2024 EDITION

R. MALEMBA
ST. PATRICK’S SECONDARY SCHOOL
2024 EDITION
COMPUTER STUDIES – FORM 3 PAMPHLET

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC 1: USING SPREADSHEET I____________________________________________________3

TOPIC 2: SOFTWARE INSTALLATION________________________________________________29

TOPIC 3: PROGRAMING FUNDAMENTALS___________________________________________48

TOPIC 4: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY__________________________91

TOPIC 5: TROUBLESHOOTING COMPUTERS_________________________________________135

TOPIC 6: USING DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE__________________________________148

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TOPIC 1: USING SPREADSHEET I
INTRODUCTION
 Many problems in Mathematics, science and finance requires a person to work with
numbers and manipulate them using formulas.
 The simplest of doing this is to manually perform calculations using calculator
 Today, several computer applications have been developed to analyze numerical data
 One of such application is electronic spreadsheets
DEFINITION AND TYPES OF SPREADSHEETS
 In financial accounting, spreadsheet is an accounting ledger book in which data is
organized into rows and columns.
TYPES OF SPREADSHEETS
 There are two types of spreadsheets namely:
1. Manual or traditional spreadsheet
2. Electronic spreadsheet
1. TRADITIONAL SPREADSHEETS
 A traditional spreadsheet is made up of sheet of papers divided into rows and columns
in which data is entered manually.
 A manual worksheet is a ledger sheet within which values can be entered and arithmetic
computations made manually on them
 Manual spreadsheets have been used:
i. To organize data into tabular format
ii. In financial and accounting offices where figures are entered for easier organization
and arithmetic computation
iii. In stock management where stock values are entered in an organized way.
2. ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET
 An electronic spreadsheet is an application software made up of rows and columns, and
is used to organize, calculate and analyse numerical data.
 The rows and columns are similar to the ones of a manual spreadsheet.

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EXAMPLES OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
i. Microsoft Excel
ii. OpenOffice Calc
iii. Lotus 1-2-3
iv. Corel Quattro Pro

COMPONENTS OF SPREADSHEETS
i. Worksheets
ii. Database
iii. Graphs

i Worksheet
 A worksheet is a work area that is made up of rows and columns where data is entered
 Each row is labelled with numbers (1,2,3,…) while columns are labelled with letters
(A,B,C,…) as shown below:

 A row is a horizontal arrangement of cells while a column is vertical arrangement of

cells.
 The intersection between a row and a column is called a cell.
 Each cell is referred using the column label followed by the row label.
 The active cell in the Excel window below is C3

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ii. DATABASE
 A spreadsheet database is a collection of related data items or records.
 A record is made up of distinct data elements called fields that together form an entity.
 An entity is something of interest such as a person, a place or item.
 For example, a student is an entity of which can create a record containing first name,
last name, gender and date of birth fields.
 Assuming that the worksheet holds these details for many students, row after row, the
worksheet can be considered as a database consisting of records that may be organized
by sorting, searching or querying
iii. GRAPHS
 A graph is a pictorial representation of the relationship between two or more values on
a worksheet.
 In most spreadsheet, graphs are referred to as charts.
 A chart enables the user to present complex values from a worksheet in a simple, easy to
understand format.
 Examples of charts include: pie chart, line carts, column chart and bar chart
USES OF A SPREADSHEET
 Some of the uses of a spreadsheet include
i. Arranging information: since worksheets are made up of rows and columns, data can
be entered and organized automatically into printable tabular layout

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ii. Preparation of budget: a spreadsheet is used to prepare budgets and other accounting
documents like cash flows and expenditure statements
iii. Interest calculation: spreadsheet is used to compute both simple and compound
interest
iv. Statistical analysis: spreadsheet has tools that enable scientists and other users to
perform simple and complex statistical analysis. Simple analysis includes:
computation of mean, mode, deviation, sum and product. Complex analysis includes
computation of variance, cumulative distribution, regression analysis etc.
BENEFITS OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET
 Electronic spreadsheet offers various benefits over manual spreadsheets. These include:
i. Electronic spreadsheets enable computations to be done fast, accurate and efficiently
ii. Electronic spreadsheet offers a large virtual sheet for data entry and manipulation. A
manual spreadsheet has only 30 columns and 51 rows where as electronic spreadsheet
has at least 255 columns and 255 rows.
iii. It is easy to enter data in the worksheet because most spreadsheet provide
autocomplete and autocorrect features.
iv. Electronic spreadsheet utilizes the storage space on storage media to save and retrieve
documents.
v. Electronic spreadsheets enable the user to produce neat work because all the work is
edited on the screen and clean copy is produced.
vi. Electronic spreadsheets have better editing and formatting features.
vii. Electronic spreadsheets have inbuilt formula called function that enable the user to
quickly analyse numeric data.
viii. Electronic spreadsheets automatically adjust the result of a formula if the value in a
worksheet are changed. This is called automatic recalculation.
ix. Graphs let the user provide visual representation of data from a worksheet for easy of
interpretation.
DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
i. Startup cost including computer and software purchase may be high
ii. Learning how to use electronic spreadsheet requires considerable effort and is mostly at a
cost
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iii. Electronic spreadsheet files require to be protected against unauthorized access and
malware like viruses.
GETTING STARTED WITH MICROSOFT EXCEL
 Microsoft Excel 2013 simply referred to as Excel is a member of Microsoft Office suite.
 Earlier versions of Excel include Excel 97, Excel 2000, Excel XP/2002, Excel 2007 and
Excel 2010.
 There are a number of ways used to start Excel. To launch Excel 2013 from the Start
menu, proceed as follows:

i. Click on the Start menu and point to Programs/All Programs.

ii. Point to Microsoft Office, then click Excel 2013. Excel application windows below
opens.

FEATURE OF EXCEL SPREADSHEET APPLICATION WINDOW

 Excel 2013 differs slightly with earlier version of excel e.g. 2003 that the menu bar has
been replaced by menu tabs

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 Features of excel are as follows:
i. Rows: a row is a horizontal arrangement of cells in a worksheet. It is labelled using
numbers 1,2,3….. in the worksheet
ii. Column: a column is vertical arrangement of cells in the worksheet. It is labelled
using letters A, B, C …… in the worksheet
iii. A cell: a cell is intersection between a column and a row. A cell pointer indicates the
current active cell
iv. Worksheet: A worksheet is the work area made up of rows and columns where data
is entered
v. Workbook: A workbook is a spreadsheet file that consists of one or more related
worksheets.
vi. Labels: columns and rows have labels. Column labels are letters A-Z, AA-AZ, row
labels are numbers 1,2,3 ….. in the worksheet
vii. Cell address: Each cell has an address. The address is column label followed by
row label e.g. A1.
viii. Name box: It displays the address of the current cell
ix. File tab: Has common commands like New, Open, Save as, Print, Close etc.
x. Command ribbon: Each menu has a set of commands like Home ribbon has
commands.
xi. Formula bar: Is an input box where a cell entry or a formula is displayed before it
is inserted into the active cell.
xii. Worksheet tabs: worksheet tabs are located at the bottom of a spreadsheet. They
are labelled sheet1, sheet2 ……but can be renamed by right clicking the sheet and
click rename
SPREADSHEET DATA ENTRIES
 Data entered into a spreadsheet can be classified into four categories namely:
i. Label
ii. Value
iii. Formulae
iv. Functions

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LABEL
 A label is a text or alphanumeric characters entered in a cell.
 By default, a label is aligned to the left of the cell and cannot be computed mathematically
 A label is usually used to describe a row or column heading
 Sometimes, numbers can be formatted so that they can be used as a label by adding an
apostrophe before the number e.g. ‘1990.
VALUES
 A value is a numerical number that can be manipulated mathematically
 By default, values are aligned to the right of the cell.
FORMULA
 A formula a mathematical expression used to perform calculations
 A formula starts with = sign followed by cell addresses and operator eg =B3 + D4, add
contents of B3 and D4 and return the sum.
FUNCTION
 These are predefined or inbuilt formula
 Example of function is =SUM (B3:D4) which add contents of cells B3 to D4
NAVIGATING THE WORKSHEET
 The cell pointer in the worksheet shows the position of the current cell
 The process of moving the cell pointer around the worksheet is called navigating the
worksheet and can be achieved in several ways:

i. Arrow keys let the user move one cell to the next direction of the arrow key
ii. Tab key moves the cell pointer on a cell to the right
iii. You can directly move a particular cell by clicking the desired cell.
iv. Ctrl + Home keys move the cell pointer to the cell A1
USING ARROW KEYS ON THE KEYBOARD
 The up-arrow key moves the cell pointer one row up

 The down arrow key moves the cell pointer one row down

 The right arrow key moves the cell pointer one column to the right

 The left arrow key moves the cell pointer one column to the left

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USING THE TAB KEY
 Pressing the tab key moves the cell pointer one column to the right

 Pressing shift + tab moves the cell pointer one column to the left

USING THE MOUSE

 Clicking a cell moves a cell pointer to the cell clicked

USING SCROLL BARS

 The vertical scroll bar moves the worksheet up and down while the horizontal one moves
it to the left and right

PAGE DOWN and PAGE UP keys move the worksheet one page down and one page up
respectively
BLOCK OPERATIONS
 Performing calculations on a worksheet data involves block operations
 A block of selected cells in a worksheet is referred to as a range
 A range is specified by the address of its top left and bottom right cells or using a name.

CELL REFERENCING
 Using cell addresses also called referencing enables Microsoft Excel calculations
accurate and automatically recalculates results of a formula in case the value in the cell
change. This is referred to as automatic recalculation.
 There are three types of cell referencing used when creating formula and manipulating
cell contents and these are:
1. RELATIVE REFERENCING
 A relative referencing is one that changes depending on its position of reference in the
worksheet.
 When you copy the cell that contents relative reference says A3 the reference adjusts to
reflect the new location
 For example, =A1+B1 is in cell C1 and is copied to C2, the formula reference change to
=A2+B2

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2. ABSOLUTE REFERENCING
 In absolute referencing, the reference is made to a specific address and does not change
even if the formula is copied to another cell.
 In excel, absolute referencing is made by placing dollar sign before reference ($A$2)
3. MIXED REFERENCE
 This is a combination of relative and absolute referencing on a specific cell address to
make the row or column relative or absolute
 For example, in A$3, the row is relative while the column is absolute
CREATING A WORKBOOK AND WORKSHEET
 Creating a workbook involves starting the spreadsheet program and entering data in the
cells of the current worksheet.
 However, the user can choose to create a worksheet either using the general format or
from a preformatted worksheet called a template.
USING A BLANK WORKSHEET
 When a spreadsheet application is launched, it presents the user with a new blank
template.
 If you wish to create another workbook while the application is still running:
i. Click the File tab, and select New from the drop-down menu
ii. In the New Workbook dialog box, double click Blank Workbook icon.

USING A PREDEFINED TEMPLATE

 When Excel is installed, some of the templates are installed.
 However, some of these templates require online access in order to be able to use them
because they may not have been copied onto the hard disk during installation.
 To create a workbook based on a predefined template:
i. Click the File tab, and select New
ii. In the New Workbook dialog box under Templates pane, click the Installed
Templates.
iii. Select a template and replace the general data in the templates with your own.

SAVING A WORKBOOK
 The procedure for saving a workbook is similar to that of saving a Word document.

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i. Click the File tab the select Save As command. The Save As dialog box is displayed
ii. Select the location in which your workbook will be saved in the Save in box then type
a unique name for the workbook in the File name box. Make sure that the option
Microsoft Excel Workbook is selected under the save as type box. Excel saves the
workbook with .xlsx extension.
iii. Click Save button to save and close the dialog box.
RETRIEVING A WORKBOOK
 To retrieve an existing workbook, use the procedure below:
i. On the File tab, click Open from the drop-down menu
ii. Select the location, drive or folder where the workbook was saved
iii. Double click the icon of the workbook you wish to open
CLOSING A WORKBOOK AND EXITING EXCEL
 Closing a workbook is the process of closing the current spreadsheet workbook without
exiting the spreadsheet application
 On the other hand, exiting Excel is the process of closing all open workbooks and exiting
the spreadsheet application.
 To close a workbook and exit Excel, proceed as follows:
i. On the File tab, click Close. Alternatively press Ctrl + F4
ii. To exit from Excel,
iii. On the File menu, click Exit. Alternatively press Alt + F4 on the keyboard.
EDITING WORKSHEET AND WORKBOOK
 Editing refers to making necessary modification to a worksheet that has already been
created.
 It involves deleting entries, copying, moving, find and replace as well as spell checking
EDITING CELL ENTRIES
 There are two methods of editing a cell entry:
1. Using the formula bar: click the cell to display its content and make the changes in
the formula bar.
2. Double clicking: this places the insertion pointer in the cell and then type or modify
the cell.

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DELETING A WORKSHEET RANGE

 To delete worksheet range, select the cells and click Delete
COPYING AND MOVING CELL CONTENTS
i. Select the cells to be copied or moved, right-click and click Copy (to copy) or Cut (to
move).
ii. Right-click where you want to put the contents and click Paste
 NOTE: Use shortcut keys Ctrl + C to copy, Ctrl + X to cut and Ctrl + V to paste
INSERTING AND DELETING ROWS/COLUMNS
 To insert a new column/row:

i. Position the pointer where the new row or column will appear

ii. On the Insert menu, click Rows or Columns

 To delete a column or row

i. Select the column or row to be deleted

ii. On the Edit menu click Delete

INSERTING AND DELETING WORKSHEETS

 To insert more worksheets, do the following:

i. On the Insert menu, click Worksheet. A new worksheet is added into your
workbook

 To delete a worksheet:

i. Click the Worksheet tab

ii. On the Edit menu, click Delete Sheet

FIND AND REPLACE

 To search and replace a specified range:

i. On Edit menu, click Find, type the text to search for

ii. To replace, choose Replace from the dialog box

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iii. In the Find What box, type the word or phrase to find

iv. Click the Replace tab and in the Replace With, type the word or phrase to replace the
found word or phrase

CORRECTING SPELLING MISTAKES

i. Specify the worksheet range you want to spell check

ii. On the Tools menu, click Spelling or press F7

iii. On the spelling dialog box, replace or ignore the misspelt words

FORMATTING WORKSHEETS
 Worksheet formatting refers to enhancing the appearance of the worksheet to make it
more attractive and appealing to the reader
 It essentially consists of resizing column width and row height, changing text colour,
typeface (font), size, style and alignment

FORMATTING ROWS AND COLUMNS

 Sometimes, the information entered in the spreadsheet may not fit neatly in the cell set
with the default height and width
 It therefore becomes necessary to adjust the height of a row or width of a column

To change column width:

i. Move the mouse pointer to the right-hand side line that separates the column headers for
instance, the line between A and B

ii. Notice that the mouse pointer changes from a cross to a double arrow

iii. Click the mouse button and hold it down so that you can now resize the width of the
column by dragging it to the size you wish. After dragging to the required point release
the mouse button. The column will have a new size

To resize a column using the Format menu

i. On Format menu, point to Column, then click Width

ii. Type a width in the column width dialog box, and then click OK button to apply

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To change row height

i. Point to the line that separates two row numbers. E.g., the line between 1 and 2. The
mouse pointer becomes a double arrow

ii. Drag the line until the height of the row is as required, then stop and release the mouse
button

FORMATTING CELLS AND THEIR CONTENTS

i. To format a single cell, make it the current cell then click Format menu option and select
the cells command

ii. In the format cells dialog box, make the formatting specifications that you wish, then click
OK button to apply.

iii. If it is a range of cells, they must be highlighted first before formatting them as a block of
cells

FORMATTING LABELS
i. Highlight the cells that have the text to be formatted

ii. Click Format menu, then Cells command

iii. Select Font tab by clicking it

iv. Select the font type e.g. Times New Roman. Other font formatting features like style,
size, underline and colour are available and can be selected

v. Click OK button to apply

 NB: Alternatively, use the formatting toolbar to accomplish all your text formatting needs.

FORMATTING NUMBERS
i. Highlight the cells that have the numbers to be formatted

ii. Click Format menu, then Cells command

iii. On the dialog box, select the Number tab

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iv. You can now choose number formats as explained below

Table below shows different table formats:

NUMBER MEANING
General Cells have no specific number format
Number Used for general display of numbers
Currency For displaying monetary values e.g. $100, MK12
Accounting Lines up the currency symbols and decimal points
Date Displays date in specified format
Time Displays time in specified format
Percentage Multiply the value in the cell with 100 and display it as a percentage %
Text Format text to be treated as a text even when numbers are entered
Custom For number format not predefined in Microsoft Excel

FORMATTING BORDERS
 You may need to put a printable border around the worksheet or range of cells to make it
more appealing.
 To put a border, proceed as follows:
i. Highlight the range you wish to insert borders. Click Format Cell command to
display the dialog box
ii. Click the Borders tab to specify border option
iii. Click OK button
FORMATTING ROWS AND COLUMNS
 Sometimes, data entered in a worksheet may not fit in a cell
 Therefore, it becomes necessary to adjust the height of a row or the width of a column.
 The default width of a column in Microsoft excel is 8.11 but can be adjusted to any size
between 0 and 255.
 This can be done in two ways:

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i. Move the pointer to the top heading until the mouse pointer turns a cross, then click
and drag to the required size.
ii. Move the mouse pointer to the row headings of column headings and right click the
click row width or column height.
GLOBAL WORKSHEET FORMATTING
 The word global in this context refers to the entire worksheet. To format the entire
worksheet, select the whole worksheet using these two methods:
i. Clicking the triangular symbol at the intersection of column A and row 1
ii. Pressing Ctrl + A on the keyboard
 Once the entire worksheet is selected, use the Format Cells dialog box to format the
content
USING AUTOFORMAT
 It allows the user to apply one of the 16 sets of formatting to a selected range on the
worksheet. This quickly creates tables that are easy to read and that are attractive to look
at.
 Select a range to make it attractive.

i. Select a range e.g. B1:G7 to make it active

ii. Click Format then select the Autoformat command on the menu that appears. Select
a format from the autoformat dialog box

iii. Click Ok button to apply the format to the selected range.

FORMATTING ENTIRE WORKBOOK

 Sometimes, it is necessary to apply the same format to the entire workbook. To achieve
this, you must select all the worksheets then apply the desired options
 Whatever is applied on the first worksheet will be reflected on all the other worksheets in
the workbook.
 To format entire workbook:
i. Hold the CTRL key and click the Worksheet tabs to select them
ii. Once all worksheets are selected, apply desired format to the first worksheet
iii. Save the data and then navigate through the worksheet by clicking the sheet tabs.

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 Notice that the format applied to the first worksheet are reflected on the entire workbook.
PROTECTING WORKBOOK AND WORKSHEETS
 A worksheet containing sensitive or confidential information should be protected from
unauthorized access.
 There are several techniques for protecting workbook in excel and these are
1. Making a workbook read only: These allows a user to just view the document but not
edit, copy or print the workbook
2. Encrypt using password
3. Restricting access by adding digital signature
 To perform all these three:
i. Click File tab, then Info
ii. Click Protect Workbook
iii. Select Mark as read to make the workbook read only, click encrypt with password
to put a password or click Add digital signature to restrict access

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KEYBOARD SHORTCUT
 Excel has keyboard shortcut for performing tasks. The following are some of the
keyboard shortcut

KEYBOARD KEY COMBINATION FUNCTION

1 CTRL + O Open file
2 CTRL + N New file
3 CTRL + S Save file
4 Esc Exit current dialog
5 CTLRL + X Cut
6 CTRL + C Copy
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7 CTRL + B Bold
8 CTRL + I Italicize
9 CTRL + U Underline
10 CTRL + T Insert table
11 CTRL + F4 Close current file
12 ALT + F4 Close excel
13 CTRL + Z Undo
14 ALT + Y Redo
15 CTRL + P Print
16 F4 Repeat last action
17 F1 Open online help documentation
18 CRL + F1 Hide/unhide commands ribbon
19 Shift + Arrow Highlights cells
20 CTRL + Spacebar Select current column

FREEZING AND UNFREEZING PANES

 When working with large document that does not fit on the screen it requires scrolling
down so that the column and row headings are seen,
 Therefore, to prevent scrolling, you need to freeze or lock the first row or column from
scrolling.
 The main reason for freezing the pane is to make certain column or row that contains
headings to be seen when scrolling on large document.

 To freeze pane, proceed as follows:

i. Move the cell pointer into the cell you want to freeze rows above it or column on its
right.
ii. On the View ribbon in the Window group, click Freeze Pane.
iii. Scroll horizontally and vertically to view other parts of the worksheet
 To unfreeze, click Unfreeze Pane from the view ribbon in freeze pane

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HIDE/UNHIDE COLUMNS OR ROWS

 To hide or unhide column or row
i. Select the column or rows that you want to hide
ii. On the Home ribbon click Format in the cells group
iii. Select the command to hide or unhide rows or columns

WORKING WITH FORMULAS AND FUNCTIONS

 A formula is a mathematical expression used to perform calculation while a function is
predefined formula.
 In excel, a formula or function starts with an = sign
 Performing calculations on worksheet data involves selecting a range of cells or
worksheet table.
 A range of cells is specified by name of address of its top left and bottom right cells.
To select a range of contiguous cells
i. Click the top left cell of the range to be selected
ii. Hold down the Shift key, and then click the bottom right cell of the range. The range will
be highlighted.
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To select a range of non-contiguous cells
i. Click the top left cell of the range to be selected
ii. Hold the Ctrl key, and then click individual cells, columns or rows to be selected
To create a named range of cells
i. Select the range to be named
ii. Click inside the name box, replace the cell address by typing a name for the range and
then press Enter key to apply.
CREATING FORMULA
 The three elements that make up a user-define formula are:
1. = sign
2. Operand
3. Operator
TYPES OF OPERATORS
1. ARITHMETIC OPERATOR
 These include additional, subtraction, division and multiplication
 Arithmetic operators mostly follow precedence rule similar to mathematical concept of
BODMAS.
 This means that whatever is in parenthesis is evaluated first. Multiplication and division
are evaluated from left to right while addition and subtraction are evaluated last.

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

/ Division =A2/b2
* Multiplication =a2*b2
+ Addition =a2+b2
- Subtraction =a2-b2

2. RELATIONAL OPERATORS
 A relational operator returns either true of false depending on the absolute value of the
operand being evaluated
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

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= Equal to =A2=B2
> Greater than =A2>B2
< Less than =A2<B2
<> Not equal to =A2<>B2
<= Less than or equal to =A2<=B2
>= Greater than or equal to =A2>=B2
OPERATOR PRECEDENCE
 If several operators are used in a formula, Microsoft Excel performs the operations in
order shown in the table below
 If the formula has operators of the same precedence like multiplication and division, the
expression is evaluated from left to right.
 Enclosing part of the parenthesis alters the order of operation by making that part to be
evaluated for.
OPERATORS NAME PRECEDENCE
1. – Negation as -1 1
2. % Percent 2
3. ˄ Exponential 3
4. * and / Multiplication and division 4
5. + and – Addition and subtraction 5
6. =,<>,>,<,<=,>= Relational 6
CREATING USER-DEFINED FORMULAE
 A user defined formula is created by the user to manipulate numeric data in the
worksheet. First click the cell in which you wish to get the results of the formula then type
the formula.
 Examples are:
1. =C2 + D4 add the contents of cells C2 and D2
2. =B4 * 0.2 displays 20% of the value in cell B4
3. =F5*1.2 Increases the value in cell F5 by 20%
4. =(G6/4)*5+6*(3-1) Will be evaluated using precedence rule
5. =C2-D2 Will subtract contents in D2 from contents in C2

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6. =C2/D2 Will divide contents in C2 by contents in D2
7. =C2*D2 Will multiply contents in C2 by contents in D2
FUNCTION
 In Excel, a function must also start with = sign followed by function name and arguments.
 Arguments are cell addresses, numeric, logical or text value enclosed in parenthesis
 Therefore, three elements in function are:
1. An equal sign (=)
2. Function name
3. Cell range
 In Excel functions are categorized according to the nature of calculations they perform.
 The following are the categories:
1. Maths & Trig
2. Statistical
3. Logical
4. Date and Time
To use a function from any categories, proceed as follows:

i On the Insert menu, click Function. Alternatively, click the fx button on the standard
toolbar.
ii In the function dialog box displayed, select the category
iii In the function list box, select a function.
iv Specify the function argument then click OK.

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1. MATH & TRIG FUNCTION

 Math & Trig stands for Mathematics and Trigonometry.

 This category contains function used to perform mathematical calculations such as Sum
as well as trigonometric function such as sine of an angle
 The following are some of commonly used mathematical function
1. SUM(): Add values in the selected range of cells. For example =SUM(A1:E1) will
add values in cells from A1 to E1
2. ROUND(): Round numbers to specified decimal places. If the second argument is 0,
the number is rounded off to the nearest integer. For example =ROUND(48.2369,3)
will return 48.237
3. PRODUCT(): multiplies a list of arguments separated by commas. For example
=PRODUCT(A1,B3,C2) will multiply values in cells A1, B3 and C2.
4. QUOTIENT(): return the integer part of the division. The remainder part is
discarded for example =QUOTIENT(10,4) will return 2.

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2. STATISTICAL FUNCTIONS
 The following are some of the commonly used statistical functions:
1. AVERAGE(): return the arithmetic mean of its arguments. For example
=AVERAGE(A1:C1) will return arithmetic mean of values in a cell from A1 to C1
2. COUNT(): counts the number of cells that contains numeric value within a range.
For example =COUNT(A2:F2) will return number of cell from A2 to F2 that
contains numeric value
3. MAX(): return the largest number from a range of cells
4. MIN(): return the smallest number from the range of cells
3. LOGICAL FUNCTIONS
 Logical functions return true or false from an expression.
 Examples of logical functions are IF, COUNTIF, AND, OR, and NOT
1. IF(): return a value or a label if a condition you specify evaluate to TRUE and another
if it evaluates to FALSE
e.g. If C5 holds mean score and display PASS if the mean is greater than 50
and FAIL if the mean is less than 50 or FAIL if otherwise then we can use
=IF(C5>50,”PASS”,IF(C5<50,”FAIL”)) OR IF(C5>50,”PASS”,”FAIL”)

If A2 holds scores, write DISTINCTION if the score is greater than 80,

CREDIT, if the score is greater than 60, PASS if the score is greater than 50
and FAIL if score is less than 50 then we can use
=IF(A2>80,” DISTINCTION”,IF(A2>60,”CREDIT”,IF(A2>50,”PASS”,”FAIL”)))
2. COUNTIF(): counts the number of cells within a range that satisfies a certain criteria.
For example =COUNTIF(A1:D1,”>50”) return the number of cells in the range from
A1 to D1 that have values greater than 50
3. SUMIF(): calculate the sum of values in a range of cells that satisfy a certain criteria.
FOR EXAMPLE =SUM(A1:D1,”<20”) will add values within the range of cells from
A1 to D1 that have values less than 20
4. AND(): Return to TRUE if both expression in comma separated family evaluate to
TRUE
e.g, AND(1+2=3, 4+6=10) return TRUE
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5. OR(): return TRUE if one of the expression returns to true e.g. OR(3-1=2, 4+2=5) will
return to TRUE
6. NOT(): this is a unary operator the reverses the value of a Boolean expression from
true to false and vice versa. For example =NOT(2+2=1) will return TRUE
4. DATE AND TIME
1. TODAY(): Return the number that represent today’s date
2. NOW(): returns current date and time
3. DATE(): Return a serial number that represents a particular date Ms. Excel uses year
1900 as a serial number 1. For example =DATE(107,1,4) returns January 4, 2007.
Year(1900+1070), month =1 and day=4
4. HOUR(), MINUTE() or SECOND(): returns the current hour as number 0 to 23,
minutes 0 to 59 and seconds from 0 to 59 respectively.
ERRORS COMMON IN MICROSOFT EXCEL AND WAYS OF FIXING THEM.
i. =ROUND(SUM(A1:C10,0))

 The inner bracket on the right should be moved to be just before the comma in order
to match all the opening and closing parenthesis pairs as follows:
=ROUND(SUM(A1:C10),0)

ii. AVERAGE(G:H4)

 G alone is not a cell reference. Make sure all the arguments of a formula are entered.
Also make sure you do not enter too many arguments. In this case, we need like
=AVERAGE(G2:H4)

iii. =MAX(D12;H25)

 The semi-colon cannot specify a range. Always use a full colon like:
=MAX(D12:H25)

iv. Excel cannot support more than 64 nested functions.

v. Enter numbers in formulas without formatting. For example, do not enter $30 but
rather 30 in the cell.

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IDENTIFYING A CELL WITH A FORMULA ERROR
 A cell that has a formula error can be identified by a small triangle in its top left corner.

EXAMPLES OF ERROR VALUES

i. #DIV! 0

 This occurs when a number is divided by zero (0). The formula may be referencing an
empty cell that does not contain a value or one that has a zero.
 To correct this condition, click the cell that has the faulty formula. The ! Button
appears next to the cell.
 Click it and select the Show Calculation Steps command in the content sensitive
menu that appears.
 This will display the arguments of the formula and their values, allowing you to
correct.

ii. #N/A

 This error occurs when a value is not available to a function or formula and #N/A or
N/A() has been entered in the cell as placeholder text.
 To resolve this, click the cell that has the formula, click the ! icon and select the Show
Calculation Step option.

iii. #NAME?

 It occurs when certain text in the formula cannot be recognised as being valid.
Mistakes may include referring to a named cell or range that does not exist,
misspelling a function name, omitting a colon in a range reference etc.

 To correct range names:

i. Click the cell or select the range referred to by the formula then,
ii. Click the Name box and type a name for the cell or range then press enter key
to effect the new name.

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iv. #NUM!

 The error indicates that there are invalid numeric entries in a cell.
 This may also be caused by using a function that returns a number that is too large or
too small to be represented in Excel.

v. #REF!

 It indicates that a cell reference in the formula is not valid

vi. #VALUE!

 It occurs when a wrong reference to a cell or operand is used.

 For example, when text is entered in a cell while a formula referencing the cell
expects a numeric value

vii. #####

 This means that the column width is not wide enough to display a value. The same
occurs when a negative time or date is entered in a cell
vii. Circular references
 This occurs when the cell reference in which the formula is entered is also included as
part of the formula arguments. i.e. the formula refers back to its own cell either
directly or indirectly.
 Remove circular references to solve this problem.

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TOPIC 2: SOFTWARE INSTALLATION

 Software installation (program setup) refers to the process of copying a program into a
computer’s storage in a form that it can be executed.
 What determine number of programs installed on the computer are:
1. Processing power
2. Available disk space
 Common operations performed during software installation include:
i. Creation or modification of program folders/sub-folders
ii. Configuration of windows registry as well as copying of files
iii. Environment variables
iv. Shortcut icon
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE SOSTWARE INSTALLATION
 Before installing software whether operation system, device drivers or application
software, consider the following:
1. System configuration particularly the type and speed of processor, amount of Ram and
hard disk space
2. Reading installation manual to get the details on the
i. System requirements
ii. Warning
iii. User license.
3. Identify the software that will meet the user specific need to avoid installing unnecessary
software
INSTALLING OPERATING SYSTEM
 The two methods of installing operating system e.g. Windows 7 are:
1. Upgrading from previous version
2. Fresh installation
 Fresh installation is done by first creating and formatting a primary partition before the
installation process starts.
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 However, upgrading from previous windows version means the other windows in the
computer will not be formatted but just upgrading it

 To install a fresh copy of windows, the computer should be setup to boot from a DVD
then proceed as follows:
1. Insert the disk in optical drive and start the computer. After the Power On Self-Test
(POST) process, the computer initializes the boot process. After a few minutes,
Windows 7 installation screen shown in figure below is displayed. Set the language
and time zone and click Next. In our case, choose Central Africa Time (CAT) zone.

2. After clicking Install Now, read the Microsoft User-license agreement terms and click
the box against “I Accept the License Terms” as shown below.

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3. Choose Custom(advance) to install windows afresh or select Upgrade to upgrade

from previous version.

4. Next, partition the drive into two or more drives (volumes) using NTF file system and
then click Format.

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5. Windows 7 automatically format the first drive usually labelled Drive C as the
primary drive and copies the installation files onto the partition as shown below.

6. After the copy process is complete, it prompts you to enter username, password and
the license key. You must enter the license key that came with the product to install a
genuine copy of Windows 7.

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7. Follow the windows installation process and provide all the necessary information.
This process is generally wizard driven and only requires minimal interactions where
necessary.
8. Once installation is successfully done, connect to the Internet to install importance
updates or skip the update procedure and enter the password to login to the desktop as
shown below.

CONFIGURING WINDOWS
 A part from working with files, folders and drivers, windows provide the user with tools
that can be used to customize the desktop.
 Windows 7 lets the user change desktop appearance and display properties such as icons,
themes and wallpaper.
 Such features include:
1. Arranging multiple application windows on the desktop
2. Changing the desktop appearance
3. Setting resolution
4. Hiding the taskbar
5. Setting screen saver e.t.c.
 All these features can be set by Right-clicking the desktop then click Personalized.
 The control panel shown in figure below is displayed:

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SETTING THEME AND BACKGROUND

 To apply a new Theme or Wallpaper, proceed as follows:
i. Make sure you are in Change the visuals and sounds... window
ii. Inside the window, scroll down the list of Themes and select desired theme
iii. To change desktop background icon, at the bottom left, select preferred background
changes before you close the dialog box.
SETTING THE SCREEN SAVER
 If the screen saver is set, moving patterns or objects are displayed on the screen if the
computer is left idle for a period of time
 To set the screen saver, proceed as follows:
i. In the Personalization window, click the Screen Saver icon at the bottom right side.
ii. In the screen saver dialog box, select a Screen Saver from the screen saver list.
iii. Set the wait time e.g. 10 minutes and click On resume, display logon screen.
iv. Click Preview to see how the screen saver look like, and then click Apply button to
save the changes before closing the dialog box
v. Click OK to close the dialog box
SETTING MOUSE POINTER
 For accessibility reasons, you may need to change the default mouse settings e.g. from left
click to right click.

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 To change mouse settings:
i. In the Personalization window, click Change mouse pointers.
ii. In the dialog box displayed below, click the tab for the settings you wish to change.
For example, to change the default mouse button from left to right, click the Buttons
tab.
iii. Click Apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box.
iv. Click OK to close the dialog box.

SETTING COLOUR AND SCREEN RESOLUTION

 The clarity and size of images on the screen depends on the screen resolution and
orientation.
 To change screen resolution and orientation settings, proceed as follows:
i. Right click on an empty space on the desktop, and then click Screen Resolution.
ii. In the Screen Resolution window, change display properties such as display type,
resolution or orientation.
iii. On the colour list box, select colour quality
iv. Click Apply to view the changes before you close the dialog box.
v. Click OK to close the dialog box.
HIDING THE TASKBAR
 To hide the taskbar, proceed as follows:
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i. Right-click the Taskbar, and then click Properties.
ii. Make sure the Taskbar is selected, then select Auto-hide the taskbar check box.
iii. Click Apply, and then OK to close the dialog box.
SETTING DATE AND TIME
 Setting system date and time is very important because some system tasks such as the
scheduler depends on date and time to run.
 To set date and time:
i. Click the Start button and point to the Control Panel. Alternatively click the Clock
in system tray, then click Change date and time settings.
ii. In the control panel, click Date and Time. A dialog box shown below is displayed.
iii. Change time and date or time zone settings. After making necessary changes click
Apply, and then OK to close the dialog box.

INSTALLING UBUNTU
 The word Ubuntu comes from an ancient African word meaning ‘humanity to others’
 Ubuntu is an open source operating system that brings the spirit of humanity to the world
of computing.

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 It is linux-based distribution available freely and can be installed in computers and
phones.
 Before installing Ubuntu, read the guide that comes with the software to see whether the
computer meets the specification e.g. processor type, memory capacity and hard disk
space
 To install Ubuntu, proceed as follows:
1. Switch on your computer and insert the disk that contains Ubuntu installation files.
You will see a welcome screen prompting you to choose preferred language and the
option to install Ubuntu or try it from the CD as shown in the figure below.

NB: If the computer does not automatically display this screen, press F12 key to
display the boot menu, but be careful not to hold it down.
2. If the Internet is available, connect to the internet so that Ubuntu gets the latest
updates while installing. Figure below shows the installation screen from which you
can choose the type of internet connection such as wireless LAN. If you do not want
to setup internet connectivity, press the Continue button.

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3. On the displayed dialog box, select the type of installation i.e. Install Ubuntu
alongside Windows 7 or replace Windows 7 with Ubuntu operating system. This
means that Ubuntu will be installed as a duo-boot option in Windows.

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4. Depending on the type of installation selected, verify the type of installation chosen,
and then click Continue button.
5. Click Install Now and installation process will start automatically. Note that Ubuntu
14 requires about 4.8 GB to install, so add a few extra storage to allow extra files. The
rest of the process is automated.

6. Select the location so that Ubuntu set the correct date and time. For example, Malawi
uses Central Africa Time Zone that is (UTC +02:00). UTC stands for Universal Time
Zone that replaced the GMT (Greenwich Meridian Time). Click Continue to go to the
next screen.

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7. Then select preferred keyboard layout. In Malawi, the default layout is English UK
but you can also choose any other layout. Click Continue to proceed.

8. Then setup the login. Enter your names, preferred computer name, username and
password.

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9. The rest of the process is done automatically.

10. Once the installation is complete, click Start Now to restart your computer. During
startup, a startup screen is displayed that lets a user boot from Windows or Ubuntu.
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Boot from Ubuntu to start enjoying Ubuntu-The True African Spirit of Humanity to
All!
INSTALLING DEVICE DRIVER
 During installation of these software, a computer is tested whether it has required
hardware, operating system and device drivers.
INSTALLING DEVICE DRIVERS
 Once you installed operating system, you can proceed by installing device drivers and
other utility programs like antivirus.
 A device driver is a utility program that controls a device installed in a computer
 For devices such as printer, a keyboard, a flash, a mouse and/or a scanner to work, its
drivers must be installed first
 A device driver acts as a translator between a device and the program that use the device.
 Common devices such as mouse, keyboard, monitor and flash disks are automatically
recognized by most operating system through a process called plug and play (PnP)
 There are many ways of installing device drives but the most common is through
installation wizard.
 For example, to install printer drivers, proceed as follows:
1. If the printer drivers are not in Windows, insert the disk that came with the device
printer. Figure below shows examples of printer drivers that are pre-loaded in
Windows 7.

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2. After verifying that the drivers are in windows device drivers profile, click Devices
and Printers from a Start menu
3. In the Devices and Printers window displayed, Click Add Printer and then choose
Add local printer. Click Next to proceed.
4. Under choose printer port, specify the port into which the printer will be connected to
e.g. USB as shown below. This is very important because specifying a wrong port e.g.
LPTI instead of USB means the printer will not work.

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5. Then specify the manufacturer and printer type, then click Next to proceed
6. In the dialog box that appears, type the name of the printer and click Next to start
installation process.
7. Once installation finishes, a test page print dialog box appears as shown below. It is
important to print a test page to be sure the drivers are successfully installed.

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8. Read and agree with the user license agreements and click Next
9. Follow the instructions as directed by the wizard
10. Click Restart if the installation requires computer to restart to finish the
configuration.
 NB: For device driver installation process to be completed, you may be required to restart
the computer. Make sure you save any important task before you click the restart button
or alert.
INSTALLING APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 Most application software available in the market include: word processor, spreadsheet,
database management system, desktop publishing software, education software etc.
 In this section, we will learn how to select and install application software such as
Microsoft Office 2010.
 Factors which determine kind of application software to install are:
1. Cost of the software
2. Authenticity
3. User documentation
4. Reliability
5. User-friendliness
6. Compatibility
7. System configuration
8. User need
9. Purpose
 According to purpose, application software can be categorized into two:
1. General purpose application software: such as word, spreadsheet, database and
presentation that are packed and made available for general use.
2. Special purpose application software: these are application software designed
purposely to handle specialized tasks e.g. desktop publishing software (DTPs), graphic
editing software and anti-virus software.

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INSTALLING MICROSOFT OFFICE 2010

 To install Microsoft Office 2010 suite, proceed as follows:
1. Insert the Microsoft office 2010 DVD into the optical drive. Microsoft License
agreement is displayed. To proceed, read the agreement and click the check box ‘I
Accept the Agreement’ as shown below:

2. Once you agree to the terms, installation dialog box is displayed to choose whether to
Upgrade an existing version or fresh installation called Customize.

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3. Once you choose Customize, the Microsoft deletes the previous office
4. After choosing the installation option, click Upgrade or install Now to proceed. The
rest of the process is wizard driven.
5. Installation process starts and it takes several minutes depending on the options
selected and the computer hardware configuration. Once the installation is completed,
you may be required to check for updates. If connected to Internet, ensure that the
“check web for updates” check box is enabled otherwise click Close.

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6. To confirm that Office 2010 has been installed, display the Start menu and then point
to All Programs/Programs. The list of applications including newly installed is
displayed on the start menu.
 After the installation completes the first time to open the software to use will ask you to
enter product key.
 It is important for each software to have a product key because it helps you to install
original copy of the software not trial versions
NB: The steps outlined are specific to Microsoft Office 2010 and may vary depending on the
version of Microsoft Office and type of user license.

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TOPIC 3: PROGRAMING FUNDAMENTALS
INTRODUCTION
 To process any type of data a computer flows a set of a well-defined instructions known
as program
 Creating a program requires a programmer to provide design of the program called
algorithm
 The process of designing the program is called algorithm design
 Algorithm design is both a science and an art because scientific approach and creative
thinking is required to come-up with a good design.
DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN PROGRAMMING
 In programming, there are fundamental terms used in programming regardless of the
programming language used. The following are some of them
COMPUTER PROGRAM
 A computer program or just a program refers to set of instructions written using
programming languages to instruct a computer to perform task.
 A collection of computer programs and related data is referred to as the SOFTWARE.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
 Just like a formal language, programming language is a formal language that specify the
syntax and semantics rules for writing computer programs.
 Some examples of programming languages are: BASIC, C, C++, Java, Pascal,
FORTRAIN and COBOL etc.
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
 Is a process of writing a computer program using a programming language.
 The person who writes programs is referred to as a programmer or software developer
or software engineer.
SOURCE CODE
 Source code refers to a set of instructions or statement written by a programmer that are
not yet translated into machine-readable form.
 Source code is mostly a text file written using programming language like BASIC.

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OBJECT CODE
 This is a source code that has been converted into machine readable form.
 To convert source code to object code, language translator such as interpreter, assembler
and compiler are used.
ASSEMBLER
 An assembler converts assembly language program into machine readable form that
computer can understand and execute.
INTERPRETER
 An interpreter converts the source code into machine code statement-by-statement
allowing the CPU to execute one line at a time.
 The interpreted line is not stored in the computer
 This means that every time the program is needed for execution, each line has to be
interpreted.
 This method of interpreting program was common in early computers that did not have
enough memory to store the object code.
COMPILER
 A compiler converts the entire source code into object code.
 The object code is made into an executable file by carrying out a process called linking
which combine object code with library files required for execution of the program.
 After linking process, an executable file is generated and is stored in storage media with
file extension as .exe file in Windows operating system environment.
 The figure below illustrates how a compiler converts source code to executable file.

preprocess
Compile
libraries Link(linker) Load to RAM

Source code Preprocessed Object code Executable CPU

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A COMPILER AND AN INTERPRETER

INTERPRETER COMPILER

Translates the source Translates the entire source code at once before
program one statement at a execution.
time.

Translates the program each Compiled program (object code) can be saved on a
time it is run hence slower storage media and run as required, hence executes
than compiling. faster than interpreted programs

Interpreted object code takes Compiled programs require more memory as the object
less memory compared to files are larger.
compiled program

HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

 Hundreds of programming languages have been developed over the years.
 These languages are classified into two broad categories:
1. Low-level programming language
2. High-level programming language
 These categories can be subdivided into five generations.
 The low-level language consists of first generation and second generation while the high-
level has third generation to fifth generation.
1. LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGES
 Low-level languages are classified as low because they can easily be understood by
computers since they require minimal effort to convert into computer object code
 Low-level languages are hardware oriented hence they are not portable i.e. a program
written for one computer cannot be installed on another computer.
 Two types of low-level languages are
i. Machine language (first generation language)
ii. Assembly language (second generation language)

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i. MACHINE LANGUAGE (FIRST GENERATION LANGUAGES)

 Machine language, instructions are written using binary code.
 Given that data and instructions are written in binary form, many lines of code are
needed to accomplish even a simple task like adding two numbers.
 A program written in machine language may look like the one below:

11100011 00000000 10000011

00011100 10001101 111000111

10001111 11111000 100000001

 Machine languages are hard for a person to understand what the program is all about
unless they have knowledge of machine level programming.
 Furthermore, different CPU’s understand different machine language e.g. code for intel
Pentium processors may differ from Motorola processor.
 Therefore, before writing the machine code, the programmer has to know for which
CPU the program is written.
 Such programs are hard to write and debug from programmer’s point of view, but are
easy to execute from the computer’s perspective.
ADVANTAGES OF 1 GL
i. Fast and efficient as statements are directly written in binary code
ii. No translator is required
DISADVANTAGES OF 1 GL
i. Difficult to use and learn binary codes
ii. Difficult to understand -both programs and correcting errors
iii. Machine dependent-they are not portable from one computer to another
iv. Require highly trained programmers both to develop and maintain
ii. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (SECOND GENERATION LANGUAGES)
 Assembly language was developed to overcome the difficulties of understanding and
using machine language.

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 This language allows the programmer to write the programs as set of symbolic operation
codes called mnemonics.
 Mnemonics are basically shortened two to three letter words.
 A program written in assembly language may look like the one below:

MOV AX, 15 (move 15 to register AX)

SUB AX, 10 (Subtract 10 from the value AX)
Key: MOV – Move; SUB– Subtract; AX- data register

 Programs written in assembly languages require an assembler to convert them into

machine codes that the computer can understand.
 Like machine languages, assembly are also machine dependent and therefore programs
written for one computer cannot be used in another computer.
ADVANTAGES OF 2GL
i. It is easier to understand if compared to machine language
ii. Modifications are easy
iii. Correction and location of errors are easy
DISADVANTAGES OF 2GL
i. Assembler is required, more time then, required to complete execution.
ii. This language is a machine-dependent, with a different instruction set for different
machines
ADVANTAGES OF LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGES
i. The CPU understands machine language with minimal or no effort
ii. The processor executes low –level program written in faster because complex
instructions are already broken down into smaller simpler ones.
iii. Low level languages are stable and hardly crash or break down once written.
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGES
i. Low –level languages are difficult and cumbersome to use and learn.
ii. Require highly trained programmers both to develop and maintain programs written in
low level languages.
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iii. Correcting errors (debugging) in low level languages programs is difficult.
iv. Low level programs are machine dependent i.e. they are not portable from one computer
to another.
2. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
 High level languages are close to human language hence they can be read and
understood even by people who are not experts in programming.
 High level languages are machine independent meaning that a program developed for
one computer can run in any computer.
 Therefore, a programmer concentrates on a problem solving instead of understanding
the architecture of the machine.
 High-level language can be classified into five categories:
i. Third generation languages (3Gls)
ii. Fourth generation languages (4Gls)
iii. Fifth generation languages (5Gls)
iv. Object Oriented Language (OOPs)
v. Web scripting languages
THIRD GENERATION LANGUAGES (3 GLs)
 Third generation languages are also called structured or procedural languages.
 A procedural language makes it possible to break down a program into components called
modules, each performing a particular task.
 The process of breaking down a program into modules or sub-program is referred to as
structured programming.
 Structured programming emphasizes the following:
i. Large programs should be broken down into smaller sub-program each performing a
single task.
ii. Use control structure in problem solving.
 Structured programming offers many benefits because
1. It is flexible
2. Easier to read
3. Easy to modify

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EXAMPLES OF THIRD PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

1. Pascal: Developed to help in teaching and learning of structured programming.
2. FORTRAIN (FORmula TRANslator): Developed for mathematicians, scientists and
engineers to enable them solve their problems.
3. COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language): Designed for developing programs
that solve business problems.
4. BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instructional Code): Developed to enable
students learn programming easily.
5. C: Used for developing system software such as operating system. It is powerful
programming language because of its ability to provide programmers with powerful
features of low-level programming language and at the same time understandable as a
high level programming language.
6. Ada: Suitable for developing military, industrial and real-time system. Was developed by
Ada Lovelace a lady.
ADVANTAGES OF 3GL
i. Flexible - same code can be copied to another machine and be changed to suit the
changing innovations.
ii. Easier to read and modify
iii. Lesser number of lines of code as compared to above two languages
DISADVANTAGES OF 3GL
i. Compiler/interpreter is needed
ii. Different compilers are needed for different machines
FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGE (4GLs)
 Fourth generation languages (4GLs) were improvements of 3GLs to reduce programming
effort by making the programmer focus more on the problem than algorithm or structure
of the program.
 They are non-procedural languages
 Enables user to access the database, generating reports and creating Graphical User
Interface (GUI) applications.
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 They also have application generator that automatically generates program code
 The 3rd generation and 4th generation overlap because it is enhancement of 3rd generation
 However, unlike the 3GLs, most 4GL have advanced programming tools for:
i. Integrating the program with database
ii. Generating reports
iii. Creating graphical user interface (GUI) applications.
iv. Uses application generators that automatically generate program code easy to write.
 Some examples of 4GLs are: PowerBuilder, FoxPro, Python, Progress 4GLs, Microsoft
Visual Basic and Delphi Pascal.
ADVANTAGES OF 4GL
i. Easy to understand and learn
ii. Less time required for application creation
iii. Its less prone to errors
DISADVANTAGES OF 4GL
i. Memory consumption is high
ii. Has poor control over hardware
iii. Less flexible
FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGES (5GLs)
 The fifth generation languages also called natural languages are used to develop systems
that solve problem using artificial intelligence.
 Artificial intelligence refers to a computer system that mimic human-like intelligence
 Such intelligence includes:
1. Visual (seeing) perception
2. Speech recognition.
3. Decision making
4. Movement
 In 5GLs, the programmer only worries about constraints required for the program to be
solved but not algorithm.
 Examples of 5GLs are: PROLOG Mercury, LISP and OPS5

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ADVANTAGES OF 5GL
i. Machines can make decisions
ii. Programmer effort reduces to solve a problem
iii. Easier to learn and use than 3GL or 4GL
DISADVANTAGES OF 5GL
i. Complex and long code
ii. More resources are required and they are expensive too
OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING (OOP)
 Currently, there is shift from structured programming championed in 1970s using 3GLs to
object-oriented programming (OOP).
 In OOP, program may consist of several objects that interact by sending messages to each
other.
 This is similar to the way a person considered as an object sends a message to another
person requesting for something to be done.
 Several objects are linked together through a method known as association to create a
complete program.
 It is important to note that OOP is not classified as a separate generation because it is a
shift in program development methodology.
 Most programming languages that supported structured programming like C are enhanced
to support Object-oriented programming.
 Examples of OOP are: Java, Microsoft Visual Basic. Net, Objective-C, C++, C#, python,
Perl, Ruby, Delphi Pascal and Smalltalk.
WEB DEVELOPMENT AND SCRIPTING LANGUAGES
 Web scripting languages are used to develop or add functionality on web pages.
 Web pages are hypertext documents created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
 HTML contains tags that are interpreted by the web browser software to display contents
when the file is opened on the browser.

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 A tag is a symbolic, word or character enclosed in angle bracket <> that a browser can
interpret it as a command.
 Other languages such as Extended HTML (XML) works also like HTML only that XML
allows the users to define their on tags instead of using standard HTML tags.
 HTML is not considered as programming language because it does not have declaration
part and control structures.
 To add functionality to HTML, scripting languages are used such as JavaScript, VBScript
and Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP).
 A script is a small program code written using scripting language then appended into
HTML program to add functionality like sliding calendar and form validation.
 HTML has an opening tag <> and closing tag </>
EXAMPLES OF HTML TAGS
TAG MEANING
<html> </html> Marks the beginning and end of an HTML document. All other tags
and text fall between these two tags.
<head> </head> Marks the header part of the document.
<title> </title> Gives the title of the web page. Text between this tag appears in the
title bar when the page is browsed
<body> </body> Marks the content part of the web page.

SAMPLE HTML PAGE

1. Open a text editor e.g. notepad
2. Type the code as below:
<html>
<head>
<title> Greetings </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Hello world! </h1>
</body>

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</html>
3. Save a file as helloworld.html, on a desktop
Whew! You have created a web page!
ADVANTAGES OF HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES
i. High-level languages are portable i.e. can be installed in more than one computer
ii. High-level languages are user friendly, and easy to learn and use
iii. High-level languages are more flexible. They enhance creativity and innovation of the
programmer and increase productivity in the workplace
iv. It is easier to correct errors
DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES
i. Their nature encourages use of many instructions in a statement hence the size of these
instructions slowers program processing.
ii. These languages need more hardware and software resources because programs have to
be interpreted or compiled to machine form before execution.
iii. They require large computer memory to be executed
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
 There are five main phases of program development life-cycle (PDLC)
1. Problem definition
2. Algorithm design
3. Program coding
4. Program testing and debugging
5. Program review and maintenance
1. PROBLEM DEFINITION
 Problem definition refers to one’s ability to identify a problem that need to be solved
using a computer program.
 A creative programmer seeks to identify problems and opportunities in the society and
seeks to provide computer based solution.
 A good example is the one who developed Microsoft Word software after seeing the
tedious work of writing using typewriter, he came up with software to be used for
typing.

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 The following three situations may motivate a programmer to develop computer
program:
i. Problems or undesirable situations that prevent an individual or organization from
achieving their goal
ii. Opportunity to improve the current system
iii. New directive given by the management or government requiring change in the
status quo.
 For example, consider a mathematical problem such as calculating the area of a circle.
 In this case the problem is finding the area of a circle.
 For such a problem, a programmer must conceptualize the solution by first
understanding the problem, then identify input, processing logic and the expected
output.
 INPUT: 1. Pie π which is a constant
2. The radius of the circle
 PROCESS: The formula for calculating area of a circle ( π × radius × radius )
 OUTPUT: Area of the circle (A)
 A problem definition stage ends with documenting hardware and software requirements
necessary for solving the problem.
 It is this document that enable a programmer to develop an algorithm for implementing
the solution.
2. ALGORITHM DESIGN
 After the programmer identifies a problem, the next step is to design the solution for
solving the problem called algorithm.
 An algorithm is a well-defined step for performing a task or solving problem.
 The algorithm is designed using the following:
i. Flowcharts
ii. Pseudocode
iii. Structured English statements
 For example, to calculate area of a circle, a programmer may use the pseudocode below
to outline steps the programmer will follow to calculate the area

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Program: Calculate area of a circle.
BEGIN
SET as constant PI= 3.142
PRINT “enter radius”
READ radius
Area = PI × radius
PRINT area
END
 The above algorithm starts with a declaration on the task to be performed by the
program.
 The statement SET indicates that 3.142 is a constant represented using a symbolic name
PI.
 The phrases within the BEGIN and END denotes the executed statements for input, i.e.
PRINT radius; process (area = PI × radius); and output, i.e., PRINT area.
 Before coding, the algorithm should be tested for logical error
3. PROGRAM CODING
 This is the stage of writing the program code using programming languages e.g. C, C++,
e.t.c.
 The source code written by the programmer need to be converted to object code using
language translators like compiler, interpreter or assembler.
 Most programming languages have common elements and the following are some of
them:
1. Reserved words: Also referred to as keywords have special meaning and can only
be used for intended purpose. Some examples are: for, if, else, while and do
2. Identifiers: Identifiers are programmer defined symbolic names used to identify
elements like variables and constants.
3. Operators: Are used to perform arithmetic operations e.g. +, *, /, =, and –
4. Variable: Is a named location in computer’s memory for holding data. The contents
in variables may change during execution unlike constants whose contents do not
change.

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 Unlike other programming languages like Pascal, other programming languages are case
sensitive so when writing need to be careful with spellings and use of capital letters and
small letters. This means that the word “cout” is different from the word “COUT”.
4. PROGRAM TESTING AND DEBUGGING
 Testing is the process of tracing or checking whether the program has errors (bugs)
while debugging is the process of correcting identified program errors.
 Types of errors (bugs) that may be encountered when testing the program:
i. Syntax errors
ii. Logical errors (semantic errors)
i. SYNTAX ERRORS
 These are errors that emanate from improper use of language rules e.g. grammatical
mistake, punctuation, improper naming of variables and misspelling of identifiers and
reserved words.
 Syntax errors are detectable by the compiler or an interpreter and must be corrected
before the program runs.
ii. LOGICAL ERRORS
 These errors are not detectable by the compiler or interpreter.
 The program runs but gives wrong output or halts during execution.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SYNTAX AND LOGICAL ERRORS
1. Syntax error are detectable by the compiler or interpreter while logical errors are not
detectable by the compiler or interpreter
2. In syntax error the errors are detected before the program runs while logical errors are
detected after the program runs
3. Syntax errors result from improper use of language rules while logical errors result from
improper coding
TRACING PROGRAM ERRORS
 Tracing program errors requires careful step-by-step trace of input, processing and output
statements.
 The following is a three-step process of testing an algorithm or program for errors.
i. Dry-run (Desk check)

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ii. Debugging
iii. Test data
DRY-RUN (DESK CHECKING)
 Involves using a trace table to check whether an algorithm or program has errors before
writing it in the program editor.
 A good practice in using trace table is to go through an algorithm line by line exactly a
computer would.
 This helps the programmer to identify syntax and logical errors.

DEBUGGING
 Once a program is written in the program editor, the programmer debugs the code.
 The programmer uses debugging utilities to detect and correct syntax errors before
compiling the source code into object code.
TEST DATA
 After the program compiles successfully, the programmer carries out trial run using test
data to check for logical and run-time errors.
 The programmer tries to enter valid and invalid data to check whether the program
produces desired output.
5. PROGRAM REVIEW AND MAINTENANCE
 Review and maintenance refers to continuous update and fixing of program errors after
installation.
 You may continue fixing and updating the program until it reaches a point where the
program has to be replaced.
 At this point, maintenance stops and the program development life cycle starts all over
again.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROGRAM
1. Simplicity: a program should be kept as simple and easy to understand.
2. Integrity: this refers to reliability and accuracy of data. Therefore, mathematical
statements should be tested for the accuracy of output.
3. Efficiency: Good program design should aim at optimizing execution speed and memory
utilization to enhance performance.
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4. Clarity: The statements and comments should be clearly written for it to be readable.
5. Modularity: Complex programs should be broken down into components known as
modules or procedures or sub-programs.
PROGRAMMING IN VISUAL BASIC
 BASIC is an acronym for Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.
 BASIC has many dialects such as Microsoft Visual Basic (VB), GW-BASIC, Q-BASIC
and Turbo Basic.
 Microsoft Visual Basic is a member of Microsoft software development suite known as
Microsoft Visual Studio.
MICROSOFT VISUAL BASIC .NET
 Microsoft Visual Basic .Net, simply referred to as VB.NET is a GUI-based programming
language mainly for developing applications meant to run on Microsoft Windows
platforms (OS).
MAIN FEATURES OF VB.NET
i. It is an event driven programming language
 An event is a response generated by the program when the user performs an action.
e.g. A mouse click is an action and its response may be a menu being displayed on the
screen.
ii. It is a collection of tools that are used by programmers
 These tools are also called controls
 The controls are easily accessed by clicking their icons on the toolbox
iii. It has objects called Forms that have a title bar at the top
 The programmer can add controls such as Menu bar, Status bar and buttons onto the
form when creating an application
iv. It is an object oriented programming language implemented using a framework known as
.NET
 This means that applications developed in VB.NET can also run on internet
BASIC SYNTAX OF VB.NET PROGRAM
 VB.NET is an object-oriented programming language

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 In OOP, program consists of various objects that interact with each other by means of
message passing
 Objects of the same type belong to the same class just like human beings belong to class
called animals
 The following are the basic concepts relative to VB.NET programming language
CLASS
 A class is a template or collection of behaviours (methods) and state (variables) that
defines a set of objects.
 For example, let’s consider the “Form3 students”. We can define a template called
“Exam” with columns student name, marks, and grade in which you can add or delete
students’ details. Such a blank template represents the concept “class” in OOP.
OBJECT
 An object is an instance of a class that has state (data) and behaviour functions
 For example, a particular student in Form 3 is an object who has state or data such as
surname, marks, and grade
 The student object belongs to a class that has behaviour or functions such as walking and
speaking that is not in plants class
METHODS
 A method defines the behaviour or function to be performed by an object to manipulate
data
 For example, we can define a method to add, delete or modify student details in a class
 The class must define methods that are common to all the objects that belong to the class
 Therefore, it is in methods where the program statements that manipulate data are written
VARIABLES
 Each object has its unique set of variables that are used to hold data
 Data values received by methods are assigned to these variables
COMMENTS
 These are set of statements used in the code to explain what a program or statement does
 The comments are ignored by the compiler during execution
 In Visual Basic, a comment starts with a single apostrophe (‘) followed by the statement
STRUCTURE OF VB PROGRAM
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 VB program has:
i. Namespace declaration
ii. A class or module
iii. Variables
iv. Executable statements
v. Comments
GETTING STARTED WITH VB.NET 2010
 You can start Visual Basic.Net from the programs menu by pointing to Microsoft Visual
Studio and then selecting Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 Professional or Express. Here we
are going to use Professional.
 Depending on the way the application has been setup, you may see the New Project
window as shown below:

 This window lets the programmer create a new project or open an existing Visual Basic
application.

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 In VB, an application is referred to as a project because it comprises of several files.
CREATING A NEW PROJECT
1. Start Ms visual studio and then select Visual Basic.
2. On the Start page window, click New Project icon on the top left-hand side to display
several types of projects identified by different icons as shown below:
 Note that, two environment components used to develop Visual Basic application are
the Windows Form and Console Applications.
 While Form Application are GUI-based programs, Console Applications are
command line-based applications.
 In this unit we will learn programming using Form Application.

3. Select the Windows Form Application and type the name at the bottom of the dialog box,
type the name of the application that will replace the default name “WindowsApplication
1” e.g. hello world.
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4. Then click OK button, the Visual Basic Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is
displayed.
 The term IDE refers to programming environment that provides programmers with
several programming features such as source code editor, debugger and compiler.

MENU AND STANDARD TOOLBAR

 The Visual Basic has a menu bar and standard toolbar at the top
 The menu and the toolbar are used for creating, editing and manipulating the application
objects
 To perform a task using the standard toolbar, simply point to an icon to display tooltip
FORMS
 A visual basic form is an object on which you insert other objects such as text boxes and
command buttons
 A form has state (properties) and behaviour (methods)
 Properties define the appearance of the form object while methods are actions that can be
set to execute once you click the mouse button
TOOLBOX

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 The toolbox shown on the right of the form has most of the tools required for programmer
to create the application.
 The following is a list of tools that you can use to create a program by placing their
controls on the form.
 In object-oriented programming, a control is an instance of an object that appears on the
form.
 For example, Save button is an instance of command button.

i. Label
 Label tool is used to place controls that explain the content of other controls on the form
 For example, if a textbox contains surnames, a label against it indicates that surname
should be provided.
ii. TextBox
 Textbox tool is one of those frequently used tools to draw text boxes in which the user
provide input
iii. Button
 This tool is used to place command instances on the form.
 Such commands include OK, SAVE, EXIT, CLOSE etc
 This tool is used to interact with an application
iv. CheckBox
 Checkbox control provides a way of choosing multiple values by clicking on the check
boxes
v. DateTimePicker

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 This control is used to place a control on the form that a user can click to display a
dropdown calendar from which to choose DAY, MONTH or YEAR
vi. HScrolLBar
 This tool is used to place horizontal scroll bar.
vii. ListBox
 The listbox tool is used to draw controls that display list of items the user can select
from.
viii. ComboBox
 A combobox is a type of list box that combines the capabilities of a text box and a list
box.
 A combo box displays a list of items to select from during program execution.
 Items can also be added into the combo box
SOLUTION EXPLORER
 The solution explorer is shown on the top right of the IDE window
 It displays a list of objects associated with the open project such as forms and modules
CODE WINDOW
 The code window is displayed once you double click an object
 This is where we write the source code that instructs the program what to do.
PROPERTIES
 The properties window is used to define properties of each object in an application
 After you place an instance of an object, you must define its properties such as name,
colour.

EXAMPLE
QUESTION: Create a program that calculates area of a circle given that PI = 22/7.
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SOLUTION
1. Start Visual Basic and choose New project on the Start Page. Then Visual Basic then
Windows Application Form
2. From the toolbox, use the label, textbox and button tools to design the form
3. Change the name and text (caption) properties of the control to look as shown below;

4. Double click the button and insert the code below between the Private Sub and End Sub
Dim Radius As Integer
Dim Area As Double
Const PI As Double = 22/7
Radius = Val(txtRadius.Text)
Area = PI*Radius*radius
txtCircleArea.Text = Str(Area)
5. Run the program, enter 7 into Radius textbox and then click the calculate button. The
result of the calculation is displayed in the Area text box as shown below;

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PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
DECLARATION
 In programming, declaration is an instruction to the compiler to reserve memory enough
to store input or output from a computer program.
 For a computer to reserve enough memory, you have to specify the type of data to be held
in specific memory address
e.g. Dim Radius As Integer
 In this case the variable Radius has been declared to receive integer values.
VARIABLES
 A variable is a name or identifier that is used to represent a memory location whose
content may change during program execution
 When a variable is declared, the computer sets aside memory space to hold a value in the
variable.
 From the example above, Area and Radius are variables.
 In VB, a variable is declared using the reserved word DIM, a short form for dimension.
 It is used to associate a variable with specific data type.
RULES FOLLOWED WHEN DECLARING VARIABLES IN VB
 The variable name must not have more than 255 characters
 The variable name must start with a letter

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 The variable may be declared using mixed, lower or upper case because VB is not a case
sensitive.
 A variable name must not be a reserved word. e.g. Case, Else, Dim
 Variable names should not have spaces. If two or more words are to be used to create a
variable, use underscore or combine them with each word starting in upper case
 In VB, a variable is declared using the reserved word Dim
 Dim is short form of the word dimension
 So, the first line instructs the compiler to reserve memory location named Radius that
stores an integer.

VB DATA TYPES

DATA TYPE DESCRIPTION

Integer A whole number with no fraction part. Integers range from -32768 to
32768

Long integer Numbers which are integers but have a bigger value and range. From -
2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

Single Real constant that includes a fractional part. The largest value is
38
3.4 × 10

Double It includes a fractional part but has far much larger range than single real
numbers. However, it cannot be larger than 1.2 ×10308

String Characters enclosed in quotation marks

Boolean Data types that have only two logical states i.e true or false

VARIANTS
 In VB, if a variable type is not explicitly declared, the compiler uses variant as data type.

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 A variant is a special type used if the programmer does not declare a variable data type to
be integer, string or the other types discussed above.
 In this case, the actual data type is determined by the value held by the variable.
CONSTANTS
 A constant is a value such as PI (3.14) that does not change during execution of a program
 In VB the key word Const that comes before PI is used to declare the value as a constant
 e.g. Const PI As Double = 22/7
STRING CONSTANTS
 A string is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotation marks.
 Strings are used to write alphanumeric values that cannot be manipulated mathematically
such as phone numbers, addresses and names.
 Examples include; “Holiday season”, “345678”, “MW7 200”

NUMERIC CONSTANTS
 Numbers that can be manipulated mathematically are referred to as numeric constants.
 Numeric constants do not include letters and should not be enclosed in quotation marks.
 They can only be of integer, double or scientific type as shown bellow
e.g. 0, 3, +70, 1.4E+2, -0.70456
NAMED CONSTANTS
 A named constant is a value given a symbolic name rather than its actual value.
22
 For example, PI is a named constant used to represent the quotient of .
7
SCOPE DECLARATION
 Scope refers to the portion of the program that a variable or a constant is accessible by the
program
 The following terms are used to specify the scope of a variable or constant:
i. Local variables or constants
ii. Global variables or constants
LOCAL VARIABLES OR CONSTANTS
 A variable or a constant that is declared within a function is said to be local
 This means that the variable can only be accessed within that function
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GLOBAL VARIABLES OR CONSTANTS
 A variable or constant that is declared outside the function or module but within the same
application is said to be global
 Such variables can be accessed by other methods within the project
 In visual basic, variables can also be declared as either private (local) or public (global)
e.g. Private Dim X As Integer
Public Dim Y As String
 In the first declaration, the private variable X can only be accessed in the module within it
is declared.
 In the second example, the variable Y is public hence it can be accessed by other methods
or modules in the application.

ASSIGNMENT
 In VB, assignment is done using an assignment operator (=).
e.g Radius = Val(txtRadius.Text)
X=X+1
 In the first example, whatever is in the right side is assigned to the left side as (Radius)
 In the second example, X=X+1 does not make mathematical sense but this is the beauty of
assignment statement in programming.
 The statement can be interpreted as: Add 1 to the original value of X and assign the new
value to X. in other words, increment the value of X by 1.
USER-DEFINED DATA TYPES
 Sometimes, a programmer may want to have a single variable that can store several
variables of the same or different data type.
 Such data type made up of multiple variable components are referred to as user-defined
data types.
 Some examples of user defined data types are records, arrays, enumerated types and lists.
DECLARATION USING SUFFIXES
 Suffixes are special symbols added at the end of a variable or constant in order to
associate it with a particular data type. This makes programming easier and faster.
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SOME COMMON SUFFIXES
SUFFIX DATA TYPE LONG DECLARATION SHORT DECLARATION
% Integer Dim A As Integer A%
! Single Dim X As Single X!
$ String Dim Q As String Q$
& Long integer Dim C As Long integer C&
# Double Dim P As Double P#

RUNNING THE PROGRAM

 To execute the application, proceed as follows:
i. Switch to form display by clicking the Form Design tab on the project explorer pane.
ii. On the toolbar, click the Debugging icon shown in the figure below. Alternatively,
press F5 key on the keyboard.
iii. To stop running the program, click the Stop button on the toolbar that looks like a
small box.

SAVING VB.NET PROJECT

 Saving a project in VB is a bit different from application software because you are
required to save several files such as Project and Form Module files.
 To save a project and forms, proceed as follows:
i. Save the Project file. This created a project folder in which the project files will be
stored because VB.Net creates several files that makes up the application.
ii. To save a form, click Save Form As on the File menu. The Save As dialog box is
displayed in which you type the name of the form. Click the Save button to save the
form as a .vb file.

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OPENING EXISTING PROJECT
 You can open a VB project when Visual Basic starts or from the file menu.
 To open a project during startup, proceed as follows:
i. On the Project window, click Open Project button. A list of folders for each project
is displayed.
ii. Double click the folder that contains the project you want to open and then select the
file with extension .vbproj.
iii. Alternatively, if Visual Basic is open, close all other projects, and then click Open
Project on the File menu. Open Project dialog box appears from which you can select
the project you wish to open.
ADDING NEW FORMS
 Visual Basic project may require the use of more than one form.
 To add a form to a project, proceed as follows:
i. On the Project menu, click Add Windows Form. A dialog box is displayed
ii. In the dialog box, click Windows Form icon and then click the Add button to insert
the new form in design view and save it with your preferred file name.
iii. Save the new form with your preferred file name and VB extension.
iv. To make the new form executed after running the program, click Project Properties
on the Project menu.
v. Set the new form as the Startup form as shown in the figure below, and Close the
properties window.

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VB. NET OPERATORS

 In order to write correct mathematical expressions, Visual Basic uses operators.
 These include
i. Arithmetic operators
ii. Relational operators
iii. Logical operators
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
 Are special symbols that are used to write arithmetic expressions

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SYMBOL NAME OPERATION

+ Plus sign Addition

- Minus sign Subtraction

* Asterisk Multiplication

/ Slash Division

^ Caret Raise the number to power of

\ Integer division Integer division

MOD Integer remainder Integer remainder

 NB: In an integer division using \ operator, each of the numbers being divided is first
rounded to become an integer then the quotient is truncated to an integer
2.4 2
e.g, will result in being evaluated
3.5 4
 The MOD operator returns the remainder of an integer division
e.g. 4 MOD 3 returns 1 and 5 MOD 3 returns 2
PRECEDENCE OF ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
 Just like in mathematics, it uses BODMAS

PRECEDENCE SYMBOL EXPLANATION

1 ^ Performed first

2 * and / Carried out from left to right in an expression

3 \ Carried from left to right after * and /

4 MOD Evaluated after integer division

5 + and - Evaluated from left to right

RELATIONAL OPERATORS

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 A relation operator is used in an expression that returns a true or false value when
evaluated
 The operators can compare numeric variables, constants or expressions

OPERATOR NAME

= Equal to

<> Not equal to

> Greater than

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

>= Greater than or equal to

e.g. Y <> 100

 The expression above will evaluate to true if Y is not equal to 100 otherwise it evaluates
to false.
LOGICAL OPERATORS
 Logical operators are special form of relational operators used to compare simple or
complex relational expressions to form compound expressions that return true or false.
FOUR MAIN TYPES OF LOGICAL OPERATORS USED IN VB

OPERATOR OPERATION

And Results in a condition that is true if both expressions are true

Or Results in a condition that is true if one of the conditions is true or both

are true

Xor Results in a condition that is true if one of the conditions is true and the
other is false

Not Negates the value of a logical expression

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 The following are examples of compound expressions that demonstrates the use of logical
operators:
i. (X = 30) And (student = “John”): returns true only if value of X = 30 and student’s
name is John.
ii. (X = 20) And (Y = 30): returns true if value of X = 20 and Y is 30.
iii. (X=20) Or (Y<10): returns true if X is 20 and the value of Y is less than 10.
LIBRARY FUNCTIONS
 Library functions also known as in-built functions are methods that have been pre-defined
and included in Visual Basic.
 A library function performs a task such as calculating a mathematical expression and
returns a single value.
 A function will usually have a name that can be called when needed to perform a
particular task.
 A library function is accessed by its name followed by the information that must be
supplied to the function enclosed in parenthesis.
 This process is called calling a function.
 The variables held in the parenthesis are called arguments.
 When the function is called, it uses the arguments to perform an operation and return a
value.
 For example, to perform a mathematical operation, VB has library functions that starts
with Math, followed by the function name after the period. e.g. Math.Sqr ().
FUNCTION FUNCTION CALL DESCRIPTION
Round Z= Math.Round () Returns the current date
Exp Z= Math.Exp (w) Returns the exponential value of e w
Sqr Z= Math.Sqr (w) Returns the square root of w
Log Z= Math.Log(w) Returns the natural logarithm of w
Cos Z= Math.Cos(w) Returns the cosine of w
Abs Z= Math.Abs(w) Returns absolute value of w, e.g Abs(-8)=8
PI Z= Math.PI 22
Returns constant PI as =3.142…
7

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USING THE FORMAT FUNCTION
 The format library function is used to display data in many different formats.
EXPRESSION SAMPLE FORMATTED OUTPUT
Print Format (16.778994, “##.##”) 16.78 (notice the rounding)
Print Format (Now, “mm-dd-yyyy”) 1-20-2005
Print Format(15678, “##,###.00”) 15,678.00
Label1.Caption = Format $ (price, “##,###.##”) 10,630.75

NB: The dollar sign may be used with the format function depending on the type of output
required. In the last low of the table above, the formatted output is displayed on a label.
CONVERTING NUMERIC STRING TO VALUE
 If you enter a number in a text box it is treated as a string in VB.
 The best way to convert it from string into numeric value is to use the val function.
 The val function operates on the string and returns a numerical value.
 For example, if the name property of a textbook is set to txtLength, then the input typed
in it can be read converted into a numeric value and assigned to variable X as follows:
X = Val(txtLength.Text)
CONVERTING NUMERIC VALUE TO STRING
 To convert a number to a string (text) format, use Str(). If a particular variable has a
numeric value and you wish to display the value in a text box, you have to convert it to a
string first.
 Suppose that the name of the textbox is txtArea and the numeric value is X as follows:
TxtArea.Text = Str(X) ‘convert X to string and display it in txtArea.
CONTROL STRUCTURES
 In programming, control structures are constructs that determine the logical flow of
execution of program statements.
 There are three types of control structures supported by most programming languages
such as VB, Pascal and C++.
i. Sequence
ii. Selection

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iii. Iteration (looping)
SEQUENCE
 In sequence control structure, the computer reads instructions from a program file starting
from the first statement sequentially moving down to the last statement.
e.g.

Begin

Statement 1
Statement 2
.
.
.
Statement n

End

SELECTION
 Most programs that solve real world problems gives a computer ability to make a decision
or execute statement(s) given a certain condition is satisfied.
 In programming, making decision is referred to as selection. They use logical operators.
 For example, consider a program to test if X is greater than 20, (X>20).
 In this case, if a user enters a value of X, it is compared against 20 and the program
returns true or false depending on the outcome.
 This is known as conditional evaluation where the output is a Boolean value (true or
false)
TYPES OF SELECTION STATEMENTS USED IN VB
i. IF … THEN
ii. IF … ELSE
iii. NESTED IF
iv. SELECT … CASE

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IF … THEN SELECTION
 IF … THEN selection evaluates the statement within the selection body if the Boolean
value returned is true.
 In this case, if the Boolean value is false, the statements are ignored.
 For example, in school, the administration may decide to reward only those students who
attain a mean mark of 80% and above, he or she is rewarded while the rest are ignored.
 The general structure of IF … THEN selection is:
IF <condition> THEN
<statements if true>
END IF
EXAMPLE
Write a program that prompts a user to enter a score in Computer Studies exam. If the score is
at least 50%, the program should display “PASS”.
SOLUTION
Dim Score As Integer
Score = Val(txtScore.Text)
Dim Comment As String
Comment = "PASS"
If Score >= 50 Then
txtRemarks.Text = Comment
End If
IF … ELSE SELECTION
 IF … ELSE selection is suitable when there are two alternatives to choose from.
 For example, in a football match, if a player does a mistake which is considered serious
by the rules of the game, he/she is given a red card. Otherwise, he/she is given a yellow
card.
 The general structure of IF … ELSE selection is:
IF <condition> THEN

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<statements if true>
ELSE
<statements if false>
END IF
EXAMPLE
Write a program that prompts a user to enter a score in Computer Studies exam. If the score is
at least 50%, the program should display “PASS”, and if it is below 50% the program should
display “FAIL”.
SOLUTION
Dim Score As Integer
Score = Val(txtScore.Text)
Dim Comment As String
Comment = "PASS"
If Score >= 50 Then
txtRemarks.Text = Comment
Else
txtRemarks.Text = "FAIL“
End If

NESTED IF SELECTION
 Nested IF or the IF … ELSE …IF selection is used where two or more options have to
be considered to make a selection.
 The general structure is:
IF <condition> THEN
<statements>
ELSE IF <condition> THEN
<statements>
ELSE IF <condition> THEN
<statements>
ELSE <condition> THEN

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<statements>
END IF

EXAMPLE
Write a program that prompts a user to enter a score in Computer Studies exam. If the score is
at least 75%, the program should display “DISTINCTION”, if it is at least 60%, the program
should display “CREDIT”, if it is at least 50%, the program should display “PASS”, and if it is
below 50% the program should display “FAIL”.
SOLUTION
Dim Score As Integer
Score = Val(txtScore.Text)
If Score >= 101 Then
txtRemarks.Text = "INVALID INPUT"
ElseIf Score >= 75 Then
txtRemarks.Text = "DISTINCTION"
ElseIf Score >= 60 Then
txtRemarks.Text = "CREDIT"
ElseIf Score >= 50 Then
txtRemarks.Text = "PASS"
Else
txtRemarks.Text = "FAIL"
End If

SELECT … CASE
 Similar to nested IF, the select case control is used in case there are several alternatives to
choose from.
 However, unlike nested IF, select case uses ordinal values only
 An ordinal value is one that has predecessor and successor such as integers and alphabetic
characters
 For example, the predecessor of 3 is 2 and its successor is 4.

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 The general structure of Select … Case is:

SELECT CASE ordinal_value

CASE 1
<statements>
CASE 2
<statements>
CASE 3
<statements>
CASE ELSE
<statements>
END SELECT
EXAMPLE
Using Select Case control, write a program that displays the following remarks depending on
the examination grade awarded:
A: Comment = ‘EXCELLENT’
B: Comment = ‘GOOD’
C: Comment = ‘FAIR’
D: Comment = ‘POOR’
SOLUTION
Dim comment As String
Dim Grade As Char
Grade= txtScore.Text ‘assign score in textbox to Grade
Select Case Grade
Case “A”, “a” ‘takes care of uppercase and lower case
Comment = “Excellent” ‘assign comment excellent
Case “B”, “b”
Comment = “Good” ‘assign comment Good
Case “C”, “c”

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Comment = “Fair” ‘assign comment Fair
Case “D”, “d”
Comment = “Poor” ‘assign comment Poor
Case Else
Comment = “Invalid grade”
End Select
‘displays the remark to pass or fail
txtRemark. Text = comment

LOOPING (ITERATION)
 A loop is a control structure that causes program statement(s) to be executed several
times.
 For example, assume you are writing a program that calculates cumulative sum of five
subjects for five students. To calculate the total score for each student, the program
repeatedly reads each student marks in five subjects and then calculates the total.
 Visual Basic language has five types of looping control structures
TYPES OF LOOPING CONTROL STRUCTURE
i. Do While...... Loop
ii. While..... Wend
iii. Do..... Loop While
iv. Do Until....... Loop
v. For.... Next
Do While..... Loop
 The Do While..... Loop is used if a condition has to be met before the statements within
the loop body are executed.
 This type of loop uses a pre-test condition to determine if statements are to be executed
zero or more times.
 For example, in banking, to repeatedly withdraw money on automated teller machine
(ATM) a customer must have sufficient balance in his/her account.
 This can be represented as follows:

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Do WHILE balance > 0
Withdraw cash
Update balance
Loop
EXPLANATION
i. The condition balance > 0 is first tested.
ii. If it is true, the account holder is allowed to withdraw cash.
iii. The program exits the loop only when the balance falls to zero.
Do While.....Loop Syntax
Do While <condition>
<statements>
Loop
EXAMPLE
Write a VB program that displays the sum of the first 4 numbers.
SOLUTION
Dim ControlNum As Integer
Dim sum As Integer
ControlNum = 0
sum = 0
Do While ControlNum <= 4
sum = sum + ControlNum
ControlNum = ControlNum + 1
Loop
txtSum.text = Str(sum)

While.... Wend Loop

 A While.... Wend Loop structure is similar to the Do While.... Loop structure.
 This loop also continues executing statements within the body as long as the condition is
true.
While.... Wend Loop SYNTAX

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While <condition>
<statements>
Wend

EXAMPLE
Dim ControlNum As Integer
Dim sum As Integer
ControlNum = 0
sum = 0
While ControlNum <= 4
sum = sum + ControlNum
ControlNum = ControlNum + 1
Wend
txtSum.text = Str(sum)

Do Until.... Loop
 Just like the previous loops, Do Until.... Loop execute the statements in the body of the
loop if the condition is true.

Do Until.... Loop SYNTAX

Do Until <condition>
<statements>
Loop

EXAMPLE
Dim ControlNum As Integer
Dim sum As Integer
ControlNum = 0
sum = 0
Do Until ControlNum > 4

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sum = sum + ControlNum
ControlNum = ControlNum + 1
Loop
txtSum.text = Str(sum)
Do.... Loop While
 Unlike the previous three loops, Do.... Loop While loop executes the statements within
the loop at least once.
 This is because, this type of loop uses a post-test condition at the end of the loop block.
Do.... Loop While SYNTAX
Do
<statements>
Loop While <condition>
EXAMPLE
Dim ControlNum As Integer
Dim sum As Integer
ControlNum = 0
sum = 0
Do
sum = sum + ControlNum
ControlNum = ControlNum + 1
Loop While ControlNum <= 5
txtSum.text = Str(sum)

For...... Next Loop

 For…Next loop is used to execute a statement or set of statements for the specified
number of times.
 This loop is more useful when it is already known how many times the loop will be
executed.
 This loop depends on the value of a variable to repeat the statements. This variable is
called counter variable or control variable.

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 The loop specifies the starting and ending values of counter variable.
 The loop terminates when the counter variable reaches its ending value.
 For example, to calculate the sum of 10 numbers, the For…Next loop is appropriate
because the number of looping is predefined as 10. The loop executes the statements
within the loop ten times before the total sum is displayed.

For.... Next Loop SYNTAX

For index = StartVar TO EndVar [Step index]
<Statements>
NEXT index
 Note that the STEP part controls the looping such that you can count in increments of 1, 2,
3 etc. For example, to set count to even counts starting from zero, use the following STEP
index:
EXAMPLE
For count = 0 To 9 STEP 2
<statements>
Next index
 Generally, the For…Next loop that executes the statements within the loop ten times as
follows:
i. A variable e.g. count is first initialized to the lower limit, e.g. Index is assigned to 0.
ii. The lower limit is then tested against the upper limit e.g. 9
iii. If the lower limit is less than or equal to the upper limit, the program executes the
statements inside the body of loop.
iv. If the lower limit is less than the upper limit, the count variable is incremented by 1
and assigned to count, i.e. count = count + 1.
v. If the lower limit is tested against the upper limit and found to be greater, the program
exits from the loop.

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TOPIC 4: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION
 Communication is the process of using sound, words, symbols, signs, pictures or signals
to pass message or information from one person to another.
 The message origin is called a sender or a source while the target recipient is a receiver.
 The message is usually targeted for sending to the receiver.
DATA COMMUNICATION
 Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signals from one point to
another through communication channels.
TELECOMMUNICATION
 This is the use of technology to enable exchange of messages in a form of data and
information over a wired or wireless communication media.
 Telecommunication technology involves use of telegraph, telephone, radio television and
computer.
TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK
 A telecommunication network is an interconnection of telecommunication equipment
like telephone, mobile, radio, television and computers using transmission media or links.
 The network enables flow of data or information from the source to destination.
COMPUTER NETWORK
 A computer network is an interconnection of computers using transmission media and
networking devices to enable exchange of data and information.
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
 Information and communication technology (ICT) refers to the convergence of computer
networks with telecommunication networks like telephone, mobile, radio, television to
provide communication platform through which people can share information.

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 Today, ICT provide electronic communication such as mobile internet, electronic
commerce, instant messaging, email, internet radio and digital television broadcasts.

HISTORY OF TELEPHONE AND INTERNET

HISTORY OF TELEPHONE
 Telephone was inverted after telegraph.
 Telegraph used a series of dots and dashes(beeps) coded as electrical signals to transmit
text character over a long distance
 Alexander Graham Bell improved telegraph to telephone (inverted in 1876).
EVOLUTION OF TELEPHONE
i. Rotary dial telephone
ii. Touch tone dial telephone
iii. Mobile telephone
ROTARY DIAL TELEPHONES
 These were the first phone to be manufactured and were used from around 1919 to 1990.
 To use the phone, one had to use rotary dial.
 They are not common nowadays in offices and homes.
 To dial a number, the user puts a finger in the corresponding finger hole and rotates the
dial clockwise until it reaches the finger stop. The user then pulls out the finger, and a
spring in the dial returns it to the resting position.

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TOUCH TONE DIAL TELEPHONE

 These do not have rotary dial but push-button keys.
 They are called touch tone dial phones because each button produces a unique sound
when pressed, a feature which is common in mobile phones.

MOBILE PHONES
HISTORY OF MOBILE PHONES
 Mobile phone was first demonstrated by Dr. Cooper in 1973

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 Mobile phones are portable i.e. they are small and light and therefore can fit in a pocket.
 Mobile phones communicate using cellular wireless network that is set up by the
government or mobile service provider.
 Each mobile phone has a special component called Subscriber Identification Module
(SIM) card which identifies each subscriber on the network.
FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES OF MOBILE PHONES
i. Basic/conventional mobile phones
ii. Touch screen feature phones
iii. Smartphones
iv. Tablets

1. BASIC/CONVENTIONAL MOBILE PHONE

 These are phones designed just to make calls and send text and also have a few
monochrome games.
 Basic phones are characterized by:
 Small
 Low resolution screen
 Physical keypad
 Limited memory capacity
 Low processing power
 However, some advanced basic phones may have color screen, low resolution camera,
QWERTY keypad and ability to access internet.

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2. TOUCH SCREEN FEATURE PHONES
 These phones have the following characteristics:
i. Wide touch screen
ii. Ability to process graphics in full
iii. Higher memory capacity
iv. Powerful processor than basic phone
v. High resolution camera

3. SMARTPHONE
 They have advanced features that make them to operate as computer
 They are characterized by:
• Powerful processor and touch screen
• Powerful operating system (Android, iOS, windows) which makes the phone operate
like a computer
• It has high memory capacity ad has ability to access high speed internet and stream
online video.
• High resolution camera with ability to make high definition pictures and videos

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4. TABLETS
 These phones fall between smartphones and computers in terms of size and processing
power.
 Tablet differs with computer because it has a slot where SIM card can be inserted in
order to support voice calls, text messaging and internet access over mobile networks.
 Characteristics of tablets are:
i. A large touch screen, bigger than smartphone
ii. Large internal memory capacity
iii. Powerful processing, more powerful than that of smartphones
iv. Ability to run several applications and connect to high speed internet
v. High resolution screen and camera capable of taking high quality pictures and
videos.

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HISTORY OF INTERNET
 The idea of the internet started in the 1960's among a few visionaries at the Massachusets
Institute of Technology (MIT) and University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
 The first message was sent over the ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Administration Network), which evolved into the internet from computer science
Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at UCLA.
USES OF NETWORKS
 Computer networks support many services and applications in the modern society.
 Some of the uses of networks include:
i. Electronic banking (e-banking)
ii. Internet access at homes and work
iii. E-commerce
iv. Point of Sale (POS) applications
v. Mobile communications
vi. Electronic government etc.
1. ELECTRONIC BANKING
 This is the use of networked computers to offer banking services like cash withdraw,
deposits, transfers and electronic payments.
 Electronic banking encompasses the following services and technologies.
i. Automated Teller Machines (ATM)
 ATM machine enables people to withdraw and deposit money in their bank
accounts as long as they can positively be authenticated for true identity.

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 The authentication is done by means of a plastic card that is inserted in the
terminal and the user is required to provide Personal Identification Number
(PIN)
 Figure below is an example of an ATM:

ii. Internet baking

 Customers can perform transactions and view their statements online.
 Usually, the user registers with an organization like VISA or MasterCard in
order to perform online transaction internet.
 Figure below is an example of a VISA:

iii. Mobile banking

 Mobile phones are now used to access bank account to withdraw, deposit,
transfer cash, paying bills and buying mobile airtime.

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 Mobile to mobile cash transfer is also possible without necessarily having to
access the bank account.
2. INTERNET ACCESS AT HOME AND WORK
 Computer networks have enabled access to information held on the internet both at
home and work place
 Using computers, tablets and smartphones, more people are able to access internet using
physical and wireless means
 This supports research and e-health services
3. E-COMMERCE
 Computer networks and internet has enabled e-commerce whereby people can buy and
sell goods and services online.
 If e-commerce is done using mobile phones, it is called mobile commerce (M-
commerce)
4. POINT-OF-SALE (POS) SERVICES.
 Computer networks enable people to pay for goods purchased in retail stores using
electronic money at the point of sale
 Using mobile cash transfer or bank card like VISA, cashless transfer can be made by the
buyer to pay for goods and services.
5. MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
 Mobile networks can be viewed as wireless computer networks.
 Note that a mobile phone is a special purpose computer whose task is to enable
communication.
 Therefore, mobile networks facilitate communications and delivery of services like
voice, data and money transfers.
6. ELECTRONIC GOVERNMENT
 Computer networks are enabling government to deliver electronic services to the citizen
e.g. payment of taxes, international trade, application for government documents,
electronic identities and passport.
 This enable government to offer efficient services to the citizen.
BENEFITS OF NETWORKS
 Some of the benefits of using computer networks include:
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i. Resource sharing
ii. Remote communication
iii. Distributed processing facilities
iv. Cost effective
v. Reliability
i. Resource sharing
 A resource in the network environment means chart, files, printers, modems,
communication links, storage devices, fax machine, programs and other components
that can be share on the network.
 Resource sharing enable sharing of files, exchange of emails, sending faxes and
printing.
 Centralized access to data and information leads to less waste of time hence
productivity.
 In computer networks, shared resources may be attached to a network server and other
computers on the network send request to the server.
 The other computers on the network that send requests to the server are referred to as
clients or workstations.
 Network server runs a special program called the SERVER SOFTWARE which
controls computers on the network and listen to client's request to be served.
 For example, a print server gives permission for a particular client to print documents on
the network printer.

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ii. Remote communication

 In the present computing environment, computer engineers are faced with two
problems:
i. Roaming of officer who by virtue of their work keep on covering long distance away
from workplace.
ii. Solving the problem of remote access to the organization’s information so that they
can have up-to-date content or updated information on server.
 The problem of roaming has been addressed by development of portable computers like
laptops.
 The problem of access to the network has been addressed by remote communication.
 Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two
communication devices located in different geographical areas.
 A computer that tries to access resource from another computer on the network is called
a remote client while a computer being accessed is called remote server.
 Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless communication
media e.g. radio waves, microwave and satellite.
 With remote communication, people can share information and pass message over the
internet while at homes without necessarily going to work which increases productivity.
iii. Distributed processing
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 Distributed processing refers to processing of data by interconnected computers located
in different geographical areas.
 In distributed processing, users will not realise that processing is distributed but will
think that everything is taking place at their own computer.
 This is different in centralized processing where all data and information is put in one
computer called a server and all computers access from it.
 In distributed computers, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on central
server.
 This makes it possible for branch offices in large organisations have their own servers to
keep files rather than relying on central server.
 The advantage of distributed system is that:
i. The failure of central computer does not affect the operations of other terminals
ii. Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage
iv. Cost-effectiveness
 Networks are cost effective in the organization.
 This is so because resources like printers are shared on the network.
 An organization may have one printer or fax machine which can be connected to all
computers of the organization and allow all users access it using network.
 The same applies to other resources like fax machines, optical drives, files and
applications
 Users can send electronic messages and mail to each other instead of having to bear the
cost of stamp duty or physical delivery charges.
 On the same note, company executives may not need to travel across continents to hold
meetings.
 Companies also hold video conferencing instead of conducting meetings and therefore
save travelling expenses.
v. Reliability
 A computer network is reliable in two ways:
i. Data is transferred with minimal or no error from source to destination
ii. In case one computer breaks down, the other can still access data and information
from other computers using other devices
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LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKS
 The following are disadvantages of computer networks:
i. Security issues
ii. High cost of installation cost
iii. Moral and cultural effects
iv. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
v. Over reliance on networks
i. Security issues
 Data and information transmitted over a computer network is prone to illegal access
than if the computer was not on the network.
 It can be tapped by unauthorized user as it travels from source to destination
 One of the common methods of data protection in a networked environment is
encryption
 Encrypted data cannot be understood by people who illegally access it unless they have
the decryption key
ii. High initial cost
 The initial cost of buying hardware and software may be very high.
iii. Social-cultural effects
 The internet has chatrooms and messaging services that enable under age children to
meet peers and adults on the internet some of whom may be morally spoiled.
 Access to pornographic and other negative materials has also made the fight against
social problems such as HIV and AIDS, pre-marital sex as well as drug and substances
abuse more complicated.
iv. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
 The easy flow of information from one place to another make even those who are on the
wrong side of the law communicate easily
 Terrorists and drug traffickers use information networks for their business
communications.
 However, many countries have come up with methods of policing the Internet to try and
break such syndicates.
v. Over-reliance on network

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 Most organizations today have stopped using manual operations.
 This means that their business processes depend on computer networks.
 Therefore, the disadvantage is that if the network fails or goes down, all system in the
organization are brought to halt.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
 A communication system consists of terminal device, communication channels and
transmission media that enable exchange of message between users of the system.
 A communication system has the following elements:
i. Message source
ii. Transmitter
iii. Communication channel
iv. Receiver
v. Message user
MESSAGE SOURCE
 This is the person who wants to send the message across the communication system
 The message source may want to make telephone call, send email, chart etc.
TRANSMITTER
 This is the terminal equipment that receives a message from the source and coverts it to a
format that can be transmitted on the channel.
 A transmitter can be a computer, radio, TV transmitter station in broadcasting stations.
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
 A communication channel is a transmission media through which data and information
flows.
 A channel carries the coded message from the transmitter to the receiver using signal that
can flow through it.
 The channel could be made of one or more transmission media especially if the message
is travelling over a long distance.
RECEIVER
 A receiver is a terminal equipment that get the transmitted message from the channel and
decodes it before presenting it to the user.

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 It could be computer, mobile phones, radio tuner etc.
 Terminal equipment is the device that is found on the sending and receiving end points,
excluding all the devices that are available on the way like routers and repeaters.
MESSAGE USER
 This is a person who is the target recipient of the message.

Information Receiver Information

Transmitter Channel
source user

Nodes
Figure: Communication system

THE NETWORK AND ITS ELEMENTS

 A computer network is made up of several standard elements (components) which can be
classified into four major categories namely:
i. Communication devices (Networking devices)
ii. Data signal.
iii. Data communication media.
iv. Networking software.
NETWORKING DEVICES
 Networking devices allows the transmission of data signals from the source to the
destination.
 Communication devices is made up of several devices.
 These networking devices enable transmission of data signals from the source to
destination.
 Generally, devices connected to the communication medium can be classified into two
broad categories:
i. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
ii. Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)
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DATA TERMINAL DEVICE
 Data terminal equipment (DTE) is a device at both ends of the communication network
that converts user information into signals at the source or reconvert signals at the
destination.
 Examples of DTEs include: desktop computers, mobile phone, laptops, tablets and
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
DATA CIRCUIT-TERMINATING EQUIPMENT
 Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) also known as Communication equipment
refers to devices used to establish, maintain and terminate communication session
between DTE (Data source) and its destination.
 DTE is an interface between data terminal equipment and communication media.

 Some examples of DCEs include:

i. Network Interface Card vi. Routers

ii. Modems and Codecs vii. Gateways
iii. Hubs viii. Switches
iv. Bridges ix. Access Points
v. Repeaters

i. NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)

 Network interface card creates a physical connection between the computer and
transmission media.
 It is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard (others are embedded on
the board).
 Network interface cards has ports at the back in which terminated ends of a network
cable can be plugged.

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ii. MODEMS AND CODECS
 A modem converts a signal from digital to analog form before transmission over analog
media while a codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via
digital medium.
 At the receiving ends, terminal devices convert the signal to original form
(demodulation).
 A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.

iii. HUBS
 A hub also called concentrator is a component that connects computers on Local Area
Network and relay signals from one computer to another.
 A hub usually connects networks that have common architecture i.e. one that has the
same set of communication software called PROTOCOLS.
 Protocols refer to set of rules that govern communication between devices on a network.
 A hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all computers on the network.
 After the signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message picks the
message from the network.
 The increase in broadcast range can lead to what is called broadcast storm on the
network
 Broadcast storms refers to a condition where network is overwhelmed with messages
making communication impossible.
 Some hubs called INTELLIGENT HUBS are able to monitor the way computers are
communicating on the network and keep the information in a small database of their
own called Management Information Base (MIB).
 Several hubs can be connected together one another to expand the network.

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iv. BRIDGE
 A bridge is a network device that determine the appropriate network segment for which
a message is meant for delivery through address filtering.
 A bridge can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.
 A bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not
broadcasted in that segment.
 The purpose of using bridge is to:
i. Expand the length and number of stations that a segment can support
ii. Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcast only in the data destination
segment of the network.

A
BRIDGE

v. REPEATERS
 A repeater receives data from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any
distortion, boosts it and then sends it to another segment.
 Using repeaters is the simplest way to expand a network because they broadcast the
same message to other network segments.
 Repeater broadcasts to all segments which may lead to broadcast storm.
 Nevertheless, use of repeaters enable the network to eliminate the problem of
attenuation.

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vi. ROUTER
 A router interconnects different networks and directs the transfer of data packets from
one source to destination.
 Routing depends on network address.
 Each network has a unique identifier or address called the NETWORK ADDRESS.
 All the computers from the same network have same network address but different host
number.
 The router receives the packet from a computer on the network and checks the
destination’s network address and passes it to that network which then passes to the host
address.
 Some routers combine the function of bridge and routers called BROUTER.

vii. GATEWAYS
 A gateway is a device that is configured to provide access to devices on wide
area network (WAN) or internet.
 One such device is the router in which gateway software is installed.
 Because of this reason, most people confuse a gateway with a router but a
gateway may not be necessarily be a router.

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 A gateway is the most powerful internetwork device because of its ability to
convert data across different network architectures and protocols

viii. SWITCH
 A switch is a device that forwards packets directly to addressed node without
broadcasting.
 A node is an equipment on the network.
 A switch transmit data by connecting two nodes point-to-point.
 Because data is not broadcasted as hub, it reduces the problem of broadcast storm.
 Note that some hubs are configured to function as switch and are called intelligent hubs
or switching hubs.
 Switches are more expensive than hubs.

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WIRELESS COMMUNICATION DEVICES

 These are devices which allow communication without using wires.
 Some of the most common devices used in wireless communication include Wireless
Access point and Antenna.
WIRELESS ACCESS POINT (WAP)
 WAP is used to extend local area network (LAN)
 It is an access point to a wired network for people who have wireless devices such as
smartphones and laptops
 Access points act as wireless hubs to link multiple NICs
 WAPs are commonly used in large office buildings to create one Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN)

WAP

WIRELESS ANTENNAE
 This is a device mounted indoors or outdoors to extend wireless network to the
surrounding buildings
 It is used to propagate radiowave, microwave or infrared waves that carry data to be
received by access point in the surrounding.

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PCMCIA CARD
 A Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) adapter is an
addon card inserted into a device such as PDA or laptops in order to enable wireless
communication between the device and the wired network server.

DATA SIGNAL
 Data signal refers to as a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data.
DATA SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
 Some terms used in data communication include: data signal, signal modulation and
demodulation, multiplexing, bandwidth, baseband, broadcast transmission and
attenuation.
 Data signals can either be ANALOG or DIGITAL.
 ANALOG data is made up of continuous waveform while DIGITAL data is made up of
non-continuous discrete signal
 Analog is made up of continuous wave form while digital data is made up of a non-
continuous discrete signal

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(a) Digital signal (b) Analog signal

 From figure (a), digital signal rises suddenly to a peak amplitude of +1, holds for some
time then suddenly drops to -1 level.
 On the other hand, an analog signal rises to +1 and falls to -1 in a continuous manner
 Although the two graphs look different, they repeat themselves at equal time interval.
 Electrical signals of this nature are said to be periodic. Generally, a periodic wave
representing a signal can be described using he following parameters:
1. Amplitude (A)
2. Frequency (f)
3. Periodic time (T)
 Amplitude (A): Amplitude is the maximum displacement that the waveform of an
electrical signal can attain. For example, the amplitude of the electrical signals is 1.
 Frequency (f): Frequency is the number of cycles made by signal in one second. It is
measured in units called hertz (Hz). 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second.
 Periodic time(T): The time taken by a signal to complete one cycle is called periodic time
(T). periodic time is given by T= 1/f, where f is frequency of the wave.
SIGNAL MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
 This is the process of converting data signals to and from a form that is suitable for
transmission over a transmission medium.
 A modem (Modulation-Demodulation) converts a digital signal to analog signal to be
transmitted over analog telephone line a process called modulation.
 At the receive end, another modem converts back analog signal to digital form a process
known as demodulation.

A
MODEM

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MULTIPLEXING
 Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signal over the same medium.
 A channel can be made to carry several data signals either simultaneously or at different
times.
 Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signal at the receiving end.
 Imagine a situation where 100 computers in town A want to communicate with 100
computers in town B, if multiplexing is used, each of the computers in town A will need a
direct cable linking it to another in town B. however, with multiplexing, the computers
can be made to share a single cable lied between two towns hence save cost.

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BANDWIDTH
 Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission channel can carry at any
one time.
 For example, a certain cable transmitting 100mbps (megabits per second) is said to have
100 Mbps bandwidth.
BASEBAND SIGNAL
 Baseband signal is a digital signal that is generated and fed into a transmission medium
without modulation.
 The signal takes forms of voltage of different magnitudes applied to the medium.
 A baseband signal ultilises the full capacity of the transmission medium, hence at any one
time, only one signal can be sent at a time.
BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
 In broadband transmission, analog signals are transmitted over the transmission medium
using different frequencies (multiplexing).
 This means that several data signals can simultaneously be sent through the same medium
at different frequencies.
 Frequency bands between these data signals prevent them from overlapping.
ATTENUATION
 This is decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as it progressively moves along
transmission medium.
 If the signal is not boosted, it is totally lost along the way and may never reach the
destination.
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 Attenuation is minimized by placing a repeater station along the medium at appropriate
distance.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
 Communication networks can be classified as either:
i. Circuit switched
ii. Packet switched
iii. Message switched

a) CIRCUIT SWITCHED NETWORK

 Circuit switched network involves a dedicated circuit that has to be set up before data
is sent from source to destination
 All the data is sent through the dedicated connection
 Examples of such networks are the telephone and dial-up network
ADVANTAGES OF CIRCUIT SWITCHING
i. Communication entities enjoy dedicated connection
ii. Data is sent through the same path from source to destination
DISADVANTAGES OF CIRCUIT SWITCHING
i. Inefficient utilization of communication channels since even when the link is
underutilized, other devices cannot use it.
ii. Circuit switching communication is expensive in terms of set-up cost and bandwidth
utilization.
iii. Lack of error localization means a broken link means the entire communication breaks
down.

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b) PACKET SWITCHED NETWORK

 In packet switched networks, a message is broken down into small tokens called
packets, serialized and sent over the network to the destination.
 Each packet follows its own route to the destination and there is no dedicated
connection hence many users can use the same link at a time.
ADVANTAGES OF PACKET SWITCHING
i. Efficient utilization of communication channels since many users can share the same
channel
ii. Cheaper communication costs because no setup cost is required
iii. Error to message are localized i.e. if a packet becomes damaged only that packet needs to
be reset. Also, if the link breaks, the packet can be routed through available channels.
DISADVANTAGES OF PACKET SWITCHED
i. Routing of packets from source to destination is required.
ii. Assembling of packets at the destination node requires computing effort.
c) MESSAGE SWITCHED NETWORKS
 In message switching, an entire message is sent from one node to the next then
forwarded to the next until the message reaches the destination.
 Nodes have special memories called buffers for storing messages then forwarded
them.
ADVANTAGES OF MESSAGE SWITCHING
i. Transmission efficiency is greater since message can share channel
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ii. Message priorities can be set on the network
iii. Since the next route is determined from the current node, more efficient routing of
message is possible.
DISADVANTAGES OF MESSAGE SWITCHING
i. Long messages can dominate the channel at the expense of others.
ii. Nodes must have large storage capacities and forward messages.
DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Data signals cannot be sent from one place to another without medium of communication.
 A communication medium is a physical or wireless channel used for transmitting data and
information from one point to another.
 In networking data communication media can be divided into two broad categories:
i. Communication using cable (physical media)
ii. Wireless communication (wireless media)
COMMUNICATION USING CABLES (PHYSICAL MEDIA)
 The main distinguishing characteristics of physical media is that data is transmitted from
the source to destination through a physical channel such as copper cables.
 The electrical signal is propagated through the cable from source to destination
TYPES OF PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 There are several types of physical transmission media but the most common
ones are:
i. Two wire open line cables
ii. Twisted pair cables
iii. Coaxial cables
iv. Fibre optic cables
TWO-WIRE OPEN LINE
 Two-wire open cable is made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic
insulator.
 They are most used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signals

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 Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce interference called crosstalk, their linear
nature allows an electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data
transmission which may cause interference to the signal.
 The wire also captures environmental frequencies e.g. radiowave hence causing noise in
transmission channel.
 In data communication, the word NOISE refers to unwanted signals picked up by the
channel.
TWISTED PAIR CABLES
 A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire twisted around each other in a
double helix manner.
 The winding of the wire is meant to reduce the build-up of electromagnetic field around
the two wires as they transmit data.
 Twisted wire cables are used to transmit both voice and data signals.
 The two common twisted pair cables are:
i. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
ii. Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)

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 Notice that unlike STP, UTP cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic
interference (EMI) from the environment
 The cable is therefore susceptible to noise and signal interference.
 The noise may come from lightening sparks, radio frequencies or radiation from spark
plugs in motor vehicle.
 Therefore, UTP is not suitable in the environment that are electrically “noisy”, the
alternative is to use STP that has cable pairs.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) is similar to Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) except that a
wrapped around the wires protect them from noise.
 Twisted pair cables are categorized into groups according to the data transmitted and
maximum rate of transmission as shown in the table below:

CATEGORY SUITABLE FOR TRANSMITTING SPEED (MAX. LIMIT)

Cat 1 Voice Less than 1 Mbp
Cat 2 Data 1 Mbps
Cat 3 Data 16 Mbps
Cat 4 Data 20 Mbps
Cat 5 Data 100 Mbps
Cat 6 data 200 Mbps

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 Most organizations today use Cat 5 and Cat 6 twisted pair cables to set up Local Area
Networks (LAN).
 Although twisted pair cables support high data rates of up to 200 Mbps, they suffer from
attenuation
 For every cable length of 90 meters, a device for amplifying the signal called REPEATER
must be installed.
EXAMPLE
 A student typed an e-mail to send over the internet at a speed of 100 Mbps. Calculate the
maximum number of characters that can be sent per second if each character consists of 8
bits.
SOLUTION
1 Mb = 1,000,000 bit
Therefore 100 Mb = 100,000,000 bits
If 8 bits = 1 character
Then 100,000,000 = (more characters)
(100,000,000 bits / 8 bits) * 1 character
=12, 500, 000 Characters per second

THE ADVANTAGES OF TWISTED PAIR CABLING

i. It is easier to set up network media because UTP cables are widely available
ii. Devices used to set up UTP network are cheap and readily available
iii. UTP cables are cheaper because of mass production for telephone use
THE DISADVANTAGES OF TWISTED PAIR CABLING
i. UTP connection suffers high attenuation
ii. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping (interception of
communication between two parties by a malicious third party)
iii. It has low data transmission rate as compared to fibre optic cables

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COAXIAL CABLES
 A coaxial cable resembles a cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television
set.
 It is called coaxial cable because it has a copper core (coax) which may be of solid wire
cable surrounded by a dielectric material (insulator).
 The dielectric material is then surrounded by mesh conductor which is covered by a
shield making the cable more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted
pair cable.
 The mesh conductor is made of copper or aluminum and serves as the earthing for the
carrier copper core.

A COAXIAL

 Together with the insulation and any foil shield, the shield protects the core from radio
frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Although the cable has better protection against magnetic interference than twisted pair
cables, it has a moderate protection against magnetic interference.
 The diameter of the centre core determine attenuation rate.
 The thinner the core, the higher the attenuation rate. Data is carried on coax in a form of
direct current (D.C).
 Coaxial cable has a bandwidth of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second) hence it is used as a
network backbone.
 A good example is a cable that is used to connect different networks between building and
routing trunk calls in telecommunication.
TWO TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLES
i. Thin coaxial cable also called thinnet: has one dielectric insulator

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ii. Thick coaxial cable also called thicknet: has two dielectric insulators around the core
and is thicker than thinnet

ADVANTAGES OF COAXIAL CABLES

i. They are stable even under high transmission rate
ii. They have high bandwidth compared to twisted pair cables
iii. They are capable of carrying voice, data and video signal simultaneously
iv. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.
DISADVANTAGES OF COAXIAL CABLES
i. Thick cables are hard to work with
ii. Coaxial cables are relatively more expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted
pair
iii. Local area network established using coaxial cables is difficult to troubleshoot and
maintain. So many people use twisted pair instead of coaxial cable.

FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

 Fibre optic is one of the latest transmission media used in local and wide area network.
 Instead of transmitting data signals using electronic signals, fibre optic cables uses visible
light to transmit data from one point to another on a network.
 The electrical signals from the source are converted to light signals then propagated along
the cable. The source has a Light Emitted Diode (LED) which convert electric signal to
light.

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 At the receiving end, a photosensitive device is used to convert the light back to electric
signal.
COMPONENTS OF FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
i. Core
ii. Cladding
iii. Buffer
iv. Jacket
 Core: is a central part of the cable and is made of a hollow transparent or black
 Cladding: is a single protective layer surrounding the core. It has some light bending
characteristics in that, when the light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is
redirected back to the core. This is why even if a fibre optic cable is bent into coils and
light signals is inserted at one end, it will still be seen coming out of the other end.
 Buffer: the buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
 Jacket: it is the outer covering of the cable.

TYPES OF FIBRE OPTIC CABLES

 The fibre optic cable can be classified into two categories namely:
i. Single mode fibre optic cables
ii. Multimode fibre optic cables
i. SINGLE MODE FIBRE CABLE
 Has a narrow centre core
 The light in the cable takes one path through it.

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 Because of this, it has a very low attenuation rate and is preferred for long distance
transmission.
 It has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps which is higher than that of twisted pair’s 100 Mbps
 Single mode fibre is very expensive and requires very careful handling during
installation
ii. MULTIMODE FIBRE CABLE
 Has a thicker core than the single mode.
 It allows several light rays to be fed in the cable at an angle.
 Because of multiple light signals navigating the cable at the same time, distortion of the
signal is possible
 Multimode cables have high attenuation rate and are usually used for shorter distance
than single mode

HOW DATA SIGNALS TRAVEL IN FIBRE CABLES

 Data signal travels as the light through the core reflects, due to total internal reflection
 The total internal reflection occurs when light travels from optically dense medium such
as glass to less optically dense medium such as air. The phenomenon that causes total
internal reflection is called refraction
 When light travels from optically dense medium, it is refracted away from the normal to a
point that the ray deviates so far away from normal making it reflected rather than
refracted.
 Therefore, when light signal is fed into fibre optic cable, it tries to cross from the core to
the cladding but it is bent back into the core hence propagates along the length of the
cable.
 Figure below shows how a fibre based network transmit data from source to destination.

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THE ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC CABLING

i. Fibre optic cable is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping
ii. Fibre optic cables support high bandwidth
iii. It can be used as a backbone in wide area networks because it has low attenuation rate
iv. Can be used in highly flammable places because they do not generate electrical signals
v. Fibre optic cable is smaller and lighter than copper cables hence good for space between
ceiling and roof top
THE DISADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC CABLING
i. Installation on configuration of fibre optic network devices and the media are expensive
ii. Installation is difficult because the cable is dedicated
iii. Fibre optic network is difficult to troubleshoot and complex to configure
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION (UNBOUNDED MEDIA)
 Wireless communication media is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one
point to another without using physical connection.
 A transmitting antenna and aerial facilitate the communication
 Examples of wireless transmission media include:
i. Microwave
ii. Satellite
iii. Radiowaves
iv. Infrared transmission
 They all use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 The diagrams below show an electromagnetic spectrum

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 All the waves travel at the speed of light.

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
 Microwave frequencies range from about 3GHz to 40GHz on the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 In networking, microwave is suitable for making point to point transmissions.
 This means that a signal is directed through a focused beam from transmitter to a receiver
station.
 Due to their small wavelength, they easily release their energy in water as heat hence they
are also used in making domestic appliance.
 Figure below shows an illustration of point-point transmission in microwaves connecting
two local area networks in different buildings.

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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
 A satellite is a relay station. It has a parabolic dish with an antenna fixed on them to focus
on a narrow beam towards a satellite in space.
 The satellite earth stations are microwave dishes with antenna used for relaying data using
microwaves to the satellite in the space.
 A satellite has three main components:
i. Transmitter earth station: that set uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data.
ii. A satellite: it receives, amplify and transmit the signal to a receiving earth station via
a downlink frequency that is different from the uplink frequency.
iii. Receiving earth station: that would receive and send signal on the other side of the
globe

 The new trend in microwaves uses Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) technology
which uses a very small satellite dish used to transmit both data, radio and TV
communication.
 The VSAT is mounted on a roof enables direct access to satellite communication instead
of having to go through a state owned by the gateways.

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 Figure below shows how VSAT is used to connect two locations to communicate
network set up to enable two laptops in geographically desperate locations to
communicate.

 In VSAT setup, the satellite produces a strong signal that can be received by a satellite
dish antenna of only 2 meters in diameter.
 The signals are decoded using a decoder which is plugged directly to television set or
computer.
RADIO COMMUNICATION
 Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e. they are OMNIDIRECTIONAL.
 This means that radiowaves start from a central point and spread outwards in all
directions.
 The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a radio frequency antenna at constant
velocity
 Radio waves are not visible by human eye.
 Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts
 Data can also be transmitted over radio waves communication channels
 Figures below show how radio waves are propagated between transmitting station and the
receiving station.

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 They are used in radio and television broadcasts.
 Data can also be transmitted over radio communication channels, so instead of laying a
telephone cables between two towns that are far from each other, radio waves
transmission can be used to connect the two towns.
 Radiowaves can be of high frequency, very high frequency or ultra-high frequency.
HIGH FREQUENCY
 HF radio waves signal is propagated by directing it to the ionosphere of the earth
 The ionosphere reflects it back to the earth's surface and the receiver picks the signal
 Before invention of satellite communication, HF radio transmission was preferred mode
of communication in marine transport to direct ships and other maritime objects
 However, the main drawback in use of HF communication is the danger of signal
interception by unauthorized parties.

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)

 VHF radio waves are transmitted along the earth's surface.
 Due to shape of the earth, the signal attenuates mostly at the horizon.
 This means that repeater stations have to be placed strategically to maintain a line of sight
in order to receive, amplify and propagate the signal.
 VHF is mostly used on hand held radio devices like walkie-talkie radios.
 To overcome the obstructions by the earth surface like mountains and buildings, repeater
stations are built on high grounds like hills and mountains.

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 Repeater stations have to be placed strategically to maintain a line of sight
ULTRA-HIGH FREQUENCY (UHF)
 UHF radio waves are like VHF when it comes to the line of sight principle
 This means that there should be no barrier between the sending and the receiving stations
 Notice that the television aerial for VHF is bigger than the one for UHF radio waves
 This is because UHF radiowaves can be made to follow very narrow and precise path to
the receiver than VHF radiowaves
BLUETOOTH TECHNOLOGY
 Bluetooth is an example of short-range radio transmission that enables devices located
within a limited geographical location communicate and share resources such as files
 The main component in Bluetooth is a small LOW POWER two-way radio transceiver,
small enough to be inserted in small devices
 A network in Bluetooth-enabled device is called a Wireless Personal Area Network
(WPAN) or PICONET because Bluetooth networks are best suited for handheld devices

INFRARED TRANSMISSION
 Infrared waves are not visible to the human eye
 Communication through infrared is achieved by having transmitters and receivers
(transceivers) within a line of sight because infrared rays do not penetrate obstacles like
walls

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 However, the signal can be reflected by surfaces like walls and ceiling before they are
received
 An example of an infrared device is the transceiver installed on some mobile phones
 Once activated, two people in the same room can send messages to each other using
infrared without going through the mobile service provider hence saving network charges
ADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
i. Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to wired i.e. devices can be moved
around without losing access to the network
ii. Wireless networks can span a large geographical area
iii. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not
have physical infrastructure such as telephone lines.

DISADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

i. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure
ii. The initial set up cost may be high
TRANSMISSION MODES
 Data can be transmitted using different ways or modes. The following are common
modes:
i. Parallel transmission mode
ii. Serial transmission mode
iii. Simplex transmission mode
iv. Half duplex transmission mode
v. Full duplex transmission mode
PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
 The Parallel data transmission mode is a mode in which the data bits are sent in a parallel
way at a time.
 In parallel transmission, a set of data lines (buses) are used to transmit data from one
device to another simultaneously.
 The speed of data transmission on the bus is determined by its width. The bus is usually 1
byte (8-bits), 2 bytes, 32 bytes or 64 bytes.
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 Multiple transmission lines are used in such modes of transmission. So, multiple data
bytes can be transmitted in a single system clock.
 This mode of transmission is used when a large amount of data has to be sent in a shorter
duration of time. It is mostly used for short-distance communication.

 This mode of data transmission is common in the following areas:

i. Communication between computer components that are connected to the motherboard
e.g. transfer of data from memory to the processor.
ii. Transfer of data from computer to other peripheral devices e.g. printer
SERIAL TRANSMISSION

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 Is a mode in which the data bits are sent serially one after the other at a time over the
transmission channel.
 Data is sent as a string of series of 0s and 1s, over the communication channel
It needs a single transmission line for communication.
 Once a computer receives data from the network, it usually converts it from serial to
parallel mode
 This is usually achieved using special memories called buffers which store the data
temporally as it arrives.
 The data stored in the buffer is then read from these memories by the computer in parallel
mode.
 In serial data transmission, the system takes several clock cycles to transmit the data
stream.
In this mode, the data integrity is maintained, as it transmits the data bits in a specific
order, one after the other.

SIMPLEX TRANSMISSION
 In this mode, there is one-way transmission of data.
 The sender sends the data and the recipient receives it and cannot send the response back
to the sender over the link

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 Examples of simplex are
i. Radio tuner at home
ii. Television transmission

Simplex
Transmitt Receiv
transmission
er er

HALF DUPLEX TRANSMISSION

 In half duplex transmission, two-way communication is possible over the communication
channel but not simultaneously
 Transmitter send the message then after finishing, the receiver is allowed to send back
response
 One example of half duplex is the two way press to talk radios e.g. walkie talkies
 The sender speaks and has to give an audio indication at the end of every message e.g.
“over” and press a button for the recipient to know that the channel is now free to make
response.
Half Duplex
Transceive transmission Transceive
r r

FULL DUPLEX TRANSMISSION

 In this mode, data can travel on the channel in both directions simultaneously
 Two devices communicating on the system can send messages to each other
simultaneously
 Examples include:
i. Computer communication on the network e.g. Sending emails, instant messaging
ii. The telephone calls

Full Duplex
Transceive Transceiver

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TOPIC 5: TROUBLESHOOTING COMPUTERS

 The term troubleshooting refers to the process of diagnosing and trying to resolve
computer hardware or software related problems.
 The following problems will be discussed:
1. Failure to load the operating system during booting process
2. The computer stops responding (hanging) now and then
3. Abnormal restarting of a computer
4. Failure of the monitor to display
5. Fatal operating system and device drivers’ failure.
HARDWARE RELATED FAILURE
 The following are problems that you may experience as a result of failure of basic
hardware components:
COMPUTER BOOT FAILURE
 When a computer is started, the BIOS performs a Power on Self-Test (POST) to check for
the presence and status of existing hardware components.

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 Errors found during POST are typically indicated by error messages on the screen or by a
series of beeps.
 If he computer produces beep sound, count the beeps and note whether they are short or
long.
 One beep indicates that all components passed the POST.
 Alternatively, the computer may display error code starting from numbers 120 or 162 that
represent the problem with motherboard or processor.
 Error starting with 2 indicates memory failure while errors starting with 3 indicates
keyboard failure.
To troubleshoot the startup problems above:
1. Start the computer to initiate the POST process
2. This is usually a dark screen with some scrolling text
3. At the bottom of the screen is a prompt like "press F10 to enter BIOS setup"
4. Press special keys or combination of keys (mostly F1, F2, F10, DEL, ESC, CTRL +
ESC or CTRL + ALT + ESC) to display the BIOS set-up
5. In the BIOS setup screen, make the necessary changes.
 NOTE: Never make changes that you are not sure of, otherwise you may make the
computer malfunction.
6. Save the configuration changes and restart the computer

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MOTHERBOARD, MEMORY OR PROCESSOR FAILURE

 The following are signs of motherboard, memory or processor failure experienced after
turning on a computer:
i. Failure to complete the POST
ii. Computer displays a LED light instead of green
 Such errors are rare because most motherboard and processor prevent the computer from
issuing error codes and some RAM errors are no reported to the computer at all.
 RAM errors may result when the RAM is not firmly plugged into the slot or the RAM
module has a problem.
RESOLVE RAM ERRORS
i. Disconnect the computer from power and open up the system unit and locate the slots
where the RAM modules are plugged in such as shown below

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ii. Discharge static electricity that might have built up on your body using a wrist member
iii. Check whether the memory modules are firmly plugged into the slots. If they are, connect
the computer to power and restart
iv. If the problem persists, you need to replace the RAM modules with new ones. The
memory modules may be damaged.
POWER SUPPLY UNIT FAILURE
 The function of power unit is to convert the electrical power (AC) comes from wall socket
to a suitable type and voltage (DC) so that each component of a computer works properly.
 Luck of proper supply of power will damage a computer system.
 Power supply unit as shown in the figure below may fail due to power surge or failure of
the cooling fan inside it.

Causes of Power supply failure may be

i. Power surge
ii. Failure of the cooling fan located inside it.
SIGNS OF A FAILURE PSU
i. Computer will not boot
ii. Computer will randomly restart or shutdown
iii. Random Blue Screen of Death (BSoD)
iv. Extra noise coming from the computer case
v. Smoke or a burning smell
HOW TO RESOLVE THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT FAILURE

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i. Check to make sure that the power supply is properly connected to power socket or
Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)
ii. Check the power selector to ensure that it has the right power rating.
iii. For example, in most countries, the rating for domestic power is 240V while in US the
rating is 110V
iv. Open the casing and check whether the power cable that connects to the motherboard is
properly attached
v. If the problem persists, replace the power unit with a new one. Never try to repair a power
supply unit because it may cause serious body harm.
FAILURE OF THE COOLER FAN
 A computer has several fans such as that of:
i. Power supply unit
ii. Microprocessor
iii. Chassis
 The fans protect delicate computer components from the damage caused by overheating
- When the fans start to wear out, it makes a whining or grinding noise
HOW TO PROTECT FANS FROM FAILURE
i. Place the computers in a dust free place or if the computer is in a dusty place, always
remember to cover it
ii. Always use a blower to blow out dust that may have settled on computer parts
iii. In case one of the fans happens to fail, turn off the computer, unclip it and replace it with
a new one
ABNORMAL RESTARTING OF A COMPUTER
 If the computer is restating or shutting down abnormally, the problem might be due to
i. Operating system configuration
ii. Hardware failure
iii. Virus attack
 If he problem is serious, the computer may display a blue screen with a message such as
“Fatal exception error has occurred” before shutting down or restarting.
 To resolve the problem, do the following:

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i. Confirm that all hardware devices and drivers are properly installed or configured
using device manager shown in the figure below

ii. If the problem is related to operating system, follow the following procedure:
a) Press combination of keys (Ctr+Alt+Del) to restart the computer
b) During the reboot process, and before Windows is loaded, press F8 to display the
Safe mode start-up screen as shown in the figure bellow:
c) Choose safe mode to load Windows with minimal settings. Scan the drives or
check for any hardware or software related problem in device manager
iii. If the problem persists, the OS may be corrupted by a malware. In such a case, you
may need to use up-to-date antivirus software to scan the boot sector for viruses
iv. If all above fails, you have to re-install or repair the operating system using the
recovery disk created during installation or installing OS afresh
REMOVABLE MEDIA READ ERROR
 One of the symptoms of a floppy drive problem is a message stating that there is an error
reading from or writing to a disk, an error message “Error writing to disk”.
 This type of a message indicates that storage media may be corrupted or malfunctioning
tape or disk drive.
HOW TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM
i. Open the disk in different computers to rule out disk failure as cause of the problem

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ii. If the problem is not due to storage media, clean-up the drive laser lamp or read/write
head using cleaning toolkits available in most computer vendor shops
iii. If the drive problem persists after cleaning, replace it with a new one
HARD DRIVE FAILURE
 If you start a computer and get error message starting with 16**, it means that the
computer does not recognize or cannot communicate with the hard drive.
TROUBLESHOOTING HARD DRIVE
i. Enter into BIOS setup to ensure that a proper hard drive type is selected.
ii. If error message persists, he disk may have crushed, consider replacing it.
DISPLAY PROBLEMS ON SCREEN
 After the system unit, the next important component is a monitor.
 Display problems may cause the following health related problems such as:
i. Eyestrain
ii. Fatigue
iii. Headache
 These problems have been minimized by replacement of CTR screens by TFT flat panel
screen which are safer and more comfortable to use.
 Whether flat panel or CTR, a user may experience some of the following failure related
problems:
1. CONTINUOUS BEEPING
 This is indication of missing monitor or missing or faulty video card.
 Check to ensure that the monitor is properly attached to the video card through the
VGA or HDMI port.
2. NO DISPLAY OR FLICKERING MONITOR
 If the monitor fails to display and does not issue a beep code, the first thing is to move
the mouse or press any key on the keyboard, in case the computer is on sleep mode or
standby
 On the other hand, flickering may be caused by poor refresh rate settings o failing
monitor.
 The refresh rate determines how often the display gets redrawn.

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HOW TO RESOLVE DISPLAY PROBLEMS
i. Make sure the monitor is properly plugged into the power outlet and turned on and
also that brightness is set at adequate level
ii. If this step does no solve the problem, check whether the monitor is properly attached
to the VGA port
iii. If the problem is not related or the power or VGA, test the monitor using another
computer before declare it dead!
iv. Replace the monitor with a new one
3. REPEATED DISPLAY ELEMENTS ON SCREEN
 Repeated display elements is due to use of an improper resolution setting.
 This setting result in multiple copies of the same image
 To resolve this problem, use display setting properties to change the colour resolution
settings
KEYBOARD AND MOUSE FAILURE
 Common keyboard and mouse settings are due to improper connection on the PS/2 port or
damaged pins.
 However, with USB interface, failure may be due to mechanical failure of the device
itself.
 Irregular movement of the mouse pointer across the screen suggest dirty mouse rollers or
ball.
 Most mice have replaced mechanical mouse with optical mouse
i. These types of mice need to be cleaned but they are much more reliable than older
mechanical mouse. For a keyboard that has failed completely or other keys fails,
replace it with a new one.
ii. USB controller failure. USB device’s operation depends on the function of the USB
controller. USB failure result from:
 lack of enough power
 excessively long or faulty USB cables
 improper storage of USB drivers

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PROBLEM WITH SOUND
 The component that make up a computer audio system are the sound controller, speaker
and the sound device drivers.
 If the computer does not produce sound, try the following:
i. Adjust the volume to adequate level. In addition, check to make sure that they are
plugged into the sound port.
ii. Ensure that the power cable is properly attached and that the speakers are turned on.
iii. If the speakers and the cables are not faulty, turn your attention to the sound drivers
iv. If the problem is still not resolved, open the computer and make sure that the sound
card (if is an add-on) is securely seated in the expansion slot.
SOFTWARE RELATED PROBLEMS
 When you buy a new computer, most likely it may have no operating system.
 The following are problems you may experience:
MISSING OPERATING SYSTEM
 After the POST process, the computer checks for the presence of operating system. if the
operation system is not installed, the message “Missing operating system” may be
displayed.
 In this case install the operating system. If you are sure you installed the operating system,
he problem could be boot sector or hard disk related problem
 A boot sector is where the boot instructions are installed after installing the operating
system.
HOW TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM
i. Enter into BIOS setup screen and check whether the disk is visible to the computer
ii. If the disk is okay, reboot the computer using system recovery disk and try to repair the
operating system

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CORRUPTED SYSTEM REGISTRY

 In windows, registry is the database that keeps records of all system and application
software installed on the computer
 If the registry is corrupted,
 The computer may fail to boot
 The desktop may fail to load

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HOW TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM

i. Repair the registry using recovery disk or restore registry backup or reinstall the operating
system
ii. If the system can start in safe mode, locate the malfunctioning devices in device manager
and disable it.
iii. If all fails, reinstall the Operating System

WINDOWS PROTECTION ERROR

 windows protection error is displayed during startup before the desktop is displayed.
 This problem occurs when the critical windows drivers fail to load.

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WINDOWS PROTECTION ERROR EXAMPLE

HOW TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM

i.Restart the computer in a safe mode. If windows do not load, use recovery disk to repair the
operating system
ii.Using the recovery disk, repair the operating system paying attention to the details
PROBLEM OF NON-RESPONDING SYSTEM
 Non-responding system also called hanging refers to computer failing to respond to
commands.

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HOW TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM

i. Press Ctrl + Alt + Del keys to display the Task Manager
ii. In the task manager window, click the Process Tab and ten select non-responding process
e.g. explore.exe
iii. Click End process button to terminate the application
PRINTER RELATED PROBLEMS
 A printer is one of the most commonly used devices to produce hard copies.
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 In order to troubleshoot printing-related problems, you need to understand how a printer
works and how to properly set it up
 Some of the problems related to printer are as follows:
I/O PRINT ERROR
 The I/O print error indicates that the computer cannot properly communicate with the
printer
 Ensure that the correct printer is selected and turned on
 If this does not work, you may be forced to reinstall the printer drivers
PAPER JAM
 Paper jam usually stop the current print job until the jam is completely cleared
 If paper jams in the printer, locate the paper and gently try to remove it
 If the printer continues to jam at frequent intervals, try using different papers
 Printers work best with a particular weight of paper, hence if you use a paper that is too
light or too heavy, paper jam may occur frequently
POOR PRINTOUT QUALITY
 Quality related problems are easily resolved by replacing ink, toner, or laser head/drum
 However, quality problems may be due to failures within the device's print process
 If a printer produces garbage, this may be due to communications problem between the
computer and printer.
 Make sure that appropriate drivers are properly installed
TONER/INK CARTRIDGE PROBLEM
 Most printers give warning of low toner or ink level before it is completely used up
 In such a case, be ready to replace or refill the cartridge
 By refilling used cartridge, make sure it is tested to avoid possibility of using faulty
cartridge
SMUDGED PRINTOUT
 If a dot matrix printer produces smudged printouts, check on the printer head
 Stuck pins may cause printouts to have a smudged appearance as they drag across the
page

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 In laser printers, smudged printouts may be as a result of the drum failure to fuse the toner
onto the paper
 From inkjet printers, smudges are mostly due to touching the printout before the ink dries
up
HOW TO TROUBLESHOOT THE PROBLEM
 To troubleshoot this problem, do one of the following:
i. In case of a dot matrix printer, replace the print head.
ii. If this doesn't solve the problem, it could indicate worn-out printer head or poor ink
ribbon. Simply replace the head or ribbon
iii. For laser printers, consult the user guide that may be helpful in locating the problem
especially relating to the fuser
iv. Because the fuser is a sensitive component that gets very hot, it is advisable for it to be
handled by an experienced technician.

TOPIC 6: USING DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE

 Publishing is the process of selecting, collecting, preparing and producing printed or
electronic work in the form of books, newspapers, magazines, scientific papers, pictures,
music, movies and documentaries.

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 In early days, publishing was done by hand artists learnt that repetitive tasks performed
using templates created from stone and wood
 Today, design and printing of artwork that was done using offset printers is now done by
a personal computer that has digital printer attached to it hence the term desktop
publishing.
DEFINITION OF DESKTOP PUBLISHING
 Desktop Publishing (DTP) refers to the process of designing publications of professional
quality such as newspapers, invitation cards, posters, fliers, journals and books using a
specialized desktop software.
 Desktop publishing software is a software used to create publications of professional
quality.
 Some examples of DTPs are:
i. Adobe PageMaker
ii. Microsoft publisher
iii. QuarkXpress
iv. Adobe InDesign
v. Adobe illustrator
vi. CorelDraw
vii. SerifPagePlus
viii. Apple Page 2
 Before selecting a particular DTP software, it is important to identify the operating system
environment in which the operating system will run.
BENEFITS OF DESKTOP PUBLISHING
 Although word processor can be used to create professional publications, DTP software
offers the following benefits:
1. Every item on a page is contained in a frame hence can be edited and formatted
independently
2. DTPs provide more control on how texts and graphics can be arranged and formatted
3. Frames containing text or graphics need not to flow in logical sequence. For example,
a story on page 1 may be continued on page 8

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4. DTPs provide maser pages used to set commonly layout which may be repeated on
several pages.
5. In DTPs, publications can be printed in form suitable for commercial digital or offset
printing using colour separations
6. Most DTPs have predefined templates such as brochure, booklets, posters and
business cards available
7. Multiple stories from different authors can be handled with ease
8. DTPs enhance visual communication to different audience
9. DTP ensures file print properly in their true colour, fonts and measurements
TYPES OF DTP SOFTWARE
 Generally, DTP software can be classified into two broad categories namely
1. GRAPHIC-BASED DTPS
 These DTPs are specifically used to edit and format graphic objects such as pictures
and vector drawings.
 Vector drawings are free hand drawing such as those drawn by fine artist
 Examples of Graphic-based DTPs include adobe Photoshop, adobe illustrator and
CorelDraw.
 These softwares have superior graphic handling capabilities such as setting resolution,
brightness, contrast, cropping and filling images with colour.
 Some graphic-based softwares like CorelDraw and Adobe Illustrator may be also used
for page layout
2. LAYOUT-BASED DTPs
 These types of DTPs are specifically used to design page layout for text and graphics.
Have you ever wondered how the complicated front page of a newspaper is
developed? It is difficult to achieve such without a good layout-based DTP software.
 Examples of layout-based DTP softwares include Adobe PageMaker, Microsoft
Publisher and Adobe InDesign
PURPOSE OF DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE
 The main purpose of using desktop publishing software is that they give the person
designing publications a lot of controls on:

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i. Graphic design
ii. Page layout design
iii. Printing
GRAPHIC DESIGN
 Using a desktop publishing software such as CorelDraw or Illustrator, one can design
vector images using the draw tools
 Image editing such as in Adobe Photoshop lets the user manipulate graphics such as
pictures
PAGE LAYOUT DESIGN
 The reason we prefer DTPs to word processors is because of page design
 DTPs are used to design a page layout by setting consistent picture and object locations,
dividing a page in a number of newspaper columns and adding layers
 A layer can be viewed as the arrangement of objects on top of each other with each object
being on its own layer
PRINTING
 Printing is the main goal of publication
 Desktop publishing software therefore offer more flexibility in printing, like in image
colour separation.
EXAMPLES OF PUBLICATIONS
 There are many examples of publications that can be created using DTP software.
 The following are examples:
1. Newspaper: daily publications bearing news, sports etc
2. Magazine: is a publication containing news, features, specialist knowledge etc that
target a particular audience
3. Book: is a publication in a particular subject area or featuring a particular story
4. Calendar: a publication showing the date and days of a week, month and year
DESIGNING A PUBLICATION
 Before entering text and pictures in a publication, it is important to design it first
 The following are key factors you need to consider when designing a publication:

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1. Decide the type of publication. Is it a newspaper? How many columns per page? Is it a
book? What paper size will be used?
2. Decide the layout of the publication. This will enable you to select appropriate
template or to use master pages to create common layout
3. Decide on about the colour scheme, fonts, margins, orientation, graphics e.t.c. and
make sure the page is properly setup.
FEATURES OF DTP SOFTWARE
 Most DTPs provide the user a variety of tools for designing, manipulating and editing a
publication. The following tools are common in most DTPs:
 Select tool: used to select, move and resize images and texts
 Text tool: Used to draw text frames, insert and manipulate text
 Shape tools: for drawing basic shapes like rectangle and for importing objects
 Zoom tool: used for magnifying publication
 Rotate tool: used for rotating text or graphics
GETTING STARTED WITH MICROSOFT PUBLISHER
 To launch Publisher 2013 from start menu, proceed as follows:
i. On the Start menu, click Microsoft Office, then Publisher 2013.
ii. Click Built-in to choose a template or click BLANK to design from a blank page. The
Publisher 2013 application window shown in figure below is displayed.

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MAIN FEATURES OF PUBLISHER 2013 APPLICATION WINDOW
i. MENU TABS
 The Menu tabs are the main components of the user interface that contains ribbon of
commands used to manipulate a publication.
 This include; File tab, Insert, Page Design, Mailings, Review, Add-ins and View tabs.
ii. PRINTABLE AREA
 The printable area resembles a typical piece of paper surrounded by margins.
 Objects to be printed must appear in the printable area
iii. RULERS
 Measurement is important in publishing.
 A good DTP must have both horizontal and vertical rulers.
 They are used to perform exact measurements
iv. MASTER PAGES
 These are the main pages used to design a common layout for large publication.
 You insert page numbers, headers and footers on the master pages.
 For a large document such as a book or project, you need to set up a common layout
using master pages.
 To view master pages in Publisher 2013, on View menu, click Master Page or simply
press Ctrl + M. you will see Edit Master Pages tool bar appear among the task panes.
v. DESIGN TOOLS
 Publisher 2013 has a set of tools used to design and manipulate text and graphical
objects.
 Table below gives a summary of important tools available in the Home, Design and
insert ribbons used to create and manipulate a publication:

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TOOL PURPOSE RIBBON

Draw Text For inserting text within text box Home and Insert
Box
Pictures Used for inserting graphical objects e.g. pictures and clip Home and Insert
arts
Tables Used for inserting tables Home and Insert
Shapes For drawing shapes like triangles, circles Home and Insert
Select For selecting graphical objects to be manipulated Home and Insert
Page Used to add pages into publication Insert
Picture Used to draw picture frame that reserves a space for a Insert
placeholder picture to be inserted later
Page Parts Used to insert preformatted contents e.g. heading Insert
WordArt Used for inserting artistic letters or words on publication Insert
Insert file Used for importing contents from existing document file Insert
saved on your computer
Object For inserting contents from external source and placing I insert
your publication as embedded or linked object
Page Number Used to insert page numbers insert
Change Used for changing or applying predefined template Page Design
template
Orientation Used to change orientation to portrait or landscape Page Design
Master Page Used to design Master pages that contains common layout Page Design
to be applied to other pages of the publication

CREATING PUBLICATIONS
 Once Publisher starts, the Startup screen is displayed.
 It is on this startup window that you can select the type of publication you wish to create
such as Thank you Cards shown in the figure below:

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 Notice the Built-in Publication templates Window.

 You can click any of the templates thumbnail to display available templates in the built-in
types page.
SETTING UP NEW PUBLICATION
 Sometimes, it is important to change setup options of a publication
 Such as page size, margin and orientation. Proceed as follows;
i. On the File tab, click Page Setup. A dialog box appears
ii. Specify the following page setup options:
a) In the Blank Page Sizes box, select a page size
b) On the right of the dialog box select margin settings and then adjust them to
desired size
c) Click Advanced button to specify more settings
d) Click OK to effect the changes
SETTING UP PUBLICATION USING MASTER PAGES
 To create a publication that has several pages such as a book or a report, it is important
that you design a common layout for all pages using master pages
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 With master pages, you can create, modify, and delete content that appear in the rest of
the pages.
 Master page settings apply to all pages in the publication until you specify otherwise and
they cannot be renamed or deleted from the publication.
 To switch to master pages view click the mater page icon(s).
i. On View ribbon, click Master Page button
ii. Use Master Page tools or menu tabs shown in figure below to edit or define Master
Page(s) layout
iii. Click the Close Master page button to switch back to other pages of the publication

SAVING A PUBLICATION
i. From File tab, click Save As
ii. In the Save as dialog box, select the drive or folder to save in, enter the file name and
select the file type
iii. Click the OK button
CLOSING A PUBLICATION
 Click Close window button at the top-right corner of the window
 Alternatively, click the Office button, then select the Close command.
OPENING A PUBLICATION
 To open a saved publication, proceed as follows:
i. From File tab, click Open
ii. In the Open dialog box, select the drive or folder where the publication was saved
iii. Click the OK button
INSERTING TEXT INTO PUBLICATION
 To add text using text or frame tool in PageMaker or Publisher, proceed as follows:
i. Click Text toll from the tool box
ii. On the empty area on the pasteboard or printable area, drag to define the text box

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iii. Type the text
 Note: you can create artistic text using the WordArt frame tool

RESIZING AND MOVING TEXT

 Text may not fit in the defined text frame.
 Publisher displays … on one of the edges of the text frame when you select it.
To resize the text block,
i. Click the text block using the pointer tool
ii. Position the pointer on the selection handle and drag to resize
To move the text block
i. Click the text block using the pointer tool
ii. Position the pointer on the object and hold down the left mouse button
iii. Drag the text object to a new location
IMPORTING TEXT FROM A WORD DOCUMENT
 Instead of typing, you can import text from an existing document.
To import text from a word processor document,
i. On the Insert ribbon, click Insert File
ii. In the dialog box that appears, select the file then click OK
iii. The text is pasted onto the printable area.
LINKING TEXT FRAMES
 In publisher, when a text frame spills over to another page or column, the plus sign
appearing at the bottom or top of the frame means that it is connected to a previous or
next page or column. This is referred to as a threading.
 Once text is threaded, you can easily redirect he flow of the text in them than you can with
unthreaded textbox
 To thread text frames, proceed as follows:
i. Click the first textbox to activate the Text Box tools tab
ii. On the textbox Tools ribbon, click Create Link button located in the linking group
iii. Click the textbox you want to connect to the first one. Text box that will connect will
display the link icon. Use the connected text box to continue the story.

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CREATING BASIC SHAPES
 Publisher allows the user to create basic shapes such as lines, ellipses, rectangles
and other polygons using the drawing tools on the insert tab.
 To display shape drawing tools,
 Click Insert tab, then click the Shapes button in the Illustrations group.

 Once you insert the shape, you can Right click it and select Format Autoshape and
make the formatting.

 On the Format Autoshape dialog box, you can apply the following formats:

i. Set the style and thickness of the shape outline

ii. Set the background colour or pattern

iii. Set the transparency of the autoshape

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iv. Set the size and scaling of the drawing

v. Layout, position and wrapping options.

INSERTING PICTURES
i. On the Insert tab, click Picture button to display insert picture box
ii. In the dialog box, select the drive or folder where the picture file is located
iii. Double Click the file or click the File then Insert
OBJECT LINKING
 In desktop publishing, Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) refers to importing an
object or existing file into a publication.
 An OLE can be manipulated as part of the publication or as a shared image between the
source and current document
 If an object is linked to the source publication, ay change applied to the source object are
reflected in lined image within a publication. This is because the destination file stores an
image or a copy of the source file
 On the other hand, if the object is embedded, no direct ink exists. The embedded object
becomes part of the publications and updates on the source file do not affect the
embedded object
 To embed or link a file:
i. On the Insert tab, click Object in the text group
ii. In the Insert object dialog box that appears, click Create from file option
iii. Click the Browse button to select the file you want to link or embed
iv. To create link, make sure the checkbox labelled link, is checked as shown in the
diagram below. For embedding, leave the checkbox unchecked
v. Click ok to insert the object.

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INSERTING TABLES
 A table is used to organize text into rows and columns. When dealing with a table, the
following terms are used:
1. Row: a horizontal arrangement of a cell
2. Column: a vertical arrangement of a cell
3. Cell: the intersection between a row and a column
 Rows and columns belonging to one table behave like one even when the table overflows
to other pages.
 To insert table in publication,
i. On the Insert tab, click Table button in the table group
ii. On the dropdown menu that appear, drag the mouse pointer to select the number of
rows and columns
iii. To draw table larger than 10 × 8, click Insert table in the create table dialog box and
specify number of rows and columns
EDITING PUBLICATION
 Editing a publication involves making changes to text and graphical objects.

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 The procedure for editing publications is similar to that for editing word document
discussed earlier
DELETING TEXT AND OBJECTS
 Select or highlight the text or object then press Delete button or Backspace button
COPYING AND MOVING TEXT
 Select the text to copy or move, right click and then click copy or cut then paste where
you want it to be.
SPELL CHECKING IN A PUBLICATION
To check spelling mistakes, proceed as follows:
i. Click Review button
ii. Click the Spelling button
iii. In the dialog box, make sure Check all stories checkbox is selected
iv. Replace or ignore the misspelt words
v. Click OK to close the button

FIND AND REPLACE

 To search for a word in a publisher, proceed as follows:
i. On the Home ribbon, click Find or replace to display the dialog box
ii. In the search for box, type the word or phrase to be searched
iii. Click replace option button. In the Replace With box, type the replacement word or
phrase.

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iv. Click Find next or Replace All button
EDITING PUBLICATION LAYOUT
 Sometimes you may decide to change he entire design of your page layout.
 To do this, use master page as follows:
i. Switch to Master page
ii. Make the necessary changes then switch back to other pages
EDITING GRAPHICAL OBJECTS
 In editing graphical objects, properties such as size, position, colour and brightness are
enhanced or modified.
MOVING AND RESIZING OBJECT
 Click the object and drag the mouse until to reach the size you want or move the object
CHANGING PICTURE ATTRIBUTE
 This include changing content, colour and brightness
i. Select the object to activate the picture
ii. Using Picture tools adjust the required picture properties
iii. Edit the picture using other tools in the picture style, Arrange, Crop and Size
FORMATTING PUBLICATION
 Formatting refers to enhancing the appearance of a publication by applying special
effects or attributes to the layout, text and graphical object
 To format text in the publication, select the text and choose the formatting eg adding
superscript and subscript in the Home ribbon.
PARAGRAPH AND PAGE FORMATTING
 Paragraph and page formatting involve aligning text, indenting, adding column guides,
inserting headers and footers
TEXT ALIGNMENT
 You can align the text to left, center, right or justified by selecting the text and click
alignment in the Home ribbon
 To set tabs and indent
i. On the Home tab, click Paragraph Launcher icon to display paragraph dialog box
ii. Click Tabs and set to required tab stops

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iii. To indent, click Indents and specify required indentation
INSERTING COLUMN GUIDES
 By default, page is made up of one column.
 To divide the page into more columns:

i. On the Home ribbon in the Paragraph group, click Column button

ii. Select number of columns
iii. Click more columns if you want more than two columns and specify number of
columns in the dialog box that appears as below

INSERTING HEADERS AND FOOTERS

 Headers are lines of text, page numbers or dates that appear at the top of every page,
footers appear at the bottom of every page.
 To insert header or footer
i. Click View tab and then Master page button to switch to master page view
ii. On the master page click Show Header/Footer button
iii. To insert page numbers, click Insert page numbers
iv. To insert text, type the content in the header or footer text frame

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FORMATTING SHAPES AND GRAPHICAL OBJECTS
FILL AND STROKE
 Filling refers to applying a solid colour or pattern to a drawn shape while stroke refers to
the outline or line style.
 To fill the background colour and change stroke in publisher, proceed as follows;
i. Select the object to activate the Format ribbon, under drawing Tools
ii. On the format ribbon, specify the shape style, effects and other properties
iii. To apply more formatting, click Format Auto Shape Launcher in the shape style
group
iv. Specify more formats in the dialog box that appear
 NOTE: to make the fill transparent, slide the transparency button or press Ctrl + T.

ROTATING OBJECTS
To rotate object in publisher:
i. Select the object
ii. Hold down the Ctrl key and drag the rotational handle that appear above the object
iii. Rotate the handle in clockwise or anticlockwise
To arrange objects in publisher
i. Select the object while pressing Shift + Tab
ii. On the Format ribbon, click Bring forward or Send Backward to select arrange option
from the list

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CROPPING GRAPHICAL OBJECT
 Cropping is hiding unwanted parts of a graphical objects particularly a picture. To crop an
image
i. Select the object to activate the Format ribbon under picture tool
ii. From the format ribbon, click crop button under group
iii. Position the cropping pointer over a placeholder on the object and drag inwards to
crop
GROUPING OBJECTS
 If you have several objects in publication, you may want to group them together
i. Hold the Shift key as you click each object
ii. Right click the selections then click Group the context menu
 NOTE: you can Ungroup using the same procedure only that you select Ungroup
command
WRAPPING THE OBJECT
 Text may be wrapped around the object as shown below

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TO WRAP TEXT AROUND A GRAPHICAL OBJECT

i. Double click the picture to activate Format ribbon
ii. On the Format ribbon, click Wrap Text button to display dropdown list
iii. Select wrapping option such as square, Tight or Through from the list

PRINTING PUBLICATIONS
 Unlike other application programs discussed earlier e.g. word processing, printing in
DTPs is a much more technical. This is because you may prefer to prefer to print a
picture in a separate colours referred to as colour separation.
 You can also insert crop marks and other details required for commercial printing
 To print publication, proceed as follows:
i. On the File tab, click Print
ii. Under printer option, click Printer properties hyperlink to set print option in the
dialog box
iii. To specify advanced print properties such as inserting crop marks, click the arrow on
the right of the printer, then click Advanced option settings
iv. In the dialog box that appear, use tabs such as Marks and breeds to specify advance
option.

THE END !
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