
level. The Task Force on the Re-alignment of the Education Sector to the Constitution of Kenya,
2010, popularly known as the Odhiambo Report, proposed a change in the structure to introduce
technical, vocational, talent and general academic curriculum pathways in secondary education,

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to enable the achievement of the human resource aspirations of Vision 2030 (Task Force Report,
2012). Access to quality and relevant education is guaranteed in the Constitution. Providing
learners with an education that is relevant requires the provision of a broad-based curriculum and
pathways that allow individual learners to pursue careers that are relevant. This facilitates
individual development and self-fulfilment as learners are equipped with practical skills that
make them employable or facilitate self-employment. The National Education Sector Plan
(NESP 1, 2015) recognises that learners have unique competencies and a range of skills,
interests, experiences and aspirations that can only be harnessed by providing learning pathways.
One of the goals of the plan is to provide an education system that addresses the individual's
needs and academic, professional and technical aspirations across a range of learning pathways,
as well as supporting social and economic goals (NESP 2, 2015).
The introduction of pathways in secondary education is not unique to Kenya. In Canada, for
example, the introduction of pathways at secondary level has helped young people graduate from
high school and successfully transition into post-secondary education, training, or employment.
Pathways have addressed the barriers that stand in the way of high school graduation and the
potential for a brighter future by providing leadership, expertise, and a community-based
program lowering dropout rates (Pathways to Education, Canada, 2014). The Malaysian
education system offers four options for upper secondary education. These are: academic
secondary education, technical secondary education, vocational education, and religious
secondary education. Sweden has upper secondary programmes that are either vocational
programmes, or programmes preparatory for higher education. Upper secondary education in
India is dual track, academic and vocational/professional, with the academic stream specializing
in science, business and humanities. New Zealand also has a vocational pathway where learners
develop skills and knowledge in areas that employers value. The pathways also contain a great
deal of shared content, like literacy and numeracy, and identify the skills that employers in any
sector value. According to the New Zealand Education Gazette, one of the main reasons some
young people lose interest in education is because they cannot see the relevance of their learning.
The vocational pathways show learners how and where their learning will be valued out in the
real world, and how their strengths and interests relate to possibilities in further education and
the workplace (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, May 2016).

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German secondary education includes the Gymnasium and is designed to prepare learners for
higher education; the Real Schule has a broader range of emphasis for intermediate pupils, and
the Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational education. The Hauptschulabschluss and the
Realschulabschluss are at the end of Grade 9 and Grade 10 respectively. In Finland, vocational
education belongs to secondary education and learners choose to go to either a lukio (high
school), which is an institution preparing learners for tertiary education, or to a vocational
school. Both forms of secondary education last three years, and give a formal qualification to
join the university.

It is evident that for any education system to meet the basic requirements of nurturing learners
and making learning meaningful, pathways must play a critical role. In the curriculum reform,
the conceptualisation of the pathways identified is informed by the Needs Assessment Survey of
2016 and benchmarking with countries whose education systems are classified as progressive.

In Kenya, each senior school is expected to make informed decisions with regards to the pathway
of choice based on the requisite infrastructure that would ensure development of the
competencies identified in that pathway. The three pathways are: (1) Arts and Sports Science (2)
Social Sciences (3) Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)

In each pathway there are various tracks as shown in figure 8. Schools can also decide to offer
one or more tracks in the pathway depending on the ability to acquire the infrastructure
necessary for acquisition of the identified competencies.
Learners are expected to carry out community-based projects in all subjects at senior school. The
project is part of the formative evaluation.

1. ARTS AND SPORTS SCIENCE PATHWAY

The Arts and Sports Science pathway provides opportunities for self-realisation and expression
as well as for individual development and fulfilment. It is envisaged that about 15% of learners
in senior school will take up this pathway (Appendix 1). Learners will build on the skills already
acquired at junior secondary. This is based on Bruner's constructionist theory that learners
construct new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge. The learning environment

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should be experiential and participatory giving learners the opportunity to think critically and
articulate their thoughts through creativity and collaboration. This is anchored in Dewey’s social
constructivism theory that states that a curriculum should arise from learners’ interests and
should be hands-on and experience based.

Arts and Sports Science enables learners to participate in the economic development of the
country through utilisation of their own talents, thus contributing to cultural preservation,
sustenance and development in arts and sports. Learners graduating from this track shall join
middle level colleges or universities to pursue careers in the visual or performing arts, and the
sports industry. They shall also be able to join the world of work.

In all the three tracks of the Arts and Sports Science Pathway, the learner is expected to learn
some core subjects as well as choose options. Life skills in this pathway as provided for under
community and service learning is adapted to suit the specific issues in each learning area.
Arts provides opportunities for a learner to choose a career in an area of interest, personality, and
ability in either performing or visual arts. The arts provide a natural vehicle for self-expression
and exploration as well as interpretation of the world around the learner. The study of arts
contributes to the development of motivation and confidence, imagination and innovation and
the use of creative and dynamic ways of thinking and knowledge construction. These skills
enable the learners to gain insights into the world around them and to represent their
understanding in varied ways. This is corroborated by research that shows that the intellectual
and emotional development of children is enhanced through the study of the arts (Presidential
Committee on the Arts and Humanities in America, 2011).

The learner choosing this pathway is expected to take the following core subjects:
1. Legal and ethical issues in Arts
2. Communication skills

(A) ARTS TRACK

i) Performing Arts Track

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The performing arts track in senior school includes music, dance, and theatre and elocution. It is
envisaged to have about 5% of the learners at this level (see Appendix 1). The learners will be
engaged in performance in one of the mentioned areas, depending on the area of choice. This
pathway is conceptualized to allow learners to specialize in an area of interest, ability and career
choice.

Theatre and elocution are the branch of performing arts concerned with acting using a
combination of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle. Theatre takes such forms as
plays, musicals, illusion, mime, improvisational theatre, stand-up comedy, pantomime, and
public speaking.

Dance generally refers to human movement, typically rhythmic and to music, used as a form of
audience entertainment in a performance setting. Definitions of what constitutes dance are
dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral interpretations and range from
functional movement to codified techniques. It also involves choreography.
Music on the other hand is an art form that combines pitch, rhythm, and dynamics in order to
create sound. It can be performed using a variety of instruments and styles and is divided into
genres.
ii) Visual and Applied Arts Track
The visual and applied arts track refers to two- or three-dimensional art that appeals primarily to
visual and audio sensory perception. It is expected that about 5% of learners will take up this
track. The track aims at enabling the learner to develop a deeper understanding and appreciation
of artistic and cultural expression through two- or three-dimensional artworks. In relation to
Dewey’s social constructivism theory, emphasis is laid on an experiential, participatory approach
that gives learners an opportunity to articulate their thoughts through creativity and
collaboration. Overall, the learner is equipped with knowledge, skills and attitudes to create
artworks both for aesthetic and functional purposes. Ultimately, the learner gains competencies
to undertake visual and applied arts at the tertiary level.

(B) SPORTS SCIENCE TRACK

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Sports science uses some of the knowledge gained from junior secondary school. It is expected
that about 5% of learners in senior school will take subjects in this track (see Appendix1). It aims
at offering learners an opportunity to actualize their talents in specific subjects of their choice.
This enables learners to pursue a career path depending on their interests, abilities and
personality type. Sports at this level draws from Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theory
which states that learners possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember,
perform, and understand in different ways. In sports, learning does occur with the use of the
body to solve problems and it enables understanding of oneself and other people. This permits
learners to leverage their strengths and develop their weaknesses. Advanced physical education
can be taken in combination with Mathematics that is in Pure Sciences.

The career openings in the sports science track are in self-employment and employment. These
include instructor, physiotherapy, sports coach, sports nutritionist, sports massage therapist,
personal trainer, gym attendant, fitness program co-ordinator, swimming pool attendant,
coaching, lifesaver, researcher, physical therapist, referee, athletic trainer, stadia manager, sports
nutritionist, sports masseur, teacher, aerobics and anaerobic trainer, sports journalist, and public
relations officer.
2. SOCIAL SCIENCES PATHWAY
Social sciences are a branch of science that studies society and the relationships of individuals
within a society. Social sciences involve the study of society and the manner in which people
behave and relate with others and influence the world around them. Social science tells us about
the world beyond our immediate experience, and can help explain how our own society works.
Preparing learners for the 21st century cannot be accomplished without a strong and sustaining
emphasis on social sciences.
The critical role of social sciences cannot be overemphasized in preparing future generations to
be creative and responsible global citizens. The Social sciences pathway provides the
cornerstone skills that are the key to a competitive workforce and responsible citizenry. Learners
use critical thinking, creativity, problem solving, citizenship, collaboration and digital literacy
skills to make connections in new and innovative ways as they progress through the social
sciences pathway. These skills enable learners to develop the ability to make informed and

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reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally varied, democratic society in an
interdependent world.
Social sciences provide learners with skills for productive problem solving, decision making,
creative thinking, critical thinking and making balanced value judgements, which are necessary
in preparing them to live appropriately in physical and social environments. They enable the
learner to develop spiritually and morally so that he or she is at peace with himself or herself, at
community, national and global levels. The Social Sciences pathway provides opportunities for
learners to develop an understanding of the environment and participate effectively in its
activities. The learner has the opportunity to appreciate the changing environment and gain a
realization of his or her place, privileges, rights and responsibilities as a citizen in respecting
other people’s rights and environmental requirements.

The pathway aims at enabling the learner to act effectively and responsibly at local, national and
global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world. The pathway builds on the knowledge,
skills and attitudes that a learner needs to be able to contribute to a more inclusive, just and
peaceful world. Social sciences help learners in identifying their own values and recognizing the
values of others. The pathway equips learners with skills in acquiring information and thinking
about social affairs. Young people need skills to make their knowledge and values active and as
they continue in the lifelong process of learning, so they acquire the competence of learning to
learn. Social sciences also promote social participation. Everyone lives as part of social groups,
which influence and are influenced by their members. This is in line with the Basic Education
Curriculum vision of an ‘engaged, empowered and ethical citizen’.
Vygotsky suggests that social interaction leads to continuous systematic changes in children's
thoughts and behaviour that can vary greatly from culture to culture. Vygotsky's theory suggests
that a person's development depends on interaction with other people and the tools that a culture
provides to help form their own view of the world. The Social sciences pathway enables the
learner to acquire communication and collaboration, creativity and imagination, critical thinking
and problem solving, citizenship, learning to learn and self-efficacy competencies. The Social
sciences pathway provides learners with opportunities to begin specialisation in an area suited to
their personality, interests, abilities and career choice. The Social sciences pathway has the
Languages and Literature, Humanities and Business Studies Tracks.

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 (i) LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE
The importance of language and literature learning cannot be overemphasized and the curriculum
lays great emphasis on learning both areas. Language enables individuals to engage daily,
initially within the family and later in the larger society as they create relationships and
networks. This helps them to create a sense of belonging and to enhance general well-being. This
is supported by Gardner's multiple intelligence theory, which argues that we are all able to know
the world through language. The theory puts a strong emphasis on learner centred classrooms,
self-directed learning and delivery of instruction via multiple mediums. Thus, the teaching of
languages and literature is participatory and activity-based.
The languages and literature subjects are anchored in Vygotsky’s social-cultural development
theory, which posits that learners negotiate meanings with people in the environment. They
achieve goals through interacting with teachers, peers, materials, either explicitly or implicitly in
any given context. Another theory that greatly informs the study of both language and literature
is John Hattie’s visible learning theory that affirms that learners need to be able to think about
and solve problems, work in teams, communicate through discussions, take initiatives and bring
diverse perspectives to their learning. The study of languages and literature is geared towards
achieving the aforementioned competencies.
(ii) HUMANITIES
Humanities are a group of academic disciplines. They include, but are not limited to, history;
literature; philosophy and ethics; foreign languages and cultures; linguistics; jurisprudence or
philosophy of law; archaeology; comparative religion; the history, theory, and criticism of the
arts; and those aspects of the social sciences (anthropology, sociology, psychology, political
science, government, and economics) that use historical and interpretive rather than quantitative
methods.

Scholars of Humanities are keen to observe the way that human beings behave differently even
when put in the same social situations. Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory suggests that social
interaction leads to continuous systematic changes in children's thought and behaviour that can
vary greatly from culture to culture (Woolfolk, 1998). The theory suggests that a person's
development depends on interaction with other people and the tools that a culture provides to
help form their own view of the world.

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Humanities build a learner’s competencies in understanding human societies as well as the
behaviour of people in different social environments. It is important to study humanities for the
following reasons:
1. To gain expertise in understanding groups, communities and societies where we live.
2. To build capacities in understanding and predicting human behaviour.
3. To gain skills and knowledge that can be practically applied to solve specific problems in our
society.
4. To harness knowledge of human behaviour and human societies that can be applied to
improve the quality of life of humanity.

It is estimated that this track will enrol about 8% of the learners entering senior school. The
humanities track provides a variety of disciplines that enables learners to choose a career path in
areas of their interests and abilities. Learners are expected to choose a combination of subjects in
line with their career choices.
(iii) BUSINESS STUDIES
Business Studies subject is offered as an integrated discipline aimed at exposing the learners at
senior school with the necessary competencies and abilities in areas of Entrepreneurship,
Financial Education, Commerce, Accounting and Economics. The curriculum provides learners
with opportunities for further education and training in business subjects at advanced levels. It
also equips them with desirable competencies to be self-reliant and able to partake national
development through self-employment.

Business studies at senior school level equip the learner with critical competencies that are
globally accepted for the subject. These include:
1. Business skills: Knowledge and skills necessary for success in business.
2. Communication in a business environment: Methods, technology, and standards involved in
communication within and between businesses
3. Digital literacy: the ability to use digital technology, communication tools, and/or networks to
access, understand, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information.

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4. Financial literacy: the ability to read, analyse, manage, and communicate financial information
for personal and professional purposes.
5. Ethical, moral, and legal considerations in business: the understanding and/or determination of
social and environmental consequences of undertaking a business enterprise.

3. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM)

The achievement of Vision 2030 greatly depends on science, technology and innovation.
Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005 highlights that for a breakthrough towards industrialisation and
achievement of the desired economic growth targets and social development, a high priority
needs to be placed on the development of human capital through education and training by
promoting technical and vocational training, as well as the teaching of sciences and information
technology. In order to achieve the desired economic growth, social development and political
maturity, high priority is placed on the development of human capital through education and
training in Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) related areas.

In 2010, the transition from secondary to university education was 6.5% meaning that not all
learners who leave secondary education move on to middle level colleges or universities.
Furthermore, many learners leave secondary education with poor grades that do not allow them
entry to higher education and training. It is therefore important to ensure that all learners leaving
secondary education have the prerequisite skills that enable them join the world of work, self-
employment or further education and training.

The Commission of Inquiry on Public Service Structure and Remuneration (1970-71), also
known as the Ndegwa Report recommended diversification of the curriculum to allow more
secondary schools to offer technical and vocational subjects. This was meant to enable secondary
education to meet the manpower needs of the country. However, the commission noted that there
was a mismatch between technical and vocational education and the requirements of job market.
It recommended the reviewing of the curriculum in liaison with commercial and industrial
organisations to offer relevant education. The National Committee on Educational Objectives
and Policies of 1976 popularly known as the Gachathi Report also called for the diversification
of the school curriculum to include pre-vocational subjects. The report noted that although

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agriculture and technical subjects were introduced in secondary schools, the expected result of
making school leavers more employable had not materialized because the programmes were
mainly academic. The report therefore advocated for a stronger practical orientation even at
examination level. Vocational education was thereafter institutionalized in the curriculum with
the introduction of the 8-4-4 system of education. Several pre-vocational subjects were
introduced in primary schools and a number of vocational and pre-technical subjects were
introduced in secondary schools. However, its implementation across the board faced a lot of
challenges including the cost of implementation and lack of adequately trained teachers.
Subsequently, most schools dropped the vocational subjects.
The STEM pathway aims at developing the individual learner’s innovativeness and promoting
the use of technology to develop a labour force that will drive the Kenyan economy. This
pathway shall offer some specialization in various areas or fields. In addition, elements of the
core curricula such as moral and attitudinal skills, language skills, and communication skills
shall be included.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK UNDERPINNING THE STEM PATHWAY

A learning theory is a conceptual framework describing how information is absorbed, processed
and retained during learning (Illeris & Knud, 2004). The development of the STEM curriculum
is based on the constructivism theory of learning.

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning that was founded by Jean Piaget and it emphasizes the
importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves.
Learners are thought to use background knowledge and concepts to assist them in their
acquisition of information. To design effective teaching environments, constructivists believe
that one needs a good understanding of what children already know when they come into the
classroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way that builds on the pupil's background
knowledge and is allowed to develop with them (Bodner et al, 2001). The teacher begins with
complex problems and teaches basic skills while solving these problems. The learning theories of
Dewey, Montessori and Kolb serve as the foundation for the application of constructivist
learning theory in the classroom.

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Constructivism has many varieties such as active learning, inquiry-based learning, problem-
based learning, project-based learning, discovery learning, socio-scientific issues-based
instruction and knowledge building, but all versions promote a student's free exploration within a
given framework or structure in order to meet the challenges of 21st century learning. The
inquiry-based approach exposes learners to experiences that provoke them to question,
collaborate, think critically, conduct research, solve problems, communicate and discover new
knowledge.
Problem based learning on the other hand, is a learner centred approach, which directs the focus
of education to empowering learners to engage in self-directed learning through engagement in a
real problem-solving situation. This situation encourages the learners to develop problem-solving
skills thereby enhancing their motivation to learn. Project based learning is a structured approach
which adopts the use of projects with concrete outputs as a strategy for the learners to learn
through real life elements. Projects encourage the learners to investigate using experiential,
teamwork and hands-on activities to respond to complex challenges. Socio-scientific issues-
based learning is closely related to problem-based learning. It focuses on the use of authentic,
real-life issues to engage learners in learning through discussions and debates. Learners
interrogate a wide range of issues through exploration, inquiry and the integration of multiple
disciplines to explain science, society, politics, economics and any other issues that affect the
everyday life of the learner.
The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages learners to discover principles for themselves
and to construct knowledge by working, answering open-ended questions and solving real world
problems. To do this, a teacher should encourage curiosity and discussion among his or her
learners as well as promoting their autonomy. In scientific areas in the classroom such as STEM,
constructivist teachers provide raw data and physical materials for the learners to work with and
analyse (Devries & Zan, 2003). Therefore, since STEM subjects are mainly practical in nature,
constructivist theory is used to develop a curriculum which is competency based, one which
promotes exploration in learners and inculcates critical thinking, innovation and problem-solving
skills.
Tracks in the STEM pathway
1. PURE SCIENCE

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Learners in this track are expected to join a university or middle level college to pursue careers
in area such as education, medicine, pharmacy, science, industrial science and actuarial science.
Some are able to join the world of work under experienced persons and later undergo further
training and apprenticeships to advance their skills.

This track is offered in about 8% of all senior schools (see Appendix 1). This percentage is based
on Kenya’s workforce projections in science careers. Session Paper No. 10 of 2012 reports that
during the periods 1999/2000 and 2005/2006, learners who graduated from our universities with
science related degrees, were 20% of the total number of graduates. This means that enrolment
into pure science related subjects is not as bad compared to other STEM areas, hence this has
influenced the decision to assign 8% enrolment into this track.
The track provides a specialization opportunity for learners who have demonstrated the interest,
abilities and aptitude to pursue a career in pure sciences. The track builds on the competencies
acquired at junior secondary in the areas of mathematics and integrated science. It equips
learners with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for advanced careers in pure sciences
offered in middle level colleges and universities.
2. APPLIED SCIENCES
This track is offered in about 12% of all senior schools (see Appendix 1). This percentage is
based on the desire to fill up the gaps that still exist in agricultural, entrepreneurial, innovation,
creativity and ICT skills in Kenya according to the 2009 Education Evaluation Report.
Agriculture remains a key pillar of the Kenyan economy contributing about 25% of the GDP.
However, the sector possesses additional opportunities to unlock the potential of Kenya’s
economy hence there is a strong need for reforms. Education and training play a key role in
unlocking this potential.

The track provides a specialization opportunity for learners who have demonstrated the interest,
abilities and aptitude to pursue a career in applied sciences. The track builds on the competencies
acquired at junior secondary in the areas of mathematics and integrated science as well as
agriculture, health education and home science. It equips learners with the knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for advanced careers in applied sciences offered in middle level colleges and
universities.

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Learners graduating from this track are expected to join middle level colleges or universities to
pursue careers in areas such as agricultural engineering, computer engineering, foods science and
technology, business and hospitality and home economics. They may also be able to join the
world of work where they can work under the guidance of a specialist as they advance their skills
on the job, through apprenticeships or further training.

The pure and applied sciences curriculum prepares learners to graduate with a senior school
national certificate that will open the following career opportunities for them:
1. Enrol directly into a university for a degree in science related courses.
2. Enrol into middle level colleges for a diploma in science related fields.
3. Join the world of work through apprenticeship.

3. TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING

Technical and Engineering Education has been described as ‘general instruction in the sciences,
the principles of which are applicable to various specified employments of life’ (Musgrave,
1964). Technical secondary or high schools are not a new phenomenon in Kenya nor
internationally. In Malaysia and Russia there are numerous technical schools (high schools)
offering technical education in areas such as geology, mining, power engineering, metallurgy,
machine building, instrumentation, radio electronics, timber engineering, chemical engineering,
engineering in the area of the production of foodstuffs and consumer goods, construction,
geodesy, hydrometeorology, transportation, and communications.

Technical and engineering schools will major in technical subjects leading to technological
degree subjects, while vocational schools will major in trade subjects leading to the world of
work or further education including degree programmes (Odhiambo Report, 2012). Schools are
expected to collaborate with employers who contribute to learning and offer real life work
experiences to the learners as recommended in the Ndegwa Report (1971). This will enable the
teaching of a quality curriculum that is relevant and enjoyable to the learner.

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The schools are to prepare learners with foundational skills in applied sciences and modern
technology. Emphasis is on the understanding and practical application of basic principles of
science and mathematics in various fields such as engineering, design, agriculture, business,
computers and data processing, environmental and resource management and health.
This track is offered in about 15% of all senior schools. The percentage by enrolment is based on
Kenya’s need for a more hands-on technical and engineering workforce to propel the industrial
sector. For example, statistics show that technology, engineering and architecture learners who
graduated from Kenya’s public universities in 1999/2000 and 2005/2006 were 6% of all those
who graduated during that period (Session Paper No. 10 of 2012). This is a reflection of a
general shortage of the workforce to drive the economy. Hence, the need for increased enrolment
of learners into this track at senior school.
The track provides a specialization opportunity for learners who have demonstrated the interest,
abilities and aptitude to pursue a career in technical and engineering subjects. The track builds on
the competencies acquired in pre-technical and pre-career education at junior secondary. It
equips learners with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for advanced careers in
technical and engineering subjects offered in technical training colleges and universities.
Learners graduating from this track at senior school will have acquired skills that qualify them to
either join the industrial sector and work under experienced personnel or join a technical training
institution or university to pursue courses in engineering and technology.

CAREER AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES (CTS)

Career and Technology Studies (CTS) provides learners with the opportunity to acquire
workplace skills and knowledge. A learner who joins the CTS track is required to perform
effectively in the workplace and the training shall reflect specific industry competencies and
standards. It therefore helps learners to see how their strengths, interests and achievements relate
to future education and training options and employment opportunities. CTS equips learners with
knowledge, skills, attitudes and competencies that are a prerequisite for the learner either to join
the world of work or pursue further training in tertiary institutions. Collaboration between
schools, industry and other training institutions is key for the success of this pathway.

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In Netherlands, 50% of the learners entering upper secondary education follow one of four
vocational programmes: technology, economics, agricultural, and personal/social services and
health care. Vocational education in South Korea is in vocational high schools which offer
programmes in five fields; agriculture, technology/engineering, commerce/business,
maritime/fishery, and home economics. In some programmes, learners may participate in
workplace training through co-operation between schools and local employers (UNESCO IBE,
2014). In Malaysia, there are numerous vocational education centres including vocational
schools (high schools) to train skilled learners (The Malaysian Education System, 2015). In
Switzerland nearly two thirds of those entering upper secondary education enter the vocational
education and training system. Learners spend some of their time in a vocational school, some of
their time doing an apprenticeship at a host company, and for most programmes, learners go to
industry training centres to develop complementary practical skills relating to the occupation at
hand
The CTS pathway is offered in about 25% of all senior schools (see Appendix 1). This
percentage is based on the need for a skilled middle level workforce in specific trades, crafts and
careers at various levels. This includes tradesmen, craftsmen, technicians, and high professional
practitioner positions in careers such as engineering, accountancy, nursing, medicine and
architecture. It provides a specialization opportunity for learners who have demonstrated the
interest, abilities and aptitude to pursue a career in CTS. It also builds on the competencies
acquired in pre-technical and pre-career studies at junior secondary. It equips learners with the
knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for advanced careers in CTS offered in Vocational
Training Centres (VTC) and technical training colleges after which they may join a university.

A graduate of the CTS track is awarded dual certification, that is, a Certificate for completion of
grade 12 and an Artisan equivalent Certificate. Graduates are therefore eligible to join industries
to work under the guidance of experienced persons to acquire on the job skills. They are also
eligible to pursue further training in middle level colleges as a prerequisite to joining university.
Career opportunities include areas such as beauticians, plumbers, welders, tailors, chefs,
electricians, caterers, mechanics, fire fighters and tour guides.

The objectives of the CTS programme are:

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1. To increase learner retention and completion rates of school programs.
2. To increase participation of young adults in post-secondary programs.
3. To assist young adults in making meaningful connections to current and emerging labour
markets.
4. To expand local partnerships to offer dual certification programs and internships.

JUSTIFICATION FOR CTS

The field of CTS is new and an underutilized learning pathway in Kenya. The practical learning
experiences provided in CTS programmes appeal to many learners since they focus on critical
thinking, new technologies, real world settings, hands-on activities, and the application of
learning to practical problems. For example, they are aligned with a growing emphasis on 21 st
century skills which are relevant to all academic subject areas and which can be applied in
educational, career, and civic contexts throughout a student’s life (Alberta Government, 2013).

Modern careers are increasingly demanding higher levels of education, training and skills from
the workforce and this has led to increased expectations for CTS. In Kenya, the government is
investing in CTS through funding of training organizations and subsidizing apprenticeship or
traineeship initiatives in industry. This strengthens the relationship between schools and industry
and encourages the industry to be actively involved in the building of skills in CTS and other
STEM areas.

The CTS curriculum prepares learners to graduate with Artisan equivalent qualifications at
senior school that will enable them to make any of the following career choices:
1. Enrol into a Vocational Training Centre (VTC) for a craft course in their areas of
specialization which will qualify them for a diploma in the same area and later they can join a
university for a degree.
2. Enrol into a middle level training college, e.g. Technical Training Institute for a Diploma
programme in their areas of specialisation which will qualify them to join a university for a
degree course.

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3. Join the world of work (industry) where they will practice under the supervision of skilled and
experienced personnel. They could also pursue further training to acquire craft, diploma and
degree certificates respectively as they work or later on at a time of their choice.

The STEM curriculum is developed together with the industries with which learners are expected
to engage. Furthermore, STEM schools will establish a close working relationship with industry
so that learners can get opportunities to acquire hands-on experience through attachments and
apprenticeship programmes.

SUBJECTS IN SENIOR SCHOOL

Core Subjects
The learner takes two core subjects provided, irrespective of the pathway identified:
i) Community Service Learning
ii) Physical Education

1. Arts and Sports Science Pathway

The Arts and Sports Science Pathway has three tracks; Visual Arts, Performing Arts and Sport
Science. In all the tracks, the learner is expected to learn core subjects as well as choose options.

a) The Arts
Core subjects
i) Legal and Ethical issues in Arts
ii) Communication Skills

Optional Subjects
The learner is required to take one of the following subjects:
i) Performing Arts
 Music
 Dance
 Theatre and Elocution

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ii) Visual and Applied Arts
 Fine Art
 Applied Art
 Time Based Media
 Crafts

b) Sports Science
Core subjects
i) Human Physiology, Anatomy and Nutrition
ii) Sports Ethics

Optional Subjects
The learner is required to take a minimum of one and a maximum of two of the following
subjects according to the learner’s personality, interests, ability and career choices:
i) Ball Games
ii) Athletics
iii) Indoor Games
iv) Gymnastics
v) Water Sports
vi) Boxing
vii) Martial Arts
viii) Outdoor Pursuits
ix) Advanced Physical Education

2. The Social Sciences Pathway

The Social Sciences pathway provides a variety of disciplines that enable the learner to choose a
career path in an area of interest and ability. Schools offering this pathway can offer all or any of
the subjects in the three tracks. The learner is expected to choose a combination of subjects in
line with their career choices. The learner is required to choose a minimum of three and a
maximum of five subjects.

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a) Humanities
i) History and Citizenship
ii) Geography
iii) Christian Religious Education
iv) Islamic Religious Education
v) Hindu Religious Education
vi) Business Studies
vii) Mathematics

NB: Mathematics offered in this track is the same as that of pure sciences track.

b) Languages
i) English Language
ii) Literature in English
iii) Lugha ya Kiswahili
iv) Fasihi ya Kiswahili
v) Kenyan Sign Language
vi) Indigenous Languages
vii) Arabic
viii) French
ix) German
x) Mandarin

c) Business Studies
It includes business related courses such as entrepreneurship, finance, insurance, accounting,
marketing, human resource, strategic management, business administration.

3. The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Pathway (STEM)

The STEM pathway is offered in 60% of senior schools. It therefore takes about 60% of the
learners entering senior school from junior secondary. The pathway has four tracks: pure
sciences, applied sciences, technical and engineering and Career in Technology Studies (CTS).

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a) Pure Sciences
Core subjects
 Community Service Learning
 Physical Education
 ICT

Optional
The learner is required to select a minimum of three from the following subjects:
 Mathematics
 Physics
 Chemistry
 Biology

b) Applied Sciences
Core Subjects
 Community Service Learning
 Physical Education
 ICT
Optional
The learner is required to select one of the following subjects:
 Agriculture
 Computer Science
 Foods and Nutrition
 Home Management

c) Technical and Engineering

Core Subjects
 Community Service Learning
 Physical Education
 ICT

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  Mathematics
 Chemistry/Biological Sciences
 Physics/Biology/Physical Sciences
Optional
The learner is required to select one of the following subjects:
 Agricultural Technology
 Geosciences Technology
 Marine and Fisheries Technology
 Aviation Technology
 Wood Technology
 Electrical Technology
 Metal Technology
 Power Mechanics
 Clothing Technology
 Construction Technology
 Media Technology
 Electronics Technology
 Manufacturing Technology
 Mechatronics
d) Career and Technology Studies (CTS)
Core Subjects
 Community Service Learning
 Physical Education
 ICT
Optional
The learner is required to select one of the following subjects:
 Garment Making and Interior Design
 Leather Work
 Culinary Arts
 Hair Dressing and Beauty Therapy
 Plumbing and Ceramics

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 Welding and Fabrication
 Tourism and Travel
 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
 Animal Keeping
 Exterior Design and Landscaping
 Building Construction
 Photography
 Graphic Designing and Animation
 Food and Beverage
 Motor Vehicle Mechanics
 Carpentry and Joinery
 Fire Fighting
 Metalwork
 Electricity
 Land Surveying
 Science Laboratory Technology
 Electronics
 Printing Technology
 Crop Production

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