Prof Samuel Babafemi Olaleye

Professor of Physiology

HORMONES –
• Types
• Mechanism of Action
• Feedback mechanisms

Department of Physiology
College of Medicine, University of Ibadan. Ibadan, Nigeria
 Prof Samuel Babafemi Olaleye
Professor of Physiology

OVERVIEW OF
THE ENDOCRINE
Department of Physiology
GLANDS
College of Medicine, University of Ibadan. Ibadan, Nigeria
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
DEFINITION:
• A group of ductless glands that release hormones
into the circulatory system

• Similar to the nervous system in that it plays a vital

role in controlling and regulating many of the body’s
functions.

• While the nervous system uses nerve impulses

and neurotransmitters for communication, the
endocrine system uses chemical messengers
called hormones
NERVOUS VS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• The nervous system uses two types of intercellular
communication—electrical and chemical signaling—either
by the direct action of an electrical potential, or in the latter
case, through the action of chemical neurotransmitters such as
serotonin or norepinephrine.

• In contrast, the endocrine system uses just one method of

communication: chemical signaling. These signals are sent by
the endocrine organs, which secrete chemicals—the
hormone—into the extracellular fluid.

• Endocrine signaling requires more time than neural signaling

to prompt a response in target cells, though the precise amount
of time varies with different hormones.
• Endocrine signaling is typically less specific than neural
signaling (the same hormone may play a role in a variety
of different physiological processes depending on the
target cells involved). For example, the hormone oxytocin promotes
uterine contractions in people in labor. It is also important in breastfeeding, and
may be involved in the sexual response and in feelings of emotional attachment
in humans.

• The nervous system involves quick responses to rapid

changes in the external environment, while the endocrine
system is usually slower acting—taking care of the
internal environment of the body, maintaining
homeostasis, and controlling reproduction
 Types of Chemical signaling
• Endocrine signaling, hormones secreted into the
extracellular fluid diffuse into the blood or lymph, and
can then travel great distances throughout the body.
• Exocrine signaling - glands release their secretions
through ducts. e.g. sebaceous and sweat glands of the skin.
• Autocrine (auto- = “self”) - chemical elicits a response
in the same cell that secreted it. Interleukin-1, or IL-1, is a
signaling molecule that plays an important role in inflammatory response.

• Paracrine: chemical induces a response in neighboring cells.

E.g. Histamine causes the smooth muscle cells of the bronchi to constrict, narrowing the
airways. Also, neurotransmitters of the nervous system, which act only locally within the
synaptic cleft.
General definition of Hormones
• Classic definition ( By Starling and Bayliss)
• The hormones are chemical substances produced by
specialized tissues and secreted into blood, in which they are
carried to target organs and triggers specific biological
functions.

• Limits of classic definition:

• Specialized tissues for hormone synthesis
• Blood for hormone distribution
• A separate target organ

• Broader definition
• A hormone is a chemical non-nutrient, intercellular messenger
that is effective at micromolar concentrations or less (high
efficiency).
TYPES/CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES

• Hormones may be classified based on

• Chemical nature
• Mechanism of action
• Nature or mechanism of action
• Effects
TYPES/CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES

• Classification based chemical nature

• Protein or peptide hormones
• Insulin, Glucagon, ADH, Oxytocin

• Steroid hormones
• Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, sex hormones

• Amino acid derivatives

• Thyroid hormones (T3, T4), Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine
More specific classification based on chemical nature

Hormones Source Example

Steroid hormones Derived from cholesterol Sex hormone, adrenal
cortex hormones
Amine hormones Derived from modification of Melatonin (from
amino acids. Synthesized tryptophan)
from amino acids tryptophan Thyroid hormones and
or tyrosine catecholamines (from
tyrosine)
Peptide hormones Usually of few amino acids Oxytocin and Vasopressin
Protein hormones Built from large chains of Insulin, Glucagon,
Somatotropins
Glycoprotein hormones Conjugated protein bound to LH, FSH, TSH
carbohydrate such as
galactose, mannose and
fructose
Eicosanoid hormones Made up of small fatty acid Prostaglandins
derivatives with a variety of
arachidonic acid
HOW DO HORMONES ACT?
 MECHAMISM OF ACTION OF HORMONES

• Fixed membrane receptor mechanism

• Water-soluble hormones that are amines or proteins in composition such
as the growth hormone, oxytocin, ADH, etc.
• These hormones can’t pass through the lipid membrane. They have their
target receptor on the cell membrane to which the hormone binds.
• When the hormone binds on the specific target receptor, the enzyme
adenyl cyclase in the cell membrane is activated. This helps in the
production of cyclic AMP (cAMP).
• cAMP acts as the secondary messenger. It diffuses through the cell
membrane and activates several enzymatic reactions to cause
biochemical changes.
• The target cell responds to these changes and cAMP is deactivated by
the enzyme phosphodiesterase.
• On the basis of secondary messengers group there
are 3 types of hormones with Mobile receptor
mechanism
• Secondary messenger is cAMP: e.g. Adrenocorticotropic
hormone, FSH, LH, PTH,ADH, calcitonin, glucagon,
• Secondary messenger is phosphatidylinositol/calcium or
both: eg. Acetylcholine, vasopressin, cholecystokinin,
gastrin, gonadotropin releasing hormone, thyrotropin
releasing hormone,
• Secondary messenger is cGMP: Atrial natriuretic peptide
(ANP)
• Mobile receptor mechanism
• This type of mechanism is shown by lipid soluble hormones such as
fatty acids and steroids that can easily pass through the plasma
membrane.
• They possess intracellular receptors. The hormones bind to the target
receptor that activates the enzymatic activity of the cell to bring about
biochemical changes.
• Transcription of DNA is initiated by the hormone-receptor complex.
• The mRNA is translated into protein. This protein causes biochemical
changes inside the cell.
 Regulatory function of hormones
• Hormones help in maintaining the internal environment of
the body.
• When the secretion of hormones is under the control of other
hormones, it is known as feedback control.
• There are two types:
• Positive Feedback Control: In this process, the end
products of action cause more of the action to occur in a
feedback loop. For eg., blood clotting, menstrual cycle.
• Negative Feedback Control: In this type of regulation the
end product of a process reduces the stimulus of that same
process. For eg., temperature regulation, regulation of
blood sugar.
Profile of Endocrine System
Physiology of the
Hypothalamus
& Pituitary Gland
 Hypothalamus
• hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain. It
is part of the limbic system, which controls the
autonomic nervous system and the endocrine
systems.
• One of the most important functions of the
hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to
the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
(hypophysis).
• Secretes releasing hormones to cause the pituitary to
release hormones
• Secretes inhibiting hormones to turn off secretion of
pituitary hormones
 Three Methods of Hypothalamic
Control over the Endocrine System
 Hormones of the Hypothalamus
HORMONES
TARGET FUNCTION
stimulates release of TSH and prolactin
TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)
(PL)
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) stimulates the release of gonadotrophins
(FSH, LH)
CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) stimulates release of ACTH

GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) ANTERIOR stimulates release of GH

PITUITARY
GHIH (growth hormone release inhibiting hormone GLAND
inhibits release of GH
or somatostatin (SMS))
PRH (prolactin releasing hormone), also called
stimulates release of PL
prolactin releasing factor (PRF) ?
PIH (prolactin inhibiting hormone), also called
prolactin inhibiting factor. This hormone or factor is inhibits release of PL
dopamine
Oxytocin POSTERIOR uterine contractions; milk let-down
PITUITARY
ADH (Vasopresin) GLAND water balance
 Pituitary (Hypophysis)
• pituitary gland, also called the hypophysis, is
a small gland—about 1 cm in diameter and 0.5
to 1 gram in weight— that lies in the sella
turcica, a bony cavity at the base of the brain,
and is connected to the hypothalamus by the
pituitary (or hypophysial) stalk.
 Pituitary (Hypophysis)
• Neurohypophysis – posterior lobe (neural tissue)
and the infundibulum
• Receives, stores, and releases hormones from
the hypothalamus
• Adenohypophysis – anterior lobe, made up of
glandular tissue
• Synthesizes and secretes a number of
hormones
The Anatomy and Orientation of the
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships:
Anterior Lobe

• The anterior lobe of the pituitary is an

outpocketing of the oral mucosa
• There is no direct neural contact with the
hypothalamus
• There is a vascular connection, the hypophyseal
portal system,
 Hypophyseal portal system
• At the median eminence, terminals of
hypothalamic neurons release regulatory factors
into the tissue fluids then taken by fenestrated
capillaries down to the anterior lobe.
• Releasing hormones
• Inhibiting hormones

• All blood entering the portal system will reach

the intended target cells before returning to the
general circulation
The Hypophyseal Portal System
Pituitary (Hypophysis)
Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships:
Posterior Lobe

• Has a neural connection with the hypothalamus

(hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)
• Nuclei of the hypothalamus (supraoptic and
paraventricular) synthesize oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• These hormones are transported to the posterior
pituitary
Cells Types of the Anterior Pituitary

• Five cell types in the anterior pituitary:

1. Somatotropes—human growth hormone (hGH)
2. Corticotropes—adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
3. Thyrotropes—thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
4. Gonadotropes—gonadotropic hormones, which
include both luteinizing hormone (LH) and
folliclestimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Lactotropes—prolactin (PRL)
Adenophypophyseal Hormones
• The six hormones of the adenohypophysis:
• Are abbreviated as GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH,
and PRL
• Regulate the activity of other endocrine glands
• In addition, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC):
• Has been isolated from the pituitary
• Is enzymatically split into ACTH, opiates, and
MSH
 Adenohypophyseal Cells &
Hormones
Cell Hormone Chemistry Physiologic Actions
Single chain of 39 Stimulates production of glucocorticoids
Corticotropes Adrenocorticotropic amino acids and androgens by the adrenal cortex;
hormone (cortico- maintains size of zona fasciculata and
tropin; ACTH) zona reticularis of cortex

Stimulates production of thyroid hormones,T4

Glycoprotein having two and T3, by thyroid follicular cells;maintains size
Thyrotropes Thyroid-stimulating subunits, (89 amino acids) of follicular cells
hormone (thyro- and ß (112 amino acids)
tropin; TSH) Stimulates development of ovarian follicles;
Glycoprotein having two sub- regulates spermatogenesis in the testis
units, (89aa) and ß (115aa)
Gonadotropes Follicle-stimulating Causes ovulation and formation of corpus luteum
in the ovary; stimulates production of estrogen
hormone (FSH) Glycoprotein having two sub- and progesterone by the ovary; stimulates
units, (89aa) and ß (115aa) testosterone production by the testis
Gonadotropes Lutenizing hormone
(LH)
Single chain of 198
Mammotropes, Essential for milk production by lactating
Prolactin (PRL) amino acids mammary gland
Lactotropes

Growth hormone Single chain of 191 Stimulates postnatal body growth; stimulates
Somatotropes secretion of IGF-1; stimulates triglyceride
(somatotropin; GH) amino acids lipolysis; inhibits actions of insulin on carbo-
hydrate and lipid metabolism
 Growth Hormone (GH)
• growth hormone (GH) is a protein
hormone secreted by somatotropes
(somatotrophs), which make up
around 40% of the anterior pituitary
gland.

• GH has many target tissues including

bone, skeletal muscle, liver and adipose
tissue.
 Growth Hormone (GH)

• Antagonistic hypothalamic hormones

regulate GH
• Growth hormone–releasing hormone
(GHRH) stimulates GH release
• Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone
(GHIH) inhibits GH release
Growth hormone promotes growth of many body cells

• Promote increased size of the cells

• Increased mitosis
• Specific differentiation of certain types of cells
such as bone growth cells and early muscle cells
 Indirect physiological role of GH (GH and growth)

Mechanism of action of IGF-1:

Increases amino acids uptake
by chondrocyres.
Stimulates protein synthesis
by chondrocyres.
Stimulates mitosis of
chondrocytes. This effect causes
an increase in number of
chondrocytes (i.e., hyperplasia).
Stimulates expansion in size
of the chondrocytes (i.e.,
hypertrophy).

Thus, IGF-1 leads to elongation of

the bones.
Growth hormone has several metabolic effects

1- Increased rate of proteins synthesis

in most cells of the body
2- Increased mobilization of fatty acids
from adipose tissue, increased free fatty
acid in the blood, and increased use of
fatty acids for energy.
3- Decreased rate of glucose utilization
through the body
Increased rate of proteins synthesis in most cells
of the body (anabolic effect)

GH promotes protein deposition in tissues :

• enhancement of amino acid transport through

the cell membrane
• enhancement of RNA translation to cause
protein synthesis by the ribosomes
• Increased nuclear transcription of DNA to form
RNA
• Decreased catabolism of protein and amino acids
Increased Mobilization of Fatty
Acids
• release of fatty acids from adipose tissue
• increasing the FFA in the body fluids
• conversion of FFA to acetyl coemzyme A
• fat is used for energy in preference to the use of
carbohydrates and proteins.
• High GH levels might cause excessive fat
mobilization leading to acetoacetic acid
formation by the liver>>> causing ketosis>>>fatty
liver.
 utilization through the body
(decrease carbohydrate
•
utilization)
Decreased glucose uptake in tissues such as
skeletal muscle and fat
• Increased glucose production by the liver
• increased insulin secretion (cause insulin
resistance).
• Excess secretion of growth hormone =metabolic
disturbances very similar to patients with type II
diabetes. (diabetogenic effect)
for the growth promoting action of
growth hormone
• Animal +lacks of pancreas>>>>no growth
hormone effect
• Animal+ diet without carbohydrate >>>> no
growth hormone effect

• Carbohydrate and insulin>>production of energy

• Insulin : transport of amino acids into cells and
glucose transport stimulation
Growth hormone stimulates cartilage and
bone Growth

• Increased deposition of protein by the

chondrocytic and osteogenic cells that cause
bone growth
• Increased rate of reproduction of these cells
• Converting chondrocytes into osteogenic cells,
thus causing deposition of new bone
• Strongly stimulates osteoblast activity.
 Somatomedins (insulin Like Growth factor-1)

• Chondrocytes cultured outside the body+ growth

hormone= proliferation or enlargement fails.
• Growth hormone +inside body= proliferation
and growth of cells
Factors Affecting GH Secretion

Stimulation Inhibition

Glucose decrease Somatostatin

Free fatty acid decrease Glucose increase
Amino acid increase (arginine) Free fatty acid increase
Fasting IGF-1
Prolonged caloric deprivation Growth hormone
Stress Senescence
Exercise
Puberty
Androgens and estrogens
Sleep
Metabolic vs. Growth actions of Growth
Hormone

• Metabolic actions of growth hormone are directly

induced by the GH through its receptor.
• Growth actions are mediated by insulin-like
growth factor 1 (IGF-1)
Metabolic Action of Growth Hormone
 Hyposecretion of GH; Dwarfism

Dwarfism means failure in growth (i.e., growth retardation).

It is caused usually by defective HGH axis (hypothalamic-anterior pituitary-liver-

target organs axis).

Thus, dwarfism can be caused by decreased secretion of GHRH, HGH or IGF-I.

There may be a defect in the GH receptors.

Other causes of dwarfism include deficiency of thyroid hormones in childhood.

 Hyposecretion of GH; Dwarfism

Normal and
abnormal
growth
Hypersecretion of HGH

Gigantism and acromegaly

Excessive production of GH from a GH-secreting
pituitary tumour (somatotropes tumours)can cause
gigantism if excessive GH production occurs
when the body is growing (in childhood and at
puberty), i.e., before the epiphyseal growth plates
fuse.

Tumors in adulthood (after epiphyseal closure)

cause acromegaly.
Pituitary gigantism
 Acromegaly

Clinical features:
Befor After
Excessive soft tissue growth
e
1- prominent supraorbital ridge.
2- Prognathism.
3- Ride-spaced teeth (widening of
incisor spaces).
4- Increase shoe size.
5- Thick spade-like hands
6- Deepening voice.
7- Macroglossia.
 Prolactin (PL)
Prolactin (PL) is secreted from mammotrophs (lactotrophs) in
the anterior pituitary.

Control of PL secretion:

• Hypothalamic control of PL secretion is performed primarily

by dopamine. Thus, pituitary stalk lesions cause
hyperprolacinaemia.

• The hypothalamic PRH (prolactin releasing hormone), also

called prolactin releasing factor (PRF) stimulates release of PL
? The hypothalamic TRH stimulates release of PL.

• PL secretion is increased during pregnancy and suckling.

• PL causes increased PIH (dopamine) secretion, i.e., it inhibits

its own secretion.
 Prolactin (PL)

Main target organ:

Mammary gland (breast).

Effects in females:

PL plays an important role in the normal development (growth) of the

mammary gland and milk synthesis (production) during lactation.
PL inhibits GnRH, FSH and LH secretion.
PL antagonizes the actions of FSH and LH. Thus, ovulation is often
inhibited by breast feeding.

Effects in males:

In males, PL is involved in testicular function.

Effects of PL and control of its secretion
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
(Thyrotropin)

• Tropic hormone that stimulates the

normal development and secretory
activity of the thyroid gland
• Triggered by hypothalamic peptide
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Rising blood levels of thyroid hormones
act on the pituitary and hypothalamus to
block the release of TSH
 The hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis

Thyrotropin releasing
hormone (TRH) is produced
in the hypothalamus. It
reaches the thyrotrophs in
the anterior pituitary by the
hypothalamic-hypophysial-
portal system.

TRH stimulates the

synthesis and release of TSH
by the thyrotrophs from the
anterior pituitary.

In both the hypothalamus

and the pituitary, it is
primarily T3 that inhibits
TRH and TSH secretion,
respectively.
 The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Corticotropin-releasing hormone or
factor (CRH or CRF) is produced ) is
produced in the hypothalamus.

It reaches the corticotrophs in the

anterior pituitary by the hypothalamic-
hypophysial-portal system.

CRH stimulates the synthesis of

adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH).

ACTH stimulates the synthesis of

adrenal steroid hormones.

Glucocorticoids (cortisol) released into

the systemic circulation exert negative
feedback inhibition of CRF and ACTH
release from the hypothalamus and
pituitary, respectively.
 Gonadotropins
• Gonadotropins – follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH)
• Regulate the function of the ovaries
and testes
• FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm)
production
• Absent from the blood in prepubertal
boys and girls
• Triggered by the hypothalamic
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Functions of Gonadotropins

• In females
• LH works with FSH to cause
maturation of the ovarian follicle
• LH works alone to trigger ovulation
(expulsion of the egg from the follicle)
• LH promotes synthesis and release of
estrogens and progesterone
 Functions of Gonadotropins

• In males
• LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes
(Leydig cells) to produce testosterone
• FSH targets Sertoli cells in the seminiferous
tubules of the testes and promotes
spermatogenesis
 The Posterior Pituitary Gland
• In humans, the posterior
pituitary lies directly behind
the anterior pituitary gland
(Fig. 1).
• The stalk of the posterior
pituitary (neurohypophysis)
is a downward extension of
the infundibulum of
the hypothalamus, which
terminates in the neural lobe
(pars nervosa).
• The hormones of the posterior pituitary,
oxytocin and vasopressin, are synthesized in
individual hormone-specific magnocellular
neurons.
• The supraoptic nucleus is relatively simple,
with 80% to 90% of the neurons producing
vasopressin and virtually all axons projecting
to the posterior pituitary.
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• Posterior pituitary secretes two hormones,
• Oxytocin (OXT)
• (Antidiuretic hormone, ADH),
• synthesized by nerves in the paraventricular and
supraoptic nuclei (PVN and SON) of hypothalamus.
OXYTOCIN
OXYTOCIN
OXYTOCIN
ADH
ADH
•ADH increases water reabsorption by
increasing the water permeability of the
collecting duct of the kidney. Further
discussion of its mechanism of action and the
control of its release can be found in Renal
Physiology.
 THYROID GLAND
General Organization
• Thyroid gland consists of two lobes, one on either
side of the trachea just below the cricoid cartilage.
• Lobes are composed of spherical follicles formed by
a single layer of epithelial cells that surround a
lumen filled with a gel-like substance called colloid
composed primarily of thyroglobulin, the precursor
of thyroid hormones.

• The epithelial cells

synthesize and secrete
thyroglobulin
ANATOMY OF THYROID GLAND
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF
THYROID GLAND
Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone
• Synthesis includes steps that occur
within the epithelial cells and colloid of
the thyroid gland as well as at the target
tissue.
• Iodine uptake and thyroglobulin
synthesis occur within epithelial cells.
• Iodination of thyroglobulin and synthesis
of T3 and T4 occur within the colloid.
• T3, most active form of the hormone, is
produced from T4 at the target tissue.
 Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone
Blood Follicle Epithelium Colloid MIT+DIT

Thyroid Peroxidase
I- I- I2 I2 T3
+
Pump
Na+
TG TG DIT+DIT
MIT
Tyrosine
+
DIT T4
-T3
-T3
T3 -T4
+ TG -MIT TG -T4
-MIT
T4 -DIT
-DIT

Thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion involves processes that

occur within follicular epithelial cells and in colloid.
I-: iodide ions; I2: iodine; TG: thyroglobulin; MIT:
monoiodotyrosine; DIT: diiodotyrosine.
Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone
 Tyrosine can be used for
neurotransmitters synthesis
 Releases of Thyroid Hormone
• Stimulation of hormone secretion by TSH causes
the epithelial cells to engulf small globs of colloid
and move them into the cell by endocytosis. Within
the epithelial cell, MIT, DIT, T3, and T4 are secreted
into the blood while MIT and DIT are broken down
to I- and tyrosine molecules for reuse by the
epithelial cell.
• Most of the secreted T3 and T4 are carried in the
blood bound to thyroxinebinding globulin (TBG，).
T3 is more biologically active than T4, but since T4
synthesis occurs more rapidly, more T4 than T3 is
secreted. Target tissues contain an enzyme, 5’-
iodinase that converts T4 to T3.
Releases of Thyroid Hormone
 Control of Thyroid Hormone
Secretion
• Secretion is stimulated by TSH, which
in turn is stimulated by TRH.
• TSH stimulates all aspects of thyroid
hormone synthesis and secretion and
also has a trophic effect.
• Elevated blood levels of T3 feed back to
the anterior pituitary thyrotrophs and
reduce TSH secretion.
 Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
• TRH is release from the hypothalamus which acts on the anterior
pituitary thyrotrophs stimulating TSH release. TSH acts on the
thyroid gland stimulating every aspect of thyroid hormone synthesis
and secretion. TSH increase iodide uptake by follicular cells,
iodination of thyroglobulin, formation of MIT and DIT, and
endocytosis of colloid. These actions are mediated through G-protein
coupled membrane TSH receptors on the thyroid gland that stimulate
the formation of cyclic AMP and a cascade of protein phosphorylation
steps. With sustained TSH release, a trophic effect occurs causing
thyroid gland enlargement.
• T3 controls its own release through a negative feedback effect on the
pituitary thyrotrophs. Increasing blood levels of free T3 act on
pituitary thyrotrophs to decrease their number of TRH receptors. This
makes TRH less effective, decreasing the amount of TSH released and
therefore, the amount of thyroid hormone secreted. The net effect of
this feedback process is to produce a relatively constant blood level
of thyroid hormones.
 Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

Hypothalamus

TRH

Anterior Pituitary (-)

(Thyrotrophs)

TSH

Thyroid Gland

T3

Thyroid hormone (T3) limits its own secretion by inhibiting TSH

release from thyrotroph cells of the anterior pituitary.
Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
 Action of Thyroid Hormones
• Because T3 acts by inducing DNA transcription, its effects on
tissue are the result of protein synthesis, primarily the
synthesis of enzymes (particularly the Na-K-ATPase involved
in ion transport).
• Thyroid hormones are required for normal growth throughout
life.
• Thyroid hormones affect basal metabolic rate (BMR, raises
the cellular oxygen consumption and heat production),
metabolism, the cardiovascular system (CO, Ventricular
contractility and HR↑), and the nervous system (excitability↑).
• Symptoms of thyroid hormone excess or deficiency can be
predicted from their normal effect (hyperthyroidism , an
autoimmune disease named Graves’ disease or
hypothyroidism, also an autoimmune destruction of the
thyroid gland, thyroiditis , maybe cretinism occur).
Hyperthyroidism
 Hypothyroidism

Cretinism