Chapter 2

Measurements and Calculations

 Section 1 – Scientific Method

Sometimes progress in science comes about through accidental discoveries.

However, most scientific advances result from carefully planned investigations. The
process researchers use to carry out their investigations is often called the scientific
method. The scientific method is a logical approach to solving problems by
observing and collecting data, formulating hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and
formulating theories that are supported by data.
Observing and Collecting Data

Observing - using the senses to obtain information

Involves making measurements, collecting data
Data categorized as qualitative (descriptive) or
quantitative (numerical)
Quantitative or Qualitative?

The sky is blue

Air has a density of 1.01 g/mL
The liquid floats on water
Metals are malleable
You are 250 cm tall
The car goes 180 kph
Experimenting

Involves carrying out a procedure under controlled Test tube

and
conditions to make observations and collect data contents =
system
Chemists study systems - specific quantity of matter
in a given area that has been selected for study during
an experiment
Formulating Hypotheses

Examining data and observations, scientists try to find

relationships and patterns
Make generalization based on data
Use generalizations to formulate a hypothesis -
testable statement
Becomes basis of making predictions for further
experiments

“if-then” statements
Making Predictions

1. We've installed a new software system. A. Our energy bills won't be so high in
2. We've sold a lot of equipment this month.
the future.
B. The staff will need more computer
3. We haven't received many bookings for the training.
summer.
C. He won't have time to see you.
4. Mr. Cova has four meetings tomorrow morning. D. Karen will be late for the meeting.
E. The After-sales Department will be
5. The traffic from the airport is very bad.
very busy next month.
6. This production method uses much less F. We won't need to recruit extra
electricity.
summer staff.
Testing Hypotheses

Needs an experiment
Does data support hypothesis?
Does testing show that predictions were correct or
not?
If not, reject hypothesis and begin again
 variables

in experiment, you have variables - factors that can

change

let’s look at an example of a hypothesis: “If I turn the

air off, the room will become warmer.”
“If I turn the air off, the room

will become warmer.”

independent variable - doesn’t

depend on something else
turning the air off
• “If I turn the air off, the room

will become warmer.”

dependent variable - dependent on another variable

temperature of the room
 Theorizing

When data shows predictions work, scientists try

explaining the problem by making a model
Model - an explanation of how phenomena occur and
how data or events are related
May be visual, verbal, mathematical
If model is successful in explaining, it may become
part of a theory
Theory - broad generalization that explains a body of
facts or phenomena
Section 2 – Units of Measurement

Measurements are quantitative information. A measurement

is more than just a number, even in everyday life. Suppose a
chef were to write a recipe like “1 salt, 3 sugar, 2 flour.”
The cooks could not use the recipe without more information.
They need to know UNITS.
 Quantities

A measurement represents a quantity - something that has

size or amount
Measurement and quantity NOT the same
1 liter - liter is unit of measurement, volume is a quantity
Almost every measurement requires a number AND a unit
 SI Units

Le System International d’Unites (SI)

Established in 1960
7 base units used worldwide
Derived SI Units

Derived units - combination of SI base units

 Sample Problem

A sample of aluminum metal has a mass of 8.4 g. The volume of the

sample is 3.1 cm3. Calculate the density of aluminum.
Given: mass (m) = 8.4 g
volume (V) = 3.1 cm 3

Unknown: density (D)

Density = 2.7 g/cm3
Practice Problems

What is the density of a block of marble that occupies

310 cm and has a mass of 853 g?
3

Answer: 2.75 g/cm3

 Diamond has a density of 3.26 g/cm .
3

What is the mass of a diamond that has a

volume of 0.350 cm ?
3

Answer: 1.14 g
 What is the volume of a sample of liquid
mercury that has a mass of 76.2 g, given that
the density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL?
Answer: 5.60 mL
Conversion Factors

Conversion factor - ratio derived from the equality between

two different units that can be used to convert from one unit
to the other
You use conversion factors to solve problems through
dimensional analysis – mathematical technique that
allows you to use units to solve problems involving
measurements
Quantity you want = quantity given x conversion factor
Sample Problem

Express a mass of 5.712 grams in milligrams and in

kilograms.
Given: 5.712 g
Unknown: mass in mg and kg
 Label each of the following measurements by the quantity each represents

a. 5.0 g/mL
Density d. 39.56 g
b. 37 s Mass
Time e. 25.3 cm 3

c. 47 J Volume
Energy
Practice Problems

2. Complete the following

conversions.
a. 10.5 g = ____ kg 0.00000354 g
0.0105 kg d. 3.5 mol = ____ μmol
b. 1.57 km = ____ m
3,500,000 μmol
1,570 m
c. 3.54 μg = ____ g
Practice Problems

3a. What is the density of an 84.7 g sample of an unknown substance if

the sample occupies 49.6 cm ? 3

1.71 g/cm 3

3b. What volume would be occupied by 7.75 g of this same substance?

4.53 cm 3
Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy - the closeness of measurements to the

correct or accepted value of the quantity measured
Precision - the closeness of a set of measurements of
the same quantity made in the same way
 Percent Error

Accuracy of values can be compared with correct value by calculating percent error

Can be positive or negative number

Sample Problem

A student measures the mass and volume of a

substance and calculates its density as 1.40 g/mL. The
correct, or accepted, value of the density is 1.30g/mL.
What is the percent error of the student’s
measurement?
SP Solution
Practice Problems

1. What is the percent error for a mass measurement of 17.7 g, given

that the correct value is 21.2 g?
Answer -17%

2. A volume is measured experimentally as 4.26 mL. What is the

percent error, given that the correct value is 4.15 mL?
Answer : 2.7%
Significant Figures

Significant figures in a measurement are of all the

digits known with certainty plus one final digit, which
is somewhat uncertain or is estimated
Rules for Determining Significant Zeros

Rule Examples

1. Zeros appearing bet ween nonzero digits 40.7 L has three sig figs
are significant. 87,009 km has five sig figs
2. Zeros appearing in front of all nonzero 0.095897 m has five sig figs
digits are NOT significant. 0.0009 kg has one sig fig
3. Zeros at the end of a number and to the 85.00 g has four sig figs
right of a decimal point are significant. 9.000000000 mm has ten sig figs

4. Zeros at the end of a number but to the 2000 m may contain from one to four sig
left of a decimal point may or may not be figs, depending on how many zeros are
significant. If a zero has not been placeholders. For measurements given in
measured or estimated but is just a this text, assume that 2000 m has one sig
placeholder, it is not significant. A decimal fig.
point placed after zeros indicates they are 2000. m contains four sig figs, indicated by
significant. the presence of the decimal point
 Sample Problem

How many significant figures are in c. 910 m

each of the following
measurements? two
a. 28.6 g d. 0.046 04 L
three four
b. 3440. cm e. 0.006 700 0 kg
four five
 1. Determine the number of significant figures in
each of the following.
Practice Problems

a. 804.05 g
b. 0.014 403 0 km b. 6
c. 1002 m c. 4
d. 400 mL d. 1
e. 30 000. cm e. 5
f. 0.000 625 000 kg f. 6
a. 5
Addition or Subtraction

When adding or subtracting decimals, the answer must

have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal
point as there are in the measurement having the fewest
digits to the right of the decimal point.

25.1 g + 2.03 g = 27.13 g

27.1 g
Multiplication and Division

For multiplication and division, the answer can have no

more significant figures than are in the measurement
with the fewest number of significant figures.

= 0.360094451 g/mL

= 0.360 g/mL
Practice Problems

1. What is the sum of 2.099 g and 0.05681 g?

Answer 2.156 g

2. Calculate the quantity 87.3 cm − 1.655 cm.

Answer 85.6 cm

3. Calculate the area of a crystal surface that measures 1.34 μm by 0.7488 μm.

Answer 1.00 μm2

4. Polycarbonate plastic has a density of
1.2/cm .
3 A
photo frame is constructed from two 3.0 mm sheets of
polycarbonate. Each sheet measures 28 cm by 22 cm.
What is the mass of the photo frame?
Answer 440 g
Scientific Notation

In scientific notation, numbers are written in the form

M x 10 , where the factor M is a number greater than
n

or equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is a whole number.

Ex. 65,000 km in scientific notation is 6.5 x 10 4 km

 Example

0.000 12 mm = 1.2 x 10−4 mm

Move the decimal point four places to the right and multiply the number by 10−4

1. Determine M by moving the decimal point in the original number to the left or the right so
that only one nonzero digit remains to the left of the decimal point.

2. Determine n by counting the number of places that you moved the decimal point. If you
moved it to the left, n is positive. If you moved it to the right, n is negative.
Solving chemistry problems

There are some basic rules you can follow in order to

be able to solve any chemistry problem given to you
If you follow these steps, you will have no problem
solving chemistry problems!
 1. Analyze

READ the problem carefully at least twice and

ANALYZE the information in it
Identify and list the data given in the problem

Identify the unknown – the quantity you are asked to

find
 2. Plan

Develop a plan for solving the problem

Decide which conversion factors, formulas, etc. you
will need to solve the problem
May be single conversion factor or many
 3. Calculate

Substitute data and necessary conversion factors into

the plan you have developed
Calculate answer, cancel units, round answer to
correct number of sig figs
 4. Evaluate

Examine you answer – is it reasonable?

Check to see the units are correct.

Make an estimate of expected answer.

Check the order or size of your answer

Calculating density of oil and get 55 g/mL?

Double check number of sig figs

 Sample problem

Calculate the volume of a sample of aluminum that has

a mass of 3.057 kg. The density of aluminum is 2.70g/
cm .
3
 Step 1

Analyze
Given:
mass = 3.057kg, density = 2.70 g/cm3

Unknown:
volume of aluminum
 Step 2

Plan
The density unit in the problem is g/cm, and the mass given
in the problem is expressed in kg
You will need a conversion factor representing the
relationship between grams and kilograms
Rearrange the density equation to solve for volume
 Step 3

Calculate

= 1132.222…cm3
answer should be rounded to 3 sig figs
(1.13 x 10 cm )
3 3
 Step 4

Evaluate

The unit of volume, cm ,

3 is correct

The correct number of significant digits is three, to match the number of

significant figures in 2.70 g/cm 3

(Calculate the volume of a sample of aluminum that has a mass of 3.057

kg. The density of aluminum is 2.70 g/cm .)
3
Practice Problems

1. What is the volume of a sample of helium that has a mass

of 1.73x10 g, given that the density is 0.17847 g/L?
−3

Answer 9.69 mL
2. What is the density of a piece of metal that has a mass
of 6.25x10 g and is 92.5 cm x 47.3 cm x 85.4 cm?
5

Answer 1.67 g/cm3

3. How many millimeters are there in 5.12x10 5 kilometers?
Answer 5.12x10 11 mm
4. A clock gains 0.020 second per minute. How many
seconds will the clock gain in exactly six months, assuming
exactly 30 days per month?
Answer 5.2x10 3 s