Slo 4 States of Matter I :Gases 4.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 4.) Description of Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) The KMT is a model that explains the behavior of gases based on the following assumptions: 1. Gases are composed of tiny particles (molecules or atoms) that are in constant, random ‘motion. 2. The particles are so smell that their volume is negligible compared to the volume of the container. 3, The particles exert no attractive or repulsive forces on each other. 4. The average kinetic energy of the particles is proportional to the temperature of the gas. 41.2 Gos Laws a. Boyle's Law: The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant temperature. Mathematically: PIVI = P2V2 b. Charles's Law:The volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant pressure, Mathematically: VI/TI = V2/T2 c. Avogadro's Law:The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas at constant temperature and pressure. Mathematicelly: Vi/nl = V2Mn2 d. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure:The total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the portial pressures of the individual gases. Mathematically: Ptotal = Pl + P2 + P3 + e. Graham's Law of Diffusion/EFfusion: “The rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar ‘mass. Mathematically: Ratel/Rate2 = y(M2/MI) 4.1.3 Explanation of Gas Laws with Reference to KMT Boyle's Law: As the volume of 0 gas decreases, the particles collide more frequently with the walls of the container, increasing the pressure. Charles's Law:s the temperature of a gas increases, the average kinetic energy of the particlesincreases, causing them to move faster and collide more frequently with the walls of the container, increasing the volume. Avogadro's Law: As the number of moles of gas increases, there are more particles in the container, which collide more frequently with the walls, increasing the pressure. Dalton's Law of Portial Pressure: Each gas in a mixture exerts its own pressure independently of the others. The total pressure is the sum of the individual partial pressures. Graham's Law of Diffusion/Effusion:Lighter gases diffuse ond effuse faster than heavier gases because their particles have higher average kinetic energy and move faster. 41.4 Relationship between Temperature and Average Kinetic Energy The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas. This means that as the temperature increases, the porticles move faster and have more kinetic energy. 4.2 Absolute Temperature Scale on the Basis of Charles's Law 4.2.) Absolute Zero Absolute zero is the temperature ot which the volume of a gas would be zero according to Charles's Law. This is the lowest possible temperature that can be reached. Absolute 2er0 is equal to -273.1S degrees Celsius or 0 Kelvin. 4.2.2 Temperature Conversion Celsius to Kelvin” K = °C + 273.15 Fahrenheit to Celsius:°¢ = (F - 32) /1.8 Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = (°C 1.8) + 32 Kelvin to Celsius: °C = K - 273.15 (Kk * 18) - 459.67 Kelvin to Fahrenheit:F4.3 Ideal Gas Equation 4.3.1 Derivation of the Ideal Gas Equation: Combining Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, and Avogadro's Law, we can derive the Ideal Gas Equation: Boyle's Law: PV = ki Cwhere kl is o constant) Charles's Law: V/T = k2 (where k2 is a constant) Avogadro's Law: Vin = k3 (where k3 is a constant) Combining these equations, we get: PVInT = ki * k2 * k3 Since the product of constants is also a constant, we can replace it with a single constant, R: PV = RT This equation is known as the Ideol Gas Equation. 4. Calculating the Ideal Gas Constant (R): The ideal gas constant, R, is a proportionality constant that relates the pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of a gas. Its value depends on the units used for pressure, volume, and temperature. a. Pressure in atm, Volume in dm? R = 0.0821 Latm/molK b. Pressure in mm Hg or torr, Volume in cm? R = 62.36 LemmHg/molK cc. Pressure in Nen-?, Volume in m? R = 8.319 ImolK 4.3.3 Calculations Using the Ideal Gas Equation: Given any three of the following variables, you can use the Ideal Gas Equation (PV = nRT) to calculate the fourth: - Pressure CP): Measured in atmospheres (atm), millimeters of mercury (mmHg), torr, or pascals (Pa). - Volume (V): Measured in liters (L), cubic decimeters Cdm*), cubic centimeters Cem’), or cubie meters (m'). - Number of moles (n): Calculated from the mass of the gas divided by its molar mass. - Temperature (T): Measured in Kelvin (K).Example: If you know the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas, you can calculate the number of moles Cand therefore the mass) using the Ideal Gas Equation. 4.3.4 Calculating Molar Mass from Density at STP Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): - Temperature: 273.15 K - Pressure: | atm Using the Ideal Gas Equation and the definition of density Cmass/volume), you can derive the following equation to calculate the molar mass of a gas: Molar mass = (density * R*T) /P Example: If you know the density of a gas at STP, you can use this equation to caleulate its molar mass. 4.3.5 Effect of Pressure on Scuba Divers: As a scuba diver descends deeper into the water, the pressure increases due to the weight of the water above them. This increased pressure affects the body in several ways: - Increased pressure: The increased pressure forces more gas into the body's tissues, including the lungs, blood, and tissues. - Nitrogen narcosis: At greater depths, the increased pressure can cause nitrogen to dissolve more readily in the blood, leading to a condition known as nitrogen narcosis or "rapture of the deep." This can couse symptoms similar to being intoxicated. - Decompression sickness: If a diver ascends too quickly, the dissolved nitrogen can form bubbles in the tissues, leading to a painful condition called decompression sickness or "the bends.” This can cause joint pain, muscle weakness, ond in severe cases, paralysis or even death. To prevent these problems, scuba divers must follow specific ascent rates and may use decompression tables or dive computers to plan their dives. Additionally, they may breathe special gas mixtures that contoin less nitrogen, such as helium, to reduce the risk of nitrogen narcosis. 4.4 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 4.4.1 Explaining Deviations from Ideal BehaviorThe Ideal Gas Law assumes that gases behave ideally, meaning they follow the assumptions of the Kinetic Molecular Theory. However, real gases often deviate from ideal behavior, especially at high pressures and low temperatures. Reasons for deviations: 1, Intermolecular forces: Real gas molecules have attractive forces (like van der Waals forces) that cause them to deviate from ideal behavior. These forces become more significant at high pressures and low temperatures when the molecules are closer together. 2. Molecular volume: The Ideal Gas Law assumes that gas molecules have negligible volume. However, real gas molecules do have volume, and at high pressures, this volume becomes more significant. 4S van der Weals Equation 4.5.1 Pressure and Volume Correction: The van der Waals equation is a modification of the Ideal Gas Law thet accounts for the ‘intermolecular forces and molecular volume of real gases. It includes two correction factors: 1. Pressure correction (aNV?): This term accounts for the attractive forces between gas molecules. The "a" constant is @ measure of the strength of these forces. As the volume decreases (pressure increases), the attractive forces become more significant, reducing the effective pressure of the gas. 2. Volume correction (nb): This term accounts for the volume occupied by the gas molecules themselves. The "b" constant is a measure of the excluded volume per mole of gas. As the volume decreases (pressure increases), the volume occupied by the molecules becomes more significant, reducing the avoilable volume for the gos. 4.5.2 Derivation of the van der Waals Equation: The van der Waals equation is derived by modifying the Ideal Gas Law to include the pressure and volume correction terms: OP + aN) - nb) = nRT Where:~ P is the pressure of the gas - Vis the volume of the gas - n is the number of moles of gas ~ Ris the ideal gas constant - Tis the temperature of the gas - a and b are van der Waals constants specific to the gas The van der Waals equation provides a more accurate description of the behavior of real gases, especially at high pressures and low temperatures. 46 liquefaction of Gases 4.6.1 Joule-Thomson Effect: The Joule-Thomson effect is the cooling or heating of a gas when it expands adiabatically Gwithout heat exchange with the surroundings). This effect is used in the liquefection of gases. - Cooling effect: For most gases at room temperature, the Joule-Thomson effect results in cooling when the gas expands. This cooling is due to the decrease in potential energy of the gas molecules as they move apart. - Inversion temperature: The temperature at which a gas neither cools nor heats during adiabatic expansion is called the inversion temperature. Below the inversion temperature, the gas cools upon expansion, while above the inversion temperature, it heats. 4.6.2 Linde's Method Linde's method is a common method for liquetying gases, especially air. It utilizes the Joule- Thomson effect: 1. Compression: The gas is compressed to a high pressure. 2. Cooling: The compressed gas is cooled to a temperature below its inversion temperature. 3. Expansion: The cooled gas is allowed to expand through a valve, causing it to cool further due to the Joule-Thomson effect. 4. Recirculation: & portion of the liquefied gas is used to pre-cool the incoming gas, increasing the efficiency of the process. 4.7 Fourth State of Matter: Plasma 4.7.1 Definition of PlasmaPlasma is often referred to as the "fourth state of matter." It is a highly ionized gas that contains a significant number of charged particles Cions and electrons). Unlike gases, which ore composed of neutral atoms or molecules, plasma exhibits collective behavior due to the presence of these charged particles. 4.7.2 Formation of Plasma Plasma can be formed by: ~ Heating: Heating a gas to extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius) can cause the atoms to lose their electrons, creating a plasma. = lonization: Exposing a gas to strong electromagnetic radiation (like X-rays or ultraviolet light) can ionize the atoms, forming a plasma. - Electric discharge: Passing a high-voltage electric current through @ gas can cause the gas to break down into a plasma 4.7.3 Characteristics and Applications of Plasma ~ Characteristics: - High temperature and energy ~ Strong electrical conductivity - Electromagnetic properties ~ Ability to generate and sustain magnetic fields - Applications: - Fusion energy research - Plasma TVs - Spoce propulsion - Material processing (e.g., surface treatment, sterilization) - Medical applications (e.g., cancer treatment) - Lighting Ceg., fluorescent lamps, neon signs)