1

Exercises 2.1
1. (a) yes; (b) no; (c) no
3. f (x, y) = y 1/5 , so fy (t, y) = 15 y −4/5 is not continuous at (0, 0) so uniqueness

5/4
is not guaranteed. Solutions:
( √ y = 45 t ,y=0 (
p 2 y, y ≥ 0 y −1/2 , y 0
5. f (t, y) = 2 |y| = √ , so fy (t, y) = is not
2 −y, y < 0 −(−y)1/2 , y < 0
continuous at (0, 0). Therefore, the hypotheses of the Existence and Uniqueness
Theorem are not satisfied.

dy √ 1 3/2
7. Yes. = y t ⇒ dy = t1/2 dt ⇒ ln|y| = 23 t3/2 + C1 ⇒ y = Ce2t /3 .
dt y
Application of the initial conditions yields y = exp 23 (t3/2 − 1)

9. Yes. f (t, y) = sin y − cos t and fy (t, y) = cos y are continuous on a region
containing (π, 0).
11. y = sec t so y 0 = sec t tan t = y tan t and y(0) = 1. fy (t, y) = t is continuous
on −π/2 < t < π/2 and f (t, y) = sec t is continuous on −π/2 < t < π/2 so the
pon which the solution 1is valid is −π/2 < t < π/2.
largest interval
13. f (t, y) = y 2 − 1 and fy (t, y) = 2 (y 2 − 1)−1/2 ; unique solution guaranteed
for (a) only.

15. (0, ∞). Solution is y = 14 t−1 (t4 − 1).

17. (0, ∞) because y = ln t has domain t > 0

19. (−∞, 1) because y = 1/(t − 1) has domain (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) and y = 1/(t − 3)
has domain (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

21. (−2, 2)
23. t > 0, y = t−1 sin t − cos t, −∞ < t < ∞

21. 23.
y y
4
6

4
3

2
t
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2
1

-4

t
-2 -1 0 1 2 -6
2

25. First, we solve the equation (see next section):

dy
= y2
dt
1
dy = dt
y2
1
− =t+C
y
−1
y= .
t+C

Applying the initial condition indicates that −1/C = a ⇒ C = −1/a so =

a/(1 − at). This solutions is defined for t > 1/a or t < 1/a

25.
24. y
y
2
0.35
0.30
1
0.25
0.20
t
0.15 -2 -1 1 2

0.10
-1
0.05
t
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-2

27. Separating variables (see next section) gives us y dy = −t dt ⇒ 21 y 2 = 12 t2 +C

√
⇒ y √= ± C − t2 . Applying the initial conditions indicates that C = a2 so
y = a2 − t2 (because y(0) = a is positive). Thus, the interval of definition of
the solution is |t| < a

26. 27.
y y
2 2

1 1

t t
-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2

-1 -1

-2 -2
 3

Exercises 2.2
1. Separate variables and integrate:

y 2 dy = x dx
1 3 1
y = x2 + C
3 2
3
y = x2 + C
3
2
 1/3
3 2
y= x +C .
2

1 − 2Cx + C 2 x2
3. y =
4x2
9 −7
5. 3t + 21 t4 + 52 y − 14 y =C
1
7. sinh 3x − 2 cosh 4y = C
9. Separate variables and integrate:
1 1
dy = dt
y+2 2t + 1
1
ln(2 + y) = ln(2t + 1) + C
2√
ln(2 + y) = ln 2t + 1 + C
√
2 + y = Celn 2t+1
√
2 + y = C 2t + 1
√
y = −2 + C 2t + 1.

11. y = sin−1 − 34 cos x + C

13. Separate variables and integrate:

dy
= −ky
dt
1
dy = −k dt
y
ln |y| = −kt + C
y = Ce−kt

In the calculation above, remember that e−kt+C = e−kt eC . C is arbitrary so eC

is positive and arbitrary.
15. y = cosh−1 − 120 1 1


sinh
6t − 16 cosh 4t + C
17. y = − 31 ln − 32 e2t + C
19. 43 cos θ − 12
1 1
cos 3θ + 16 sin 4y − sin y = C
2
21. y sin 2x + 2xy + 2y  + 5 + 4Cy = 0
1 1
23. − −64 C cos (2 y (x))−64 C+cos (8 x − 2 y)+cos (8 x + 2 y)+
64 cos (2 y) + 1
4

2 cos (8 x) + 4 cos (4 x − 2 y) + 4 cos (4 x + 2 y) + 8 cos (4 x) − 128 = 0
√
25. − 41 x sin 2x + 41 x
2
− 18 cos 2x − 2 sin y = C
1 1
27. 58 + 6 sin (y) − 2 cos (4 x) + sin (y + 4 x) − sin (−y + 4 x) +
64 −1 + sin (y) 
8 cos (2 x) − 4 sin (y + 2 x) + 4 sin (−y + 2 x) − 64 C + 64 C sin (y) = 0
29. 32 (ln x)3/2 + 31 e3/y = C
31. Factor first, then separate, use partial fractions and simplify.

dy/dt = (t2 + 1)(y 2 − 1)

1
dy = (t2 + 1) dt
y2 − 1
 
1 1 1
− dy = (t2 + 1)dt
2 y−1 y+1
1 y−1 1 2
ln = t +t+C
2 y+1 3
y−1 2 2
= Ce 3 t +2t
y+1
2 2
1 + Ce 3 t +2t
y= 2 2
1 − Ce 3 t +2t

13 + 12C − 4x(3C + 1)
33. y =
4C(x − 1) − 3
35.

1
dy = dt
y3 + 1
 
1 2−y
+ dy = dt
3(y + 1) 3(y 2 − y + 1)
√ (y + 1)1/3
 
2y − 1
−3t + 3 tan−1 √ + 3 ln =C
3 (y − y + 1)1/6
2
 5

y y y
2 2 2

1 1 1

t t t
-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2

-1 -1 -1

-2 -2 -2

Figure 1: Direction fields for dy/dt = y 3 +y 2 , dy/dt = y 3 −y 2 , and dy/dt = y 2 −y 3

37.
1
dy = dt
y3 + y
 
1 y
− 2 dy = dt
y y +1
1
ln |y| − ln y 2 + 1 = t + C


2
y
p = Cet
2
y +1
Ce2t
y2 =
1 − Ce2t
r
Ce2t
y=±
1 − Ce2t

39.
 
1 1 1
− + dy = dt
2(y − 1) y 2(y + 1)
1 1
ln |y − 1| − ln |y| + ln |y + 1| = t + C
2 2p
y2 − 1
= Cet
y
1
y2 =
1 − Ce2t
r
1
y=±
1 − Ce2t
6

41. dy = x3 dx ⇒ y = 41 x4 + C. y(0) = 14 · 04 + C = 0 ⇒ C = 0 so y (x) = 1/4 x4

43. Integrating gives us x = sin y + C and applying the initial condition gives us
C = 2 so x (y) = sin (y) + 2

41. 43.
y x
4 3.0

3 2.5

2 2.0

1 1.5

x y
-2 -1 1 2 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

√
45. y (t) = 2/3 √ 9 + 3 t3/2
47. y (t) = −1
√ √
− −1 + 2 et √ √
49. y (x) = e 2 x
, y (x) = e− 2 x
51. y (x) = arctan (x) + 1
53. y = −3 + 4(3x + 1)1/3
y = ln 12 e2x − 12 + e


55.
1
57. The solution for (a) is y = esin t , for (b) it is y = , and for (c) it is
1 − sin t
1
4 + r sin t + sin2 t .


y=
4
y

15

12.5

10

7.5

2.5

t
-7.5 -5 -2.5 2.5 5 7.5

-2.5

59. y = 2x(x − 2)−1

 7

67. Use partial fractions.

1
dt = dt
12 + 4y − y 2
 
1 1
− dy = 8 dt
y+2 y−6
y+2
ln = 8t + C
y−6
y+2
= Ce8t
y−6
3Ce8t + 1
y=2 .
Ce8t − 1

c 
71. y = exp (t − 1)
t
73. L(t) = L∞ − e−rB t

Exercises 2.3

1. The integrating factor is µ(t) = e−t . Multiplying through by the integrating

factor, applying the theorem, integrating and solving for y gives us

dy
− y = 10
dt
dy
e−t − ye−t = 10e−t
dt
d −t

e y = 10e−t
dt
e−t y = −10e−t + C
y = −10 + Cet .

The preferred solution is to use undetermined coefficients. A general solution of

the corresponding homogeneous equation, y 0 − y = 0 is yh = Cet . The forcing
function is f (t) = 10. The associated set of functions for a constant is F =
{1}. Because no multiple of 1 is a solution to the corresponding homogeneous
equation, we assume that a particular solution takes the form yp = A · 1 = A.
Differentiating yp0 = 0 and substituting into the nonhomogeneous equation gives
us yp0 − yp = −A = 10 so A = −10 and yp = −10. Therefore, a general solution
of the nonhomogeneous equation is y = yh + yp = −10 + Cet
3. The integrating factor is µ(t) = e−t . Multiplying through by the integrating
8

factor and integrating we have

dy
− y = 2 cos t
dt
dy
e−t − e−t y = 2e−t cos t
dt
d −t

e y = 2e−t cos t
dt
e−t y = −e−t cos t + e−t sin t + C
y = Cet − cos t + sin t.

Observe that in integrating eat cos bt dt and eat sinbt dt either required integration
1
by parts twice or a table of integrals, eat cos bt dt = 2 eat (a cos bt + b sin bt)
a + b2
1
and eat sin bt dt = 2 eat (−b cos bt + a sin bt).
a + b2
5. y = Cet − 2te−t − e−t
7. y = 12 t + Ct−1
dy 1 1
9. First write the equation in standard form + y = e−x to see that
R dx x x
p(x) = 1/x. Then, an integrating factor is e 1/x dx = xln x = x. Multiplying
through by the integrating factor and integrating gives us

dy
x + y = e−x
dx
d
(xy) = e−x
dx
xy = −e−x + C
y = Cx−1 − x−1 e−x .
√
11. y = 4t2 + 1 + C 4t2 + 1 R
13. An integrating factor is µ(t) = e cot t dt = e− ln csc t = sin t. Multiplying
through by the integrating factor, integrating the result, and solving for y results
in
dy
sin t + y cos t = sin t cos t
dt
d
(y sin t) = sin t cos t
dt
1
y sin t = sin2 t + C
2
1
y = sin t + C csc t,
2

which is equivalent to y = − 21 cos t cot t+C csc t because sin t cos t dt = − 12 cos2 t+
R

C when choosing u = cos t rather than u = sin t when calculating the integral.
 9

15. An integrating factor is

 Z   
4t 1 2 1
µ(t) = exp − dt = exp − ln(4t − 9) =√ .
4t2 − 9 2 4t2 − 9

Multiplying through by the integrating factor, integrating the result, and solving
for y results in

1 dy 1 4t t
√ −√ y= √
4t2 − 9 dt 4t2 − 9 4t2 − 9 4t2 − 9
 
d 1 t
√ y = √
dt 4t2 − 9 4t2 − 9
1 1p 2
√ y= 4t − 9 + C
4t2 − 9 4
1 p
y = (4t2 − 9) + C 4t2 − 9.
4

R
17. An integrating factor is µ(t) = e2 cot x dx = e−2 ln csc x = sin2 x. Multiplying
the equation by the integrating factor, integrating and solving for y yields

dy
sin2 x + 2y sin2 x cot x = sin2 x cos x
dx
d
sin2 x y = sin2 x cos x


dx
1
sin2 x y = sin3 x + C
3
1
y = sin x + C csc2 x.
3

2
19. θ = −1 + Cer /2
21. x(y) = −1 − y + Cey
23. x(t) = C/(t3 − 1)
25. v(s) = se−s + Ce−s
27. Use undetermined coefficients to find a general solution of the equation.
yh = Ce−t . The associated set of functions for the forcing function f (t) = e−t is
F = {e−t }. Because e−t is a solution to the corresponding homogeneous equation,
multiply F by tn where n is the smallest integer so that no element of tn F is a
solution to the corresponding homogeneous equation. In this case, tF = {te−t }
so we assume that a particular solution of the nonhomogeneous equation has the
form yp = Ate−t . Differentiating yp , yp0 = −Ate−t + Ae−t , and substituting into
the nonhomogeneous equation yields yp0 + yp = −Ate−t + Ae−t + Ate−t = Ae−t =
e−t so A = 1 and yp = te−t . Therefore a general solution of the nonhomogeneous
equation is y = yh + yp = Ce−t + te−t . Application of the initial condition yields
10

t
1 2 3 4 5
!0.2

y = e−t (t − 1). !0.4

!0.6

!0.8

!1
2
R
29. An integrating factor is µ(t) = e 2t dt = et . Multiplying the equation by
the integrating factor, integrating and solving for y yields

2 dy 2 2
et + 2tet y = 2tet
dt
d  t2  2
e y = 2tet
dt
2 2
et y = et + C
2
y = 1 + Ce−t .

y
1

0.5
2
Applying the initial condition yields y = 1−2e−t .
t
1 2 3 4 5

!0.5

!1

31. A general solution is y = 2t−1 (t−1)et +Ct−1 . Applying the initial conditions
 11

yields y = (2tet − 2et − 1)/t.

t
2 4 6 8 10

!2

!4

2
t2 − 16
33. y = 2
t +4 t
2 4 6 8 10

!2

!4

39. (a) y = Cet + 1; (b) y = Ce−t + t; (c) y = Ce−t + sin t; (d) y = Cet + e−t
43. y 0 + y = t has solution y = t − 1 + Ce−t . y(0) = 1 ⇒ C = 2 so y = t − 1 + 2e−t
for 0 ≤ t < 1. When t = 1, y = 1 − 1( + 2e−1 = 2/e. The solution to y 0 + y = 0,
t − 1 + 2e−t , 0 ≤ t < 1
y(1) = 2/e is y = 2e−t . Thus, y(t) = .
2e−t , t ≥ 1
(
e−2t , 0 ≤ t < 1
45. y(t) =
e2−4t , t ≥ 1
47. y (t) = −2/5 cos (2 t) − 1/5 sin (2 t) + Cet
49. y (t) = (t + C) e−t
51. y (t) = −1/25 − 1/5 t + Ce5 t
53. y (t) = −2 cos (t) + 4 sin (t) + 4 et + Ce1/2 t
55. y (t) = 2/11 et + Ce−10 t
57. y (t) = (2 t + C) et
59. y (t) = cos (t) + sin (t) + t − 1 + Ce−t
63. y (t) = t − 1 + Ce−t , y (t) = −1/2 cos (t) + 1/2 sin (t) + Ce−t , y (t) =
1/2 cos (t) + 1/2 sin (t) + Ce−t , y (t) = 1/2 et + Ce−t
65. y (t) = t − 1 − e−t , y (t) = t − 1, y (t) = t − 1 + e−t , y (t) = t − 1 + 2 e−t ,
y (t) = t − 1 + 3 e−t
12

Exercises 2.4
1. My (t, y) = 2y − 12 t−1/2 = Nt (t, y), exact
3. My (t, y) = cos ty − ty sin ty = Nt (t, y), exact
5. The equations is exact because ∂t (sty 2 ) = 3y 2 = ∂y (y 3 )
7. My (t, y) = sin 2t 6= 2 sin 2t = Nt (t, y), not exact
9. My (t, y) = y −1 = Nt (t, y), exact
11. y = C + t3
13. y = 0, ty 2 = C
∂ ∂
15. Observe that the equation is exact because (2t+y 3 ) = 3y 2 = (3ty 2 +4).
∂y ∂t
3 2
Let
R F (t,3y) have 2total 3derivative (2t + y ) dt + (3ty + 4) dy. Then, F (t, y) =
(2t + y ) dt = t + ty + g(y). Differentiating F with respect to y, Fy (t, y) =
3ty 2 + g 0 (y) = 3ty 2 + 4 ⇒ g 0 (y) = 4 so g(y) = 4y and F (t, y) = t2 + ty 3 + 4y. A
general solution is then t2 + ty 3 + 4y = C or t2 + ty 3 + 4 y (t) = C.
∂ ∂ 2
17. The equation is exact because (2ty) = 2t = (t + y 2 ). Let F (t, y)
∂y ∂t
satisfy Ft (t, y)dt + Fy (t, y)dy = 2ty dt + (t2 + y 2 ) dy. Then, F (t, y) = 2ty dt =
R

t2 y + g 0 (y) = t2 + y 2 so g 0 (y) = y 2 ⇒ g(y) = 31 y 3 . Therefore F (t, y) = t2 + 13 y 3

and a general solution of the equation is t2 + 31 y 3 = C. Observe that solving
this as a homogeneous equation of degree 2 (see the next section) results in the

!
y 3 t2 + y 2
following form of the solution: −1/3 ln − ln (t) = C.
t3
∂ ∂
19. The equation is exact because (sin2 y) = 2 sin y cos y = sin 2y = (t sin 2y).
∂y ∂t
2
Let F (t, y) satisfy F t (t, y)dt + Fy (t, y)dy = sin y dt + t sin 2y dy. Then, F (t, y) =
sin2 y dt = t sin2 y + g(y) so g 0 (y) = 0 ⇒ g(y) = 0 and F (t, y) = t sin2 y. A
R

general solution is then t sin2 y = C or ln t + 2 ln sin y = C.

∂ t ∂
21. The equation is exact because (e sin y) = et cos y = (1 + et cos y).
∂y ∂t
Let F (t, y)R satisfy Ft (t, y)dt + Fy (t, y)dy = et sin y dt + (1 + et cos y) dy. Then,
F (t, y) = et sin y dt = et sin y + g(y) so g 0 (y) = 1 ⇒ g(y) = t. Thus, F (t, y) =
et sin y + t and a general solution of the equation is et sin y + y = C.

17. 19. 21.

y y y
6 6
4
4 4

2
2 2

t t t
-4 -2 2 4 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2 -2
-2

-4 -4
-4
-6 -6

√
23. y = 0, y = C sec t2 + tan t2
∂
25. The equation is exact because (1 + y 2 cos ty) = 2y cos ty − ty 2 sin ty =
∂y
 13

∂
(sin ty+ty cos ty). Let F (t, y) satisfy Ft (t, y)dt+Fy (t, y)dy = (1+y 2 cos ty) dt+
∂t
(sin ty + ty cos ty) dy. Then, F (t, y) = (1 + y 2 cos ty) dt = t + y sin ty + g(y) so
R

Fy (t, y) = sin ty + ty cos yt + g 0 (y) so g 0 (y) = 0 and g(y) = 0. Then F (t, y) =

t + y sin(yt) and a general solution of the equation is t + y sin yt = C.
∂
27. The equation is exact because ((3 + t) cos(t + y) + sin(t + y)) = cos(t +
∂y
∂
y) − (3 + t) sin(t + y) = ((3 + t) cos(t + y)). Let F (t, y) satisfy Ft (t, y)dt +
∂t
Fy (t, y)dy =R ((3 + t) cos(t + y) + sin(t + y)) dt + (3 + t) cos(t + y) dy. Then,
F (t, y) = ((3 + t) cos(t + y) + sin(t + y)) dt = (3 + t) sin(t + y) + g(y) so
Fy (t, y) = (3 + t) cos(t + y) + g 0 (y) = (3 + t) cos(t + y) ⇒ g 0 (y) = 0 ⇒ g(y) = 0
so F (t, y) = 3 sin(t + y) + t sin(t + y) and 3 sin(t + y) + t sin(t + y) = C.
∂
−t−2 y 2 ey/t + 1 = −t−3 yey/t (2t + y) =


29. The equation is exact because
∂y
∂ y/t
e (1 + y/t) . Let F (t, y) satisfy Ft (t, y)dt+Fy (t, y)dy = −t−2 y 2 ey/t + 1 dt+



∂t
ey/t (1 + y/t) dy. Then, F (t, y) = −t−2 y 2 ey/t + 1 dt = t + yey/t + g(y). Next,

Fy (t, y) = ey/t (1 + y/t) + g 0 (y) = ey/t (1 + y/t) so g 0 (y) = 0 ⇒ g(y) = 0. Thus,

F (t, y) = yey/t + t and yey/t + t = C.

25. 27. 29.

y y y
6 6 6

4 4 4

2 2 2

t t t
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4

-6 -6 -6

∂
∂

31. This equation is exact because 2ty 2 = 4ty = 2t2 y . Let F (t, y)
∂y ∂t
satisfy Ft (t, y) dt + Fy (t, y) dy = 2ty 2 dt + 2t2 y dy. Then, F (t, y) = 2ty 2 dt =
R

t2 y 2 + g(y) so Fy (t, y) = 2t2 y + g 0 (y) = 2t2 y, which means that g 0 (y) = 0 ⇒

g(y) = 0. Therefore F (t, y) = t2 y 2 and a general solution (or, integral curves) of
the differential equation are t2 y 2 = C. Application of the initial condition results
in y 2 t2 − 1 = 0.

Observe that dividing the differential equation by 2ty yields y dt + t dy = 0,

dy dy 1
which is equivalent to t + y = 0 or + y = 0. This is a first order linear
dt dt t R
homogeneous equation with integrating factor µ(t) = e 1/t dt = t. Multiplying
14

through by the integrating factor, integrating and solving for y gives us

dy
t +y =0
dt
d
(ty) = 0
dt
ty = C
y = Ct−1 .

Observe that squaring both sides of the equation and solving for C gives us the
same result as that obtained by solving the equation as an exact equation.
∂
∂ 2

33. The equation is exact because 2ty + 3t2 = 2t = t − 1 . Let
∂y
∂t

2 2
F (t, y) satisfy F t (t, y) dt + Fy (t, y) dy = 2ty + 3t dt + t − 1 dy. Then,
2ty + 3t dt = t y + t + g(y) so Fy (t, y) = t + g 0 (y) = t2 − 1
R 2

2 3 2
F (t, y) =
0
⇒ g (y) = −1 ⇒ g(y) = −y. Therefore, F (t, y) = t2 y + t3 − y and the integral
curves are t2 y + t3 − y = C. Applying the initial condition and solving for y gives
−t3 − 1
us y = .
(t − 1) (t + 1)
31. 32. 33.
y y y

4 4 4

2 2 2

t t t
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4

-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4

∂ y ∂

35. The equation is exact because (e − 2ty) = ey − 2t = tey − t2 .
∂y ∂t

Let F (t, y)R satisfy Ft (t, y) dt + Fy (t, y) dy = (ey − 2ty) dt + tey − t2 dy. Then,
F (t, y) = (ey − 2ty) dt = tey − t2 y + g(y). Differentiating with respect to y,
Fy (t, y) = tey −t2 +g 0 (y) = tey −t2 ⇒ g 0 (y) = 0 ⇒ g(y) = 0 so F (t, y) = tey −t2 y
and the integral curves are tey − t2 y = C. Applying the initial condition results
in tey − t2 y = 0.
∂
∂
37. The equation is exact because y 2 − 2 sin 2t = 2y = (1 + 2ty). Let
∂y
∂t
2
R F2 t (t, y) dt +
F (t, y) dy2 = y − 2 sin 2t dt + (1 + 2ty) dy. Then,
F (t, y) satisfy
F (t, y) = y − 2 sin 2t dt = ty + cos 2t + g(y). Differentiating with re-
spect to y, Fy (t, y) = 2ty + g 0 (y) = 1 + 2ty ⇒ g 0 (y) = 1 ⇒ g(y) = y so
F (t, y) = ty 2 + cos 2t + y and the integral curves are ty 2 + cos 2t + y = C. Ap-
plying the initial condition results in ty 2 + cos (2 t) + y − 2 = 0.
 15

35. 36. 37.

y y y

4 4 4

2 2 2

t t t
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4

-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4

 
1 2 ∂ ∂
39. The equation is exact because 2
− y = −2y = (−2ty).
1+t  ∂y ∂t
1
Let F (t, y) satisfy Ft (t, y) dt + Fy (t, y) dy = 2
− y 2 dt − 2ty dy. Then,
  1 + t
1 2
dt = tan−1 t − ty 2 + g(y). Differentiating with re-
R
F (t, y) = − y
1 + t2
spect to y, Fy (t, y) = −2ty + g 0 (y) = −2ty ⇒ g 0 (y) = 0 ⇒ g(y) = 0 so
F (t, y) = tan−1 t − ty 2 and the integral curves are tan−1 t − ty 2 = C. Ap-
arctan (t)
plying the initial condition results in y 2 − = 0.
t
38. 39.
y y

6 6

4 4

2 2

t t
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2 -2

-4 -4

-6 -6

41. (a) The equation is exact because

∂ ∂
(−2x − y cos(xy)) = − cos(xy) + xy sin(xy) = (2y − x cos(xy)) .
∂y ∂x
The integral curves for the solution take the form F (x, y) = C, where
Z
F (x, y) = (−2x − y cos(xy)) dx = −x2 − sin(xy) + g(y).

Because
∂ ∂
−x2 − sin(xy) + g(y) = 2y − x cos(xy) + g 0 (y),


F (x, y) =
∂y ∂y
g 0 (y) = 2y so g(y) = y 2 , F (x, y) = y 2 − x2 − sin(xy), and the integral curves of
the equation are given by y 2 − x2 − sin(xy) = C. Applying the initial condition
16

y(0) = 0 results in 0 = C so that the solution to the initial value problem is

y 2 = x2 + sin(xy).
Observe in the following figure that the initial condition y(0) = 0 does not result
in a unique solution.

y y

6 6

4 4

2 2

x x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2 -2

-4 -4

-6 -6

(b) Writing the differential equation in differential form gives us

dy 2x + y cos(xy)
= .
dx 2y − x cos(xy)
| {z }
f (x,y)

Using the notation in the theorem,

∂f x 4 x2 + y 2 sin(xy) + cos(2xy) + 9
=− .
∂y 2(x cos(xy) − 2y)2
The results do not contradict the Theorems because neither of these functions is
continuous on a region containing the origin, (0, 0).

dx 2xy dy y2 − x
43. Here, =p and = −p . Then,
dt x2 + y 2 dt x2 + y 2

dy dy/dt y2 − x
= =
dx dx/dt 2xy
−x + y 2 dx + 2xy dy = 0.

Using the notation in section, M (x, y) = −x+y 2
so My (x, y) = 2y and N (x, y) =
2xy so Nx (x, y) = 2y so the equation −x + y 2 dx + 2xy dy = 0 is exact. Let
F (x, y) be the potential function. Then,
Z
−x + y 2 dx


F (x, y) =
1
F (x, y) = − x2 + xy 2 + g(y).
2
 17

Next, Fy (x, y) = 2xy + g 0 (y) = 2xy so g 0 (y) = 0. We choose g(y) = 0 so that

1 1
F (x, y) = − x2 + xy 2 and the integral curves are given by − x2 + xy 2 = C.
2 2

y y y

4 4 4

2 2 2

x x x
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4

-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4

C
49. y = 2/3
(et + t2 )
−t + C
51. y −1 − =0
t2
2
53. yt + t (y) + 1/4 t4 = C
5 4

55. cos (y (t)) t2 + sin (y) t = C

57. t2 + y cos ty = C
1 1
√

59. (a) (i) y = −t, t2 + 2ty + y 2 = C (ii) y = −Ct ± 10 10C 2 t2 + 10 (iii)
C
1 √
− 19 1


2 2
y=
C 20 Ct ± 20 −39C t + 40

HiL HiiL HiiiL

y y y
1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

t t t
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

18

Exercises 2.5
dw dy
1. This is Bernoulli with n = −1. Let w = y 1−(−1) = y 2 ⇒ = 2y
dt dt
dy 1 −1 dw
⇒ = y . Then,
dt 2 dt
dy 1
− y = ty −1
dt 2
1 −1 dw 1
y − y = ty −1
2 dt 2
dw
− y2 = 2t
dt
dw
−w = 2t.
dt
Use undetermined coefficients to solve for w. A general solution of the corre-
sponding homogeneous equation is wh = Cet . The associated set of functions for
the forcing function f (t) = 2t is F = {t, 1}. Because no element of F is a solution
to the corresponding homogeneous equation we assume that a particular solution
has the form wp = At + B ⇒ wp0 = A. Substituting wp into the nonhomogeneous
equation yields wp0 − wp = −At + (A − B) = 2t so A = −2 and B = −2 so
wp = −2t − 2. √A general solution is then w = wh + wp = Cet − 2t − 2. Because
w = y 2 , y = ± Cet − 2t − 2.
dw dy
3. This is Bernoulli with n = 3 so we let w = y 1−3 = y −2 . Then, = −2y −3
dt dt
1 3 dw dy
so − y = . Substituting into the equation gives us
2 dt dt
dw
−ty 3 − y = 2ty 3 cos t
dt
dw 1 −2
+ y = −2 cos t
dt t
dw 1
+ w = −2 cos t
dt t
d
(tw) = −2t cos t
dt
tw = −2 cos t − 2t sin t + C
w = −2t−1 cos t − 2 sin t + Ct−1
1
= −2t−1 cos t − 2 sin t + Ct−1
y2
1
y = ±√ .
−2t−1 cos t − 2 sin t + Ct−1
p
− (2 cos (t) + 2 t sin (t) − C) t
or y = ±
2 cos (t) + 2 t sin (t) − C
9 3
5. y 3/2 + 20 cos (t) − 20 sin (t) − Ce3 t = 0
 19

3t
7. y =
t3 − 3C
9. This is a Bernoulli equation with n = 2 so we let w = y 1−2 = y −1 = 1/y.
dw dy dy dw
Then, = −y −2 so = −y 2 . Then,
dt dt dt dt

dy 1 y2
− y =
dt t t
2 dw 1 y2
−y − y =
dt t t
dw 1 −1 1
+ y =−
dt t t
dw 1 1
+ w =− .
dt t t

dw 1 1 R
The integrating factor for + w = − is µ(t) = e 1/t dt = eln t = t, t > 0.
dt t t
Multiplying through by the integrating factor and solving for w gives us:

dw 1 1
+ w=−
dt t t
dw
t + w = −1
dt
d
(tw) = −1
dt
tw = −t + C
w = Ct−1 − 1.

Because w = 1/y, y = 1/w, so 1/y = Ct−1 −1 which means that y = 1/(Ct−1 −1)
or y = Ct/(1 − Ct).
11. Homogeneous of degree 0
13. Not homogeneous
15. Not homogeneous
17. The equation is homogeneous of degree 1. Let t = vy. Then, dt = vdy + ydv.
20

Substituting into the equation, separating and integrating yields

2tdt + (y − 3t)dy = 0
2vy(vdy + ydv) + (y − 3vy)dy = 0
2v(vdy + ydv) + (1 − 3v)dy = 0
(2v 2 − 3v + 1)dy = −2vydv
1 −2v
dy = 2 dv
y 2v − 3v + 1
 
1 1 1
dy = 2 − dv
y 2v − 1 v − 1
ln y = ln(2v − 1) − 2 ln(1 − v) + C
2v − 1
y=C
(v − 1)2
(2t − y)y
y=C
(t − y)2
2
(t − y)
= C.
2t − y
   
−y + t y − 2t
Another form of the solution is−2 ln − + ln − ln (t) = C.
t t
19. The equation is homogeneous of degree 2. Observe that either t = vy or y =
ut results in an equivalent problem. We choose to use y = ut ⇒ dy = udt + tdu.
Then,

(ty − y 2 )dt + t(t − 3y)dy = 0

(t2 u − t2 u2 )dt + t(t − 3ut)(udt + tdu) = 0
(u − u2 )dt + (1 − 3u)(udt + tdu) = 0
2u(1 − 2u)dt + t(1 − 3u)du = 0
2u(1 − 2u)dt = t(3u − 1)du
1 3u − 1
dt = du
t 2u(1 − 2u)
 
1 1 1 1
dt = − + du
t 2 u 2u − 1
1 1
ln t = − ln u − ln(2u − 1) + C
2 4
−4 ln t = 2 ln u + ln(2u − 1) + C
1
= Cu2 (2u − 1)
t4
1 y 2 (t − 2y)
= C
t4 t3
2
ty (t − 2y) = C.
 21
 
−t + 2 y y
Another form of the solution is −1/4 ln − 1/2 ln − ln (t) = C.
t t
21. y 3 − (3 ln (t) + C) t3 = 0
23. This is homogeneous of degree 1. (Also, observe that this is a first order
linear equation in y.) Solving it as a homogeneous equation, we let y = ut ⇒
dy = udt + tdu. Then,

(t − y)dt + tdy = 0
(t − ut)dt + t(udt + tdu) = 0
(1 − u)dt + udt + tdu = 0
dt = −tdu
1
dt = −du
t
ln t = −u + C
y
ln t = − + C
t
y = t(C − ln t).

   
3y − 2t −t + 2 y
25. −2/3 ln + 1/2 ln − ln (t) = C
t t
27. The equation is homogeneous of degree 2. Let t = vy ⇒ dt = vdy + ydv.
Then,

y 2 dt = (ty − 4t2 )dy

y 2 (vdy + ydv) = (vy 2 − 4v 2 y 2 )dy
vdy + ydv = (v − 4v 2 )dy
ydv = −4v 2 dy
4 1
− dy = 2 dv
y v
1
−4 ln y = − + C
v
y
4 ln y = + C.
t

y y
Another form of the solution is 1/4 − ln − ln (t) = C
t t √ !
√
 2 2
t − ty + y (t − 2 y) 3
29. y = −t, −1/2 ln +1/3 3 arctan 1/3 −ln (t) =
t2 t
C
−1
31. 1/2 (−y + t) y −1 e−t/y − ln (y) = C
33. y 0 + 2y = t2 y 1/2 is Bernoulli with n = 1/2. Let w = y 1−1/2 = y 1/2 . Then,
22

dw 1 dy dy dw
= y −1/2 ⇒ = 2y 1/2 . Substituting into the equation yields
dt 2 dt dt dt

dy
+ 2y = t2 y 1/2
dt
dw
2y 1/2 + 2y = t2 y 1/2
dt
dw 1 2
+ y 1/2 = t
dt 2
dw 1
+w = t2 .
dt 2

Using undetermined coefficients, a general solution is w = Ce−t + 21 t2 − t + 1.

Thus, y = (Ce−t + 21 t2 − t + 1)2 . Applying the initial condition results in
y
5

y = 41 (4 − 8 t + 8 t2 − 4 t3 + t4 ).
2

t
√ 1 2 3 4 5

35. y = 1/2 2 + 2 t2 t
37. y = −1/2
p + 1/2 t2
39. y = −3 ln (t) + 27t
3

35. 37. 39.

y y y
12
15 250
10
10 200
8
5
6 150
t
-4 -2 2 4 4 100
-5
-10 2 50
-15 t t
-4 -2 2 4 1 2 3 4 5

41. y 4 dt + (t4 − ty 3 )dy = 0 is homogeneous of degree 4. Let t = vy ⇒ dt =

 23

vdy + ydv. Then,

y 4 dt + (t4 − ty 3 )dy = 0
y 4 (vdy + ydv) + (v 4 y 4 − vy 4 )dy = 0
(vdy + ydv) + (v 4 − v)dy = 0
v 4 dy = −ydv
1 1
dy = − 4 dv
y v
1
ln y = 3 + C
3v
y3
3 ln y = 3 + C.
t

1 y3 y
Applying the initial condition results in − ln − ln t − 8/3 + ln 2 = 0.
3 t3 t√ √
43. We need to solve dy/dt = y/t + t/y subject to y( e) = e. The equation is
homogeneous of degree 2. To see so, we rewrite the equation:

dy y 2 + t2
=
dt yt
yt dy = (y + t2 )dt.
2

Now, we let y = ut ⇒ dy = udt + tdu. Substituting then gives us

ut2 (u dt + t du) = (u2 t2 + t2 ) dt

u(u dt + t du) = (u2 + 1) dt
tu du = dt
1
dt = u2 du
t
1
ln t = u3 + C
3
1 y3
ln t = + C.
3 t3

√ √
Now apply the initial condition and solvep for y, y = 2 t ln t.
√
45. Solve y 2 dx + (x2 + y 2 ) dy = 0; y = ± −x2 ± x4 + C
47. The general solution is y −3 = (3 cot x + C) sin3 x or y = 0. So, the solution
to the initial value problem is y = 0.
49. Because M (t, y)dt+N (t, y)dy = 0 is homogeneous, we can write the equation
in the form dy/dt = F (y, t). If t = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, dt = cos θ dy − r sin θdθ
24

and dy = sin θ dr + r cos θ dθ. Substituting into the equation gives us

dy/dt = F (t, y)
 
sin θ dr + r cos θ dθ r sin θ
=F = F (tan θ)
cos θ dr − r sin θdθ r cos θ
sin θ dr + r cos θ dθ = F (tan θ) cos θ dr − F (tan θ)r sin θdθ
F (tan θ)r sin θdθ + r cos θ dθ = F (tan θ) cos θ dr − sin θ dr
F (tan θ) sin θdθ + cos θ 1
= dr.
F (tan θ) cos θ − sin θ r

53. f (t) = t − 1; g(t) = t2 − t; General solution: (tc − y) − 1 = c2 − c ⇒

d d  0 2
(ty 0 − y − 1) = (y ) − y 0 ⇒

y = ct − 1 + c − c2 ; Singular solution:
dt dt
ty 00 + y 0 = 2y 0 y 00 − y 00 ⇒ (t − 2y 0 + 1)y 00 = 0 ⇒ y 0 = 21 (t + 1) ⇒ y = 14 t2 + 12 t − 34 .
55. f (t) = 1 − 2t; g(t) = t−2 ; General solution: 1 − 2(tc − y) = c−2 ⇒ y =
1 −2
2 (c + 2ct − 1); Singular solution: y = 12 (3t2/3 − 1)
59. We see that the equation is a Lagrange equation by rewriting it in the form
y = ty 02 + (3y 02 − 2y 03 ) and identifying f (y 0 ) = y 02 and g(y) = 3y 02 − 2y 03 .
Differentiating with respect to t yields the equation y 0 = y 02 + 2ty 0 y 00 + 6y 0 y 00 −
6y 02 y 00 and substituting p = y 0 results in

dp dp dp
p = p2 + 2tp+ 6p − 6p2
dt dt dt
dp
p − p2 = 2xp + 6p − 6p2


dx
dx 2xp + 6p − 6p2
=
dp p − p2
dx 2p 6p − p2
+ 2 x= .
dp p − p p − p2

2p3 − 21p2 + 36p + 6C

The solution of this linear equation is x = so
6 (p2 − 2p + 1)

2p3 − 21p2 + 36p + 6C 2

y = xp2 + 3p2 − 2p3 = p + 3p2 − 2p3 .
6 (p2 − 2p + 1)

61. Differentiating the equation gives us y 0 = (2 − y 0 ) + xy 00 + 4y 0 y 00 . Now, we let

 25

p = y 0 and solve for dx/dp:

y 0 = (2 − y 0 ) + xy 00 + 4y 0 y 00
dp dp
p=2−p+x + 4p
dx dx
dp
2p − 2 = (x + 4p)
dx
dx x + 4p
=
dp 2(p − 1)
dx 1 4p
+ x= .
dp 2 − 2p 2(p − 1)
√
This linear equation has solution x = − 83 + 34 p + 43 p2 + C 2 − 2p so
 
8 4 4 p
y = x(2 − o) + 2p2 + 1 = − + p + p2 + C 2 − 2p (2 − p) + 2p2 + 1.
3 3 3

ky0 k
63. limt→∞ y(t) = =
ay0 a
65. General √
solution:
p 2t2 ln |t| + t2 = Ct2 . Initial value problem has two solu-
tions: y = ± 2 t2 (ln 4 − ln t).

64. 65.
y y

4 4

2 2

t t
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4

-2 -2

-4 -4

Exercises 2.6
1. 47.3742, 63.2572
3. 1.8857, 2.09847
5. 79.8458, 123.048
7. 1.95109, 1.95388
9. 83.6491, 88.6035
11. 2.37754, 2.41897
13. 185.34, 206.981
26

15. 1.95547, 1.95609

17. 90.6405, 90.6927
19. 216.582, 216.992
23. 1.95629, 1.95629
25-27. (a) y(t) = e−t , y(1) = 1/e ≈ 0.367879
h = 0.1 h = 0.005 h = 0.025
25. (Euler’s) 0.348678 0.358486 0.363232
26. (Improved) 0.368541 0.368039 0.367918
27. (4th-Order RK) 0.429069 0.414831 0.36788
29. y(0.5) ≈ 0.566144, 1.12971, 1.68832, 2.23992, 2.78297

Chapter 2 Review Exercises

√
3
1. y = 1/5 25 t6 + 125C
dy 1 1
3. The equation − y = y 2 is Bernoulli with n = 2. Let w = y 1−2 = y −1 .
dt t t
Then, dw/dt = −y −2 dy/dt so −y 2 dw/dt = dy/dt. With this substitution we
have,
dy 1 1
− y = y2
dt t t
2 dw 1 1 2
−y − y= y
dt t t
dw 1 −1 1
+ y =− (Divide by −y 2 .)
dt t t
dw 1 1
+ w=− .
dt t t
dw 1 1 R
An integrating factor for + w = − , t > 0, is µ(t) = e 1/t dt = eln t = t.
dt t t
dw 1 1
Multiplying + w = − by the integrating factor and solving for w gives us
dt t t
dw 1 1
+ w=−
dt t t
dw 1 1
t + t w = −t ·
dt t t
d
(t w) = −1
dt
tw = −t + C
C
w = −1 +
t
1 −t + C
=
y t
t
y= .
−t + C

5. y 4 dy = e5t dt ⇒ 51 y 5 = 51 e5t + C ⇒ y 5 = e5t + C → y = (e5t + C)1/5

 27
√
−2 t
7. y (t) = e± −e +C
9. For this first-order linear equation, the preferred method of solution is using
the method of undetermined coefficients to find a particular solution of the non
homogeneous equation. The corresponding homogeneous equation is y 0 + 3y = 0
which is the first order linear homogeneous equation with constant coefficients,
y 0 + ky = 0, which has general solution y = Ce−kt with k = 3 so y 0 + 3y = 0 has
general solution yh = Ce−3t .
Now, look at the forcing function, f (t) = −10 sin t. The associated set for
this forcing function is F = {cos, sin t} and because neither of these is a solution
of the corresponding homogeneous equation, we assume that yp takes the form
yp = A cos t + B sin t with derivative yp0 = −A sin t + B cos t. Substituting into
the non homogeneous equation gives us

yp0 + 3yp = (3A + B cos t + (−A + 3B sin t

= −10 sin t

so

3A + B = 0
−A + 3B = −10,

which has solution A = 1 and B = −3. Therefore, yp = cos t − 3 sin t and

y = yh + yp = Ce−3t + cos t − 3 sin t.
If you preferred
R to use the integrating factor approach, the integrating factor
is µ(t) = e 3 dt = e3t . Now multiply through by the integrating factor and
integrate the result. Observe that integrating the right hand side by hand involves
integration by parts twice.

y 0 + 3y = −10 sin t
e3t y 0 + 3e3t y = −10e3t sin t
d 3t

e y = −10e3t sin t
dt
e3t y = e3t cos t − 3e3t sin t + C
y = cos t − 3 sin t + Ce−3t .

11. The equation (y − t) dt + (t + y) dy = 0 is homogeneous of degree 1. Either

y = ut or t = vy result in an equivalent problem. We choose to use y = ut ⇒
28

dy = u dt + t du. Then,

(y − t) dt + (t + y) dy = 0
u2 + 2u − 1 dt = −t(u + 1)du

1 u+1
dt = − 2 du
t u + 2u − 1
1
ln t = − ln u2 + 2u − 1 + C
2
t−2 = C u2 + 2u − 1

t−2 = Ct−2 y 2 + 2ty − t2

y 2 + 2ty − t2 = C.
√
y = −t ± C1 2C 2 t2 + 1
13. The equation y 2 dt + (ty + t2 ) dy = 0 is homogeneous of degree 2. We let
t = vy so dt = v dy + y dv. Then, substituting and separating variables gives us

y 2 dt + (ty + t2 ) dy = 0
y 2 (v dy + y dv) + (vy · y + (vy)2 ) dy = 0
(v dy + y dv) + (v + v 2 ) dy = 0 (Divide by y 2 .)
(2v + v 2 ) dy = −y dv
1 1
− dy = dv
y 2v + v 2
 
1 1 1 1
− dy = − dv
y 2 v v+2
1
− ln y = (ln v − ln(2 + v)) + C
2  
1 2+v
ln y = ln +C
2 v
r
2+v
y=C .
v

Now replace v with t/y and solve for C.

r
2+v
y=C
v
s
2 + t/y
y=C
t/y
2 + t/y
y2 = C
t/y
ty 2
= C.
t + 2y
 29
√
C ± C 2 + Ct2
Solving for y instead of C results in y = .
    t 
5 −x + 2 t 5 x + 2t 1 x
15. − ln − − ln + ln − ln (t) = C
8 t 8 t 4 t
17. 13 t3 y − cos t − sin y = C
19. 12 t2 ln y + y = C
2
21. y = 1 + Ce−t /2
−1
23. r = t (cos t + t sin t + C)
25. y = t−1 (6et − 6tet + 3t2 et + C)1/3
27. y = −2 + 2 ln(−2/t), y = Ct + 2 ln C
p √ 1
√
3/2
29. y = −1/3 t 6 t − 6 t2 − 12 C + 54 6 t − 6 t2 − 12 C ,
p √ 1
√
3/2
2
y = 1/3 t 6 t − 6 t − 12 C − 54 6 t − 6 t − 12 C 2 ,
p √ 1
√
3/2
y = −1/3 t 6 t + 6 t2 − 12 C + 54 6 t + 6 t2 − 12 C ,
p √ 1
√
3/2
y = 1/3 t 6 t + 6 t2 − 12 C − 54 6 t + 6 t2 − 12 C
31. y + sin(t − y) = π
33. t sin y − y sin t = 0
35. t ln y + y ln t = 0
37.
30

39.
Rx Rx
1. V (x) = 0
πy 2 dt, W (x) = ρV (x) = ρ 0
πy 2 dt
F (x)
2. σ(x) = where F (x) = W (x) + L and A(x) = πy 2 .
A(x)
ρx


3. y(x) = K exp 2σ . If y(0) = 1, then K = 1.
dx −1
41. = kx2 , x(0) = 100, x(1) = 60. x(t) = kt+C
dt so that C = −1/100 and
3 1 −1 100


k = −1/150. When t = 3, x(3) = 150 + 100 = 3 ≈ 33.33 grams.

Differential Equations at Work

 31

A. Modeling the Spread of a Disease

2.
HbL HcL
I I
1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 t 0.0 t
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

4.
HaL HbL
I I
1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 t 0.0 t
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

B. Linear Population Model with Harvesting

1
1. (a) ay−h = 0 has solution y = h/a. (c) y = ((ay0 − h)eat + h) (d) limt→∞ =
a
1  a 
∞ (e) limt→∞ = h/a (f) limt→∞ = −∞; y(t) = 0 when t = − ln 1 − y0
a h
2. (a) y = 2 (b) y = (y0 − 2)et/2 + 2 (c) ∞ (d) 2 (f) −∞; 2 ln 4
3. y = 21 (2 − et ) = 0 when t = ln 2 ≈ 0.693; y = 21 (4 − 3et/2 = 0 when
t = 2 ln(4/3) ≈ 0.575
4. y = 12 (2 − et/2 = 0 when t = 2 ln 2 ≈ 1.386
5. First solve y 0 = 21 y − 21 , y(0) = 1/2 to obtain y = 1 − 12 et/2 . Then, y(1)
√ =
1√
1 − 2 e ≈ 0.176. Then, for year two, solve y 0 = 21 y + 12 , y(1) = 1 − 21 e to
√
obtain y = −1 + 2e(t−1)/2 − 21 et/2 so y(2) = −1 + 2 e − 12 e ≈ 0.938. y 0 =
1 1 √
2 y + r, y(1) = 1 − 2 e has √ solution y = − 21 et/2 − √
2r + (2r + 1)e(t−1)/2 so
1 1 1
y(2) = − 2 e − 2r + (2r + 1) e = 2 = y(0) when r = 4 ( e − 1) ≈ 0.162.
√
6. Set r = 0 in the above. Then,y(2) = e− 12 e ≈ 0.290. y(T ) = e(t−1)/2 −
1 t/2 2
2e = 12 = y(0) when T = −2 ln −1 + √ ≈ 3.092
e
7.
32

HaL HbL

20.20
21.0

20.8 20.15

20.6
20.10
20.4
20.05
20.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

HcL HdL
20.0 20

19

18
19.5
17

16
19.0
15

14

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

8.
HaL HbL
22.0 22.0

21.5 21.5

21.0 21.0

20.5 20.5

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

HcL HdL
22.0 22.0

21.5 21.5

21.0 21.0

20.5 20.5

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

C. Logistic Model with Harvesting

1 √

1. y = a ± a2 − 4ch
2c
2. (a) y = 2, y = 5 (b)
 33

t
2 4 6 8 10

(c) 5 (d) 5 (e) 0 (extinction)

3. 49 − 40h = 0 when h = 49/40

HaL HbL HcL

y y y

7 7 7

6 6 6

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

t t t
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10

4.

No Harvesting Harvesting
y y

t
2.5 1 2 3 4 5
-2
2.0
-4
1.5
-6
1.0
-8
0.5
-10

t -12
1 2 3 4 5

5.
34

No Harvesting Harvesting
y y
12 10

10
8

8
6
6
4
4

2
2

t t
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

6.

6. 7.
y y
14 14

12 12

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

t t
2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12

8. 9.
y y
14 14

12 12

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

t t
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10

D. Logistic Model with Predation

1. a 2.
 35

HaL HbL
W W

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

t t
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

3. k > 19.3 will work

k ‡ 19.3 k ‡ 19.4
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4

-5 -5

k ‡ 19.5 k ‡ 19.6
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4

-5 -5

4.
36

k ‡ 19.1 k ‡ 19.2 k ‡ 19.3

W W W
20 20 20

15 15 15

10 10 10

5 5 5

t t t
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

k ‡ 19.4 k ‡ 19.5 k ‡ 19.6

W W W
20 20 20

15 15 15

10 10 10

5 5 5

t t t
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

k ‡ 19.7 k ‡ 19.8 k ‡ 19.9

W W W
20 20 20

15 15 15

10 10 10

5 5 5

t t t
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

6.
HaL HbL HcL
W W W
20 20 20

15 15 15

10 10 10

5 5 5

t t t
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20