Unit-I Pending:

WORKING OF DIODE AS A SWITCH:

Diode is a two terminal PN junction that can be used in various applications. One of such applications is an
electrical switch. The PN junction, when forward biased acts as close circuited and when reverse biased acts as
open circuited. Hence the change of forward and reverse biased states makes the diode work as a switch,
the forward being ON and the reverse being OFF state.

Whenever a specified voltage is exceeded, the diode resistance gets increased, making the diode reverse biased
and it acts as an open switch. Whenever the voltage applied is below the reference voltage, the diode resistance
gets decreased, making the diode forward biased, and it acts as a closed switch.

The following circuit explains the diode acting as a switch.

A switching diode has a PN junction in which P-region is lightly doped and N-region is heavily doped. The above
circuit symbolizes that the diode gets ON when positive voltage forward biases the diode and it gets OFF when
negative voltage reverse biases the diode.

Ringing
As the forward current flows till then, with a sudden reverse voltage, the reverse current flows for an instance
rather than getting switched OFF immediately. The higher the leakage current, the greater the loss. The flow of
reverse current when diode is reverse biased suddenly, may sometimes create few oscillations, called as Ringing.

This ringing condition is a loss and hence should be minimized. To do this, the switching times of the diode
should be understood.

DIODE SWITCHING TIMES

While changing the bias conditions, the diode undergoes a transient response. The response of a system to any
sudden change from an equilibrium position is called as transient response.

The sudden change from forward to reverse and from reverse to forward bias, affects the circuit. The time taken to
respond to such sudden changes is the important criterion to define the effectiveness of an electrical switch.

 The time taken before the diode recovers its steady state is called as Recovery Time.
 The time interval taken by the diode to switch from reverse biased state to forward biased state is called
as Forward Recovery Time (tfr).
 The time interval taken by the diode to switch from forward biased state to reverse biased state is called
as Reverse Recovery Time (trr).
 Unit-II Pending:

CLIPPERS
Clipper circuits are the electronic circuits that clip off or remove a portion of an AC signal, without causing
any distortion to the remaining part of the waveform. These are also known as clippers, clipping circuits, limiters,
slicers, etc

The main component of a clipper circuit is a diode or any other type of diode. The diode clips a portion from the
input waveform. The shape of the waveform depends on the configuration as well as the design of the circuit.
Therefore, there are different types of clipper circuits discussed below.

Types of Clippers
The diode-based clipper circuit can be classified into the following two types:
 Series Diode Clippers
 Shunt Diode Clippers

(A) Series Clippers:

In series clipper circuits, the diode is connected in series with the output. In such clippers, the input signal appears
at the output when the diode is forward biased and conducting.

On the contrary, the shunt clippers passes the input signal when the diode is reverse biased or blocking.
It is divided into positive and negative clippers.

1. Series Positive Clippers

Series positive clippers remove or clips the positive half of the waveform. In a series positive clipper, the diode is
in reverse biased and in series with the output as shown in the figure below.

The input signal Vi is applied at the input side while the output is taken at the load resistor.

During the positive half cycle of the input, the voltage at point A is positive than point B. So the diode is in
reverse bias and there is no current conduction. The input signal cannot pass, thus there is no voltage drop at the
RL. Therefore, there the positive half cycle does not appear at the output as shown in the figure.

During the negative half-cycle, the voltage at point A is negative than point B. The diode becomes forward bias
and the signal pass through it. The signal appears across the RL. Therefore, the negative half cycle passes through
the circuit and appears at the output.

As illustrated in the given figure, it shows how it clips the positive half and allows the negative half of the input
waveform.

2. Series Positive Clippers with Bias

The biasing in the clippers circuit is used to clip a portion of the half cycle and not the whole halve.

Therefore, a series positive clipper with biasing which can be positive or negative is used for producing the
desired waveforms.

Positive Bias
In such a positive clipper circuit, the positive of the battery is connected to the P side of the diode as shown in the
figure below.
During the positive half cycle, the voltage at point A is greater than point B due to which, the diode is in reverse
bias and switched off. But there is another voltage source whose positive is connected to the P-side of the diode.
This voltage source or battery puts the diode in forward bias.

If Vi < Vb, the diode remains in forward bias and it conducts. Therefore, the signal appears at the output. When Vi
> Vb,, the diode becomes reverse-biased and does not conduct the input signal. Therefore, the battery voltage Vb
appears at the output.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased due to the input voltage as well as the battery voltage.
Therefore, the input signal passes through the diode and it appears at the output.

Negative Bias
The battery in the negative biased series positive clipper is connected in reverse with the diode as shown in the
figure below.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is reversed biased due to the input voltage and the negative battery as
well. Therefore, in the positive half cycle, the diode does not conduct and only the negative battery voltage
appears at the output.

During the negative half-cycle, the input voltage polarity reverses and the diode becomes forward biased.
However, the diode is reverse biased due to the negative battery. Therefore, the diode only becomes forward
biased if Vi > Vb, and the input signal appear at the output. Otherwise, the negative battery voltage appears at the
output.

3. Series Negative Clippers

The series negative clipper circuit clips the negative half of the input cycle. its circuit diagram is given below.

During positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased due to the input voltage. Therefore, the input signal passes
through the diode and appears at the output.
 During the negative half cycle, the diode becomes reverse-biased and it does not conduct. Therefore, there is no
voltage at the output and the negative half cycle is clipped from the input waveform.

4. Series Negative Clippers with Bias

The series negative clipper is biased with either positive or negative voltage battery to modify the waveform
instead of clipping the whole negative half.

Positive Bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased due to input signal voltage. While it is reversed biased
due to the battery voltage. the state of the diode depends on both the voltage sources.

Therefore, the diode will be forward biased and conduct only if the input voltage is greater than the battery
voltage.

At first, Vi < Vb, therefore, the diode is reversed biased and does not conduct. So the battery voltage appears at the
output. The input signal appears at the output for the portion when Vi > Vb, as shown in the figure.

During the negative half of the cycle, the diode is reversed biased due to both the input voltage as well as the
battery voltage. Therefore, only battery voltage appears at the output for the whole negative half cycle.

Negative Bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased due to both the input signal and the battery voltage.
Therefore, the diode conducts the signal for the whole positive half cycle and it appears at the output as it is in the
input.

During the negative half-cycle, the input voltage forces the diode in reverse bias but the battery voltage still
forward biases the diode. During this whole cycle, the diode only conducts when the battery voltage exceeds the
input voltage.

At first, Vi < Vb, thus the diode conducts and the signal appears at the output. But when Vi > Vb, the diode blocks
the input signal and the battery voltage starts to appear at the output as shown in the figure.

(B) Shunt Clippers:

In shunt clippers, the diode is connected in parallel with the output. The input signal appears the output when the
diode is blocking as opposed to the series clippers.
The shunt clippers can also be divided into positive and negative clippers.
 Shunt Positive Clippers
 Shunt Negative Clippers
1. Shunt Positive Clippers
The shunt positive clipper clips the positive half cycle of the input waveform. The circuit diagram of the shunt
positive clipper is given below.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased as the voltage at point A is greater than point B. So the
diode conducts the input signal and there is no voltage difference at the output.

During the negative half-cycle, the voltage polarity of the input signal at points A and B reverses and the diode
becomes reverse biased. Therefore, the diode blocks the input signal and the signal voltage appears across the
diode that is taken as the output of the clipper.

In such a way, the shunt positive clippers, clips or remove, the positive half of the input cycle and allow the
negative half cycle.

2. Shunt Positive Clippers with Bias

The biasing is done by using another fixed voltage source such as a battery inside the circuit to modify the
waveform furthermore. The voltage source can be connected in either positive or negative biasing.

Positive Bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased due to the input voltage. But it is reversed biased due to
the battery voltage. The sum of both voltages will decide the state of the diode. If Vi > Vb, the diode will be
forward biased otherwise it will remain in reverse bias.

At first, Vi < Vb, so the diode is reversed biased and the signal appears at the output. But when Vi > Vb, the diode
starts conducting the signal and only the battery voltage starts to appear at the output.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reversed biased due to both input voltage as well as battery voltage.
Therefore, the input signal appears for the whole negative half-cycle at the output.

Negative Bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased for both input signal and battery voltage. Therefore, the
diode conducts for the whole cycle and only the battery voltage appears at the output.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reversed biased for input signal and forward biased for battery voltage.
The combined effect of both voltage sources decides the state of the diode. The diode is forward biased when Vi <
Vb.

At first, the Vi < Vb, thus the diode is forward biased. Therefore, the battery voltage appears at the output. When
Vi >Vb, the diode becomes reversed biased and the input signal starts to appear at the output as shown in the
figure.

3. Shunt Negative Clippers

The shunt negative clipper clips the negative half of the input waveform. The circuit diagram is given below

During the positive half cycle, the diode is reversed biased, thus it blocks the signal that appears across it.
Therefore, the positive half also appears at the output.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts the signal. Therefore, there is no
voltage at the output for the negative half cycle. Thus the shunt negative clipper clips or removes the negative half
of the input waveform.

4. Shunt Negative Clippers with Bias

To further modify the waveform of the shunt negative clipper, positive or negative biasing is used with it by
connecting a battery source in one of the two ways called positive biasing and negative biasing. The waveform
can be modified by varying the voltage of the battery.

Positive Bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is reversed biased for input voltage but forward biased for battery
voltage. So, the diode will be reversed biased only when Vi > Vb, and then the input signal will appear at the
output.

At first, Vi < Vb, so the diode is forward biased and it conducts the signal. Therefore, only the battery voltage
appears at the output. But when Vi > Vb, the diode becomes reversed biased and the signal appears at the output as
shown in the figure.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased for both input signal and battery voltage. Therefore,
the diode conducts and only the battery voltage appears at the output for the whole negative cycle.

Negative Bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is reversed biased for both input and battery voltage. Thus, the diode
blocks the voltage and the signal appears at the output for the whole positive half cycle.
 During the negative half cycle, the diode conducts when the input voltage exceeds the battery voltage. Therefore,
when Vi < Vb, the diode blocks and the signal appears at the output. When Vi > Vb, the diode starts conduction
and only the battery voltage appears at the output.

3. Dual or Combination Clippers

Dual clipper or combination clipper can clip a portion off from both positive and negative half cycle of the
waveform.

Two diodes are connected in parallel to each other where each diode has a battery or voltage source in series that
reverse biases the respective diode. Here is the circuit diagram of a combination clipper.

The circuit operates using a simple principle. If both diodes are reversed biased or if they do not conduct, the
input signal would appear across the diode and also appears at the output.

Now, if one of the diodes starts conduction, their respective battery voltage will start to appear at the output.

During the positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased while the D2 is reversed biased for input voltage.
But the diode D1 and D2 is reversed biased for the battery voltage VB1 and VB2 respectively.

During the positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased for input voltage and reversed biased for battery
voltage VB1. While the diode D2 is reverse biased for both the input voltage as well as the battery voltage VB2.

At first, Vi < VB1, thus the diode D1 is in reverse bias, while the diode D2 is already in reverse bias. Therefore, the
input signal appears at the output. When Vi > VB1, diode D1 starts conduction and battery voltage VB1 starts to
appear at the output.

During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reversed biased due to both input voltage and battery voltage VB1.
The diode D2 is forward biased due to input voltage but reversed biased due to battery voltage VB2.

At first, the Vi < VB2, thus the diode D2 is reversed biased and it does not conduct. The diode D1 is already in
reverse bias. Therefore, the input signal appears at the output. When the Vi > VB2, the diode starts conduction and
the battery voltage VB2 appears at the output.

Applications:
 Used for the generation and shaping of waveforms
 Used for the protection of circuits from spikes
 Used for amplitude restorers
 Used as voltage limiters
 Used in television circuits
 Used in FM transmitters
 CLAMPERS
A clamper circuit is also known as a clamping circuit is an electronic circuit that shifts the DC level of a signal
without changing the shape of its waveform. It moves the whole signal either up or down about the reference
level.

Unlike the clipper circuit, it does not change or distort the shape of the waveform. It simply adds or subtracts the
DC level from the waveform to shift the waveform up or below the 0V reference line.

Working of Clamper Circuit

The idea behind the clamper circuit is to add the DC component to shift the waveform above the 0v line or
subtract the DC component to shift the waveform below the –v line. This DC component is introduced into the
circuit by utilizing a capacitor (which is the main component of a clamper circuit apart from diode and resistor).
The capacitor store the charge in one half-cycle and discharges in another half cycle where it adds to the input
signal and shifts the DC level of the whole signal.

Type of Clampers
The clamper circuit can be designed in the following types.
 Positive Clamper
 Negative Clamper

1. Positive Clamper
In a positive clamper circuit, the input waveform is shifted upward above the 0v reference line. Here is the circuit
diagram of a positive clamper circuit.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased, therefore, therefore, the input signal appears at the
output as it is. At this point, the capacitor is not charged and there is no clamping. Therefore, the output at this
half cycle is not considered.

During the next negative half cycle, the diode becomes forward biased and it starts to conduct, at this half cycle,
the capacitor charges up to the peak input voltage Vm with inverse polarity.

During the next positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Due to this, the capacitor
starts to discharge. The capacitor discharge adds to the input signal which appears at the output as the summation
of both voltages which reaches up to 2Vm.

This is how the signal level is shifted above the 0V line.

2. Positive Clamper with Biasing

The positive clamper can be biased with another voltage source to further shift the input signal waveform. The
biasing can be either positive or negative voltage. Simply put, the positive biasing further shifts up the waveform
while the negative biasing lower down the waveform by the amount of the biasing voltage.

Positive Biasing
During positive biasing a positive voltage source is added in series with the diode as shown in the figure below.
During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased for the input signal but forward biased for the battery
voltage. Therefore, the diode conducts until the input voltage exceeds the battery.

During the conduction, the capacitor is charged with the battery voltage Vb. the diode stops conduction once the
input voltage exceeds.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased for both input and battery voltage. Thus the diode
conducts to charge the capacitor with both the input and battery voltage Vm+Vb. During the next positive half
cycle, the capacitor is discharged that adds to the input signal waveform as explained in the positive clamper
circuit.

Negative Biasing
The negative biased positive clamper has the same operation as a positive biased clamper except the waveform is
shifted down by the amount of the battery voltage Vb.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased due to both input voltage and the battery voltage. The
diode does not conduct and the capacitor does not charge.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased for input voltage but it is reversed biased for battery
voltage Vb. Therefore, the diode does not conduct unless the input voltage exceeds the battery voltage and when
the diode conducts, the capacitor charges. Due to this, the charging voltage of the capacitor is reduced to Vm – Vb.

During the next positive cycle, the diode does not conduct, thus the capacitor is discharge and the waveform is
shifted upward by Vm – Vb (the capacitor voltage). The biasing voltage shifts the waveform down by the amount
of Vb of a positive clamper.

3. Negative Clamper
The negative clamper shifts the whole input waveform downward. Here is the circuit diagram of a negative
clamper circuit.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward-biased. Therefore, it conducts and charges the capacitor with
inverse polarity up to the peak input voltage –Vm. There is no output during this half cycle.
 During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Therefore, the capacitor
discharges which adds with the input waveform. The addition of both voltages shifts the whole waveform
furthermore up to -2Vm. This is how the input signal is shifted downward.

4. Negative Clamper with Biasing

The positive and negative biasing of negative clamper further shifts the waveform above or down.

Positive Biasing
The positive biasing of the negative clamper adds a positive or upward shift by the amount of biasing voltage to
the negative clamped waveform. It shifts the waveform up to the positive level due to positive basing.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased for input voltage but reverse biased for battery voltage.
The diode conducts when the input voltage exceeds the battery and then the capacitor charges. Therefore, the
amount of capacitor charge is reduced by the amount of Vb and the capacitor voltage results in –Vm + Vb.

During the negative half cycle, the diode does not conduct and the capacitor discharge. The sum of input voltage
and the capacitor appears at the output which has a shift of Vb upward as shown in the figure above.

Negative Biasing
The negative biasing of the negative clamper further shifts downward the input signal waveform.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased for both the input signal and the battery voltage. Thus
the diode conducts and the capacitor charges with the sum of both voltages.

During the negative half-cycle, the diodes reverse biases for input voltage but do conduct for the battery voltage.

When the input voltage exceeds the battery, the diode blocks the signal and it appears at the output including the
discharge voltage of the capacitor.

As a result the waveform further shifts downward as shown in the figure.

Applications:
 Used as direct current restorers
 Used to remove distortions
 Used as voltage multipliers
 Used for the protection of amplifiers
 Used as test equipment
 Used as base-line stabilizer
CLAMPING CIRCUIT THEOREM