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Metallurgy
Part-01

INTRODUCTION
Metallurgy : The branch of chemistry which deals with the method of extraction of metals from their ores by
profitable means.
Metal : The element which tends to form positive ion is called a metal.
Minerals : The various compounds of metals which occur in the earth's crust and are obtained by mining are
called minerals. In earth crust order of abundance of elements is. O > Si > Al > Fe
A mineral may be single compound or a mixture.
Ore : The mineral from which a metal can be extracted profitably and easily is called an ore.

All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
Gangue or matrix : The undesirable impurities present in an ore are called gangue.

Type of Ores :
(I) Combined Ore : Metals placed above H in electrochemical series are generally reactive i.e. why they
generally found in combined state.
(a) Halide ore / Sulphate ore / Oxy ore : Metals are highly reactive
(b) Oxide ore : Reactive metal (Al to Sn)
(c) Sulphide ore : Metal placed near H or below H. (Pb, Hg, Cu, Ag)
(II) Native Ore : Metal placed below H in electrochemical series are generally found in native state.
(Ag, Au, Cu, Pt etc.)
Types of metallurgy

Pyrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy Electro metallurgy

Temp. is involved Solution is involved Electricity involved

For heavy metals According to EC.S IA, IIA, AI

Fe, Zn, Cu, Hg, For metals placed below H

Sn, etc
Cu, Ag, Au

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Metallurgy Part-01

Types of ores and their names

TYPES OF ORES S.N. FORMULA OF THE ORE NAME
Oxide Ore 1. ZnO (Philosopher's Wool) Zincite

2. MnO2 Pyrolusite

3. SnO2 Cassiterite (Tin stone)

4. Cu2O Cuprite (Ruby Copper)

5. Fe2O3 Haematite

6. Al2O3.2H2O Bauxite

7. FeO. Cr2O3 Chromite

8. Fe3O4 Magnetite

9. Fe2O3.3H2O Limonite

10. TiO2 Rutile

Sulphide Ore 1. ZnS Zinc Blende (Sphalerite)

2. HgS Cinnabar

3. PbS Galena

4. Ag2S Argentite or Silver glance

5. FeS2 Iron pyrite (Fool's gold)

6. CuFeS2 Copper pyrite (Chalcopyrites)

7. Cu2S.Ag2S Copper silver glance

8. Ag2S.Sb2S3 Pyrargyrite (Ruby silver)

9. Cu2S (Copper glance) Chalcocite

Halide Ore 1. NaCl Rock Salt

2. AgCl Horn Silver

3. CaF2 Flourspar

4. AlF3.3NaF Cryolite

5. KCl.MgCl2.6H2O Carnalite

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Metallurgy Part-01

Carbonate Ore 1. MgCO3 Magnesite

2. CaCO3 Lime stone

3. MgCO3.CaCO3 Dolomite

4. ZnCO3 (Smithosonite) Calamine

5. PbCO3 Cerrusite

6. FeCO3 Siderite

7. CuCO3. Cu(OH)2 Malachite green

8. 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Azurite

Sulphate Ore 1. CaSO4.2H2O Gypsum

2. MgSO4.7H2O Epsomite Or Epsom salt

3. K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O Alum

Nitrate Ore 1. NaNO3 Chile- Salt Peter

2. KNO3 Salt peter or Indian salt peter

Phosphate Ore 1. Ca3(PO4)2 Rock Phosphate

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Metallurgy
Part-02

(A) CONCENTRATION OF THE ORE OR BENEFACTION OR DRESSING OF ORE :

The removal of impurities from the ore is called its concentration or to increase the concentration of ore in ore
sample. Two process – (1) Physical (2) Chemical

(1) PHYSICAL CONCENTRATION :

(I) GRAVITY SEPARATION (LEVIGATION) : This method of concentration of the ore is based on the
difference in the gravities of the ore and the gangue particles. Powdered ore is agitated with a running
stream of water. The lighter gangue particles are taken away by water while heavier ore particles settle
down.
Used for concentration of oxygenated ores.

(II) FROTH FLOATATION METHOD

This method is mainly employed for the concentration of sulphide ores.
The method is based on the different wetting characteristics of the gangue and the sulphide ore with water
and oil. The gangue particles are preferentially wetted by water and the ore particles by oil.
The crushed ore along with water is taken in a floatation cell. Various substances are added depending on
the nature of the ore and a current of air is blown in. The substances added are –
(a) Frothers :– They generate a stable froth which rises to the top of the tank.
Example of frother is pine oil, Eucalyptus oil, fatty acids etc.
(b) Collectors or floating agents :– They attach themselves by polar group to the granules of the ores
which then become water repellent and pass on into the froth.
Example: sodium ethyl xanthate, pine oil and fatty acid.
(c) Froth stabilisers : They stabilise froth.
Ex. Cresol, Aniline etc.
(d) Depressants :– These reagents depress the floatation property and help in the separation of different
sulphide ores present in a mixture.
for eg. in case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS the depressant used is NaCN. It selectively prevents
ZnS from coming to the froth but allows PbS to come with the froth.
NaCN + (ZnS + PbS) ⎯⎯→ Na2[Zn(CN)4] + PbS
(remain in (comes to
the solution) the froth

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Metallurgy Part-02

Powdered
Ore + Oil + Water
Compressed air Light ore particle
in froth

Concentrated Ore
Gangue

[Froth floatation process]

(III) MAGNETIC SEPARATION:-

If either the ore or the gangue (one of these two) is capable of being attracted by a magnetic field, then
such separations are carried out (e.g. in case of iron ores)
e.g. • SnO2 which is non-magnetic having the impurities of FeWO4 + MnWO4 (Magnetic)
• FeO.Cr2O3 (Magnetic) having the impurities of SiO2 (Non-magnetic)

Finely ground ore

Magnetic roller

Magnetic particles

Non-magnetic particles
Fig. 6.1: Magnetic separation [Schematic]

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Metallurgy
Part-03

2. CHEMICAL CONCENTRATION (LEACHING) : In this process we use suitable reagent which react with
ore to form water soluble complex while impurities remain insoluble. Applicable for Al, Ag, Au.
(a) for Al
Red Bauxite ⎯⎯→ Al2O3.2H2O + Fe2O3/FeO
(Major impurities)
White Bauxite ⎯⎯→ Al2O3.2H2O + SiO2
(Major impurities)

for red bauxite :

(i) Bayer's process : NaOH is used.
Al2O3 + NaOH ⎯→ NaAlO2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Al(OH)3 + NaOH
2 2 H O(excess)&CO

Fe2O3/FeO + NaOH ⎯⎯→ insoluble

(Basic)

(ii) Hall's process : Na2CO3 is used.

Al2O3 + Na2CO3 ⎯→ 2NaAlO2 ⎯⎯⎯
CO →
HOH
Al(OH)3 + Na2CO3
2

for white bauxite

(i) Serpeck's process : a mixture of (C + N2) is used

Al2O3 + N2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → AlN ⎯⎯⎯

1800°C
-CO 
2
→ Al(OH)3  + NH3 
HO

C + SiO2 ⎯→ CO2  + Si 

(b) for Ag and Au (CYANIDE PROCESS)

2O
(I) for Ag Ag2S + 4NaCN ⎯⎯⎯
2
→ 2Na [Ag (CN)2] + Na2SO4
[in absence of O2, reaction become reversible]
2Na[Ag (CN)2] + Zn ⎯→ Na2 [Zn (CN)4] + 2Ag 

O
(II) for Au Au + KCN + H2O ⎯⎯⎯
2
→ K [Au (CN)2] + KOH
K[Au (CN)2] + KOH + Zn ⎯→ K2ZnO2 + KCN + H2O + Au 

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Metallurgy Part-03

(B) Calcination and roasting (Conversion of ore into oxide form)

Concentrated ore must be converted into a form which is suitable for reduction, usually the ore is converted to
oxide before reduction because oxides are easier to reduce.
(a) Calcination : Calcination is a process in which ore is heated at temperature below melting point, generally
in the absence of air, to expel water from a hydrated or hydroxide ore and carbon dioxide from a carbonate
ore.
Δ
eg. 2Al(OH)3 ⎯⎯→ Al2O3 + 3H2O
Δ
2Fe2O3. 3H2O ⎯⎯→ 2Fe2O3 + 3H2O
Δ
CaCO3 ⎯⎯→ CaO + CO2
Δ
CuCO3·Cu(OH)2 ⎯⎯→ CuO + CO2 + H2O

Advantages of Calcination :–
(i) Moisture is removed.
(ii) Organic matter is destroyed
(iii) The ore become porous and easily workable

(b) Roasting : The removal of the excess sulphur contained in sulphide ores in the form of SO 2 by heating in
an excess of air is called roasting.
The concentrated sulphide ore is heated in reverberatory furnace, below its melting point in the presence
of an excess of air.
Roasting
2ZnS + 3O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ 2ZnO + 2SO2
Roasting
PbS + O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ PbO + SO2

Some important examples of roasting

Sulphide of Ag and Hg (Ag2S, HgS) when roasted they give directly metal and oxygen because their oxides are
unstable towards heat.
Δ Δ 1
Ag 2S + O2 ⎯⎯⎯
-SO2 → Ag 2O ⎯⎯⎯ 300°C → 2Ag + O 2
Unstable 2
Δ Δ 1
HgS + O 2 ⎯⎯⎯
-SO2 → HgO ⎯⎯⎯ 400°C → Hg + O 2
Unstable 2

Oxides ores of iron Fe2O3 (heamatite), Fe3O4 (magnetite) has some amount of FeO and before reduction process
these oxide ores of iron should undergo roasting so that FeO can be converted into Fe 2O3 and it could not form
slag with SiO2 to prevent loss of Fe.

Advantages of Roasting :–
(i) Excess of sulphur is removed as volatile oxide.
S + O2 → SO2
(air)
(ii) Impurities of arsenic, antimony & phosphorous are removed as their volatile oxides.
Sb4 + 3O2 → 2Sb2O3 
As4 + 3O2 → 2As2O3
P4 + 3O2 → 2P2O3
• For PbS, Cu2S and HgS partial roasting is carried out because these sulphide ore easily converted into metal
by self-reduction process.

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Metallurgy
Part-04

(C) Reduction to the metal :

The calcined or roasted ore is then reduced to the metallic state by either of the following method :
(I) Chemical reduction :
(i) Reduction by carbon (Smelting)
"Reduction of the oxide with carbon at high temperature is known as smelting".
The oxides of less electropositive metals like Pb, Zn, Fe, Sn, Cu etc. are reduced to metal by strongly heating
them with coal or coke, in the blast furnace.
Metal Oxide + Coke + flux → Metal + CO2  +Slag.

eg. ZnO + C ⎯→ Zn + CO

PbO + C ⎯→ Pb + CO These reactions are carried out at high temperature
SnO2 + 2C ⎯→ Sn + 2CO because at high temp. C is better reducing agent.
Fe2O3 + 3C ⎯→ 2Fe + 3CO

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Metallurgy Part-04

Fe2O3 + 3CO ⎯→ 2Fe + 3CO2 These reactions are carried out at low temperature
PbO + CO ⎯→ Pb + CO2 because at low temp. CO is better reducing agent.
SnO2 + 2CO ⎯→ Sn + 2CO2

FLUX : Substance used to convert non fusible impurities into fusible one.

Types of flux :-
(a) Acidic Flux : Substance used to remove basic impurities (metal oxide)
For example
CaO + SiO2 ⎯⎯→ CaSiO3
(basic impurity) (acidic flux) (Slag)

Acidic flux are non-metal oxide (SiO2, P2O5 etc.)

(b) Basic flux : Substance used to remove acidic impurities (non-metal oxide)
For example
CaO + SiO2 ⎯⎯→ CaSiO3
↓ ↓ ↓
(basic flux) (acidic impurities) (Slag)
Basic flux are metal oxide. (CaO, MgO, etc.)

(c) Neutral flux : Substance used in electrolytic reduction to decrease the fusion temperature and to increase
the conductivity of the mixture by providing free ions.
For example : (Na 3 AlF6 + CaF2 ),CaCl 2 etc.
Cryolite Flourspar

Smelting in Cu-metallurgy

CuS + FeS In blast

+ Coke + SiO2 ⎯⎯→
furnace
Cu2S + FeS + slag (FeSiO3)
Cu2O + FeO (flux) (Copper matte)

Only acts as fuel not as a reducing agent

[MS+C→M+CS2 G= +ve(non-spontaneous)]

Cu2O + FeS ⎯→ Cu2S + FeO

FeO + SiO2 ⎯→ FeSiO3 (slag)
(impurity) (flux)

(II) Self reduction

Compounds of certain metals are reduced to metal without using any additional reducing agent.
In this process metal sulphide ores are partially roasted to give some oxide. This oxide is now reduced to
the metal by the remaining sulphide ore at elevated temperatures in the absence of air. The process is
known as self-reduction. eg. for sulphides of Cu, Pb, Hg etc.

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Metallurgy Part-04

Self reduction for Pb :-

2PbS + 3O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2PbO + 2SO2 
Partial roasting

(Galena) (air)
PbS + 2PbO ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 3Pb + SO2 
High temp
Absenceof air

Self-reduction for Cu (Bessemerisation)

Cu2S + FeS + SiO2 ⎯→ Blister copper + slag
(Copper matte) (flux)
FeS + O2 ⎯→ FeO + SO2
FeO + SiO2 ⎯→ FeSiO3 (slag)
(gangue) (flux)
Cu2S + O2 ⎯→ Cu2O + SO2
Cu2S + 2Cu2O ⎯→ 6Cu + SO2
(Blister copper)

Note :
The solidified copper obtained has blistered appearance due to evolution of SO 2 and so it is called blister
Copper.

Thermal Decomposition :
Δ
2Ag 2O ⎯⎯→ 4Ag + O2
Δ
2HgO ⎯⎯→ 2Hg + O2

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Metallurgy
Part-05

(iii) Alumino thermite process or thermite welding process : In this process those metal oxide (oxides of
Mn, Ti, Cr, Fe) will be reduced which required high temperature and at high temperature carbon react with
metal to from metal carbide.
In this process we use aluminium as a reducing agent due to :-
(i) Al has greater affinity towards oxygen as it forms most stable oxide (Al 2O3)
(ii) This reaction is highly exothermic in nature and once it start it will continue till all the metal oxide is
reduced into metal.
For Cr, Mn, Fe : (a) Cr2O3 + Al ⎯⎯→ Al2O3 + 2Cr

(b) Fe2O3 + Al ⎯⎯→ Al2O3 + 2Fe

Note : Reaction (b) is used in welding of railway tracks.

(iv) Electrolytic reduction

This process is mainly used for the extraction of highly electropositive metals. I A, II A & Al
Electrolysis is carried out in a large cell and a small amount of another suitable electrolyte is added which:
(a) Lowers the melting point of the main electrolyte
(b) Enhances conductivity of molten mixture
(c) Reduces corrosion troubles
e.g. Manufacture of metallic sodium (Down's process)
Molten NaCl containing CaCl2 is electrolysed between graphite anode and iron cathode. The various
reactions that take place are :
On Fusion : NaCl Na+ + Cl–

On Electrolysis : At Cathode :– Na+ + e–→ Na

At Anode :– 2Cl–→ Cl2 (g) + 2e–

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Metallurgy
Part-06

(D) REFINING OF METALS

Metals obtained by the reduction of its compound still contains some impurities and have to be refined.
Depending upon the nature of the metal and impurities, the following methods are used for purification of the
metals.

(I) Physical Process :

(i) Liquation : This method is used for the refining of metals having low melting point and are associated
with high melting impurities.
Ex. Pb, Sn, Sb and Bi.
The impure metal is heated on the sloping hearth of a furnace.
The pure metal flows down leaving behind the non- fusible impurities on the hearth.

(ii) Distillation : Metals having low boiling point are refined by this method. eg. Zn, Cd, Hg

(iii) Zone refining : Metals of very high purity are obtained by zone refining. This refining method is based on
the fact that impurities tend to remain dissolved in molten metal.
Ge, Si and Ga used as semiconductors are refined in this manner.

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Metallurgy Part-06

(II) CHEMICAL PROCESS :-

(i) Cupellation : This process is used to purify silver containing the impurities of Pb.
This process is used when impurity have greater affinity towards O2 while metal does not have.

(ii) Poling : Used to purify Cu, Pb.

This process is used for the metal having the impurity of their own oxide. In this process a green
wooden pole is heated with molten metal, which provide hydrocarbon (i.e. CH 4) and it reduces
impurity of metal oxide to metal.

2Cu2O + CH4 ⎯→ 4Cu + CO2 + 2H2

Impurity

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Metallurgy Part-06

(III) ELECTRO–REFINING OF METALS

Metals such as Cu, Ag, Zn, Sn, Pb, Al, Ni, Cr are refined by this method.
Anode of electrolytic cell is made from impure metal, while cathode is thin plate of pure metal.
Electrolyte is the solution of a salt of the metal.
On passing the electric current pure metal from the anode dissolves and gets deposited at the cathode.
The soluble impurities go into the solution while insoluble or less electropositive impurities settle down below the
anode as anode mud. For Example
– Electrorefining of Copper
Anode : Blister copper (98%)
Cathode : Pure copper
Electrolyte : An aqueous solution of CuSO4 (15%) + 5% dil H2SO4
– Electrorefining of Silver
Anode : Impure silver
Cathode : Pure silver
Electrolyte : aq. solution of AgNO3 + 1% dil HNO3
– Electrorefining of Al (Hoope's process)
Anode : Impure Al,
Cathode : Pure Al
Electrolyte : A mixture of Na3AlF6 + CaF2

(IV) Vapour Phase Refining (Thermal decomposition)

In this method the metal is converted into its volatile compound and collected elsewhere. It is then decomposed
to give pure metal.
Two requirements are -
(i) The metal should form a volatile compound with available reagent.
(ii) The volatile compound should be easily decomposable, so that recovery is easy.
(i) Van Arkel method :
• Used for Ti and Zr
useful for removing all the oxygen and nitrogen impurities from metals like Zr and Ti.

Ti(s) + 2I2 (g) ⎯⎯⎯

523k
→ TiI4 (g)
Impure

TiI4 (g) ⎯⎯⎯

1800k
→ Ti(s) (pure)+ 2I2 (g)
(ii) Mond's process :
(i) Nickel is purified by using CO gas. This involves the formation of Nickel Tetracarbonyl.

Ni(Impure) + 4CO ⎯⎯⎯

330K
350K
→ [Ni(CO)4] ⎯⎯⎯
450K
470K
→ Ni(pure) + 4CO 

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Metallurgy
Part-07

Extraction of Aluminium :

Main ore : Bauxite : Al2O3.2H2O

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Metallurgy Part-07

ii. Hall’s Process

Red Bauxite : Al2O3 .2H2O
Main Impurity : Fe2O3 (Basic)

iii. Serpeck Process

White Bauxite : Al2O3 .2H2O
Main Impurity : SiO2 (Acidic)

Hall Heroult Process :

This process is used for extraction of Al from alumina. The extraction of Al from Al2O3 is quite difficult because

(i) Fusion temperature of Alumina is quite high (2050°C). Even more than boiling point of Al (1150°C).

(ii) It is a bad conductor of electricity. To overcome these difficulties we mix some amount of neutral flux (Na3AlF6
(Cryolite) + CaF2(Flourspar)). Neutral flux provides free ions to the mixture which decreases the fusion temperature of
Alumina from 2050°C to 950°C.

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Metallurgy Part-07

➢ Purified Al2O3 is mixed with Na3AlF6 or CaF2

lowers the melting point of Alumina and increases conductivity.

➢ Steel cathode and graphite anode are used.

Reaction involved in Hall Heroult Process :

Electrolysis

At Cathode : Al3+ + 3e- → Al (Reduction)

At Anode : 2F- → F2 + 2e- (Oxidation)

𝟑
3F2 + Al2O3 → 2AlF3 + O2
𝟐

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Metallurgy Part-07

Electro-Refining of Impure Al : (By Hoope’s Process)

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Metallurgy
Part-08

Extraction of Cu from Copper Pyrites (CuFeS2)

Concentration of CuFeS2 : Froth flotation
2CuFeS2 ⎯⎯→ Cu2S + FeS + FeS2
O2
Partial roasting : CuFeS2 ⎯⎯⎯
limited
→ Cu2S + FeO + SO2

Smelting : In Blast furnace

Roasted ore + C + SiO2

Used as
Fuel

Smelting :

➢ FeS + O2 → FeO + SO2 

➢ FeO + SiO2 → FeSiO3 (Slag)
➢ Cu2S + O2 → Cu2O + SO2
➢ Cu2O + FeS → Cu2S + FeO
➢ Cu2S remains almost unaffected during smelting.
➢ After smelting process, Copper matte (Cu2S (98%) + FeS (2%)) is produced

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Metallurgy Part-08

Bessemerization :

➢ Copper matte is then charged into silica lined convertor.

➢ Some silica is also added
➢ Hot air blast is blown
➢ Cu2S/Cu2O react to the metallic copper

FeS + O2 ⎯⎯→ FeO + SO2 

FeO + SiO2 ⎯⎯→ FeSiO3 (Slag)

Acidic Flux

Self Reduction :

Cu2S + O2 ⎯⎯→ Cu2O + SO2

limited

Cu2S + Cu2O ⎯⎯→ 6Cu + SO2 

Blister Copper (98% pure)
Due to the evolution of SO2

Electro Refining of impure Copper

➢ Anode : Cu (Impure)
➢ Cathode : Cu (Pure)
➢ Electrolyte : CuSO4(aq.) + dil H2SO4
➢ Anode mud : Ag, Au, Pt etc.

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Metallurgy Part-08

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Metallurgy
Part-09

Extraction of Iron from Fe2O3 :

(1) Concentration of ore :

➢ By Gravity separation & Magnetic separation

➢ By Gravity separation & Magnetic separation

(2) Calcination/Roasting :

➢ It removes moisture and other volatile impurities

➢ It also decomposes carbonates

Carbon reduction (Smelting) in blast furnace :

Feed : Fe2O3 + C + CaCO3

Combustion Zone : Coke is burnt

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Metallurgy Part-09

Reduction Zone :

Upper part/lower temperature range (500–800K)

Fe2O3 + CO ⎯⎯
Δ
→ Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4 + CO ⎯⎯
Δ
→ FeO + CO2

FeO + CO ⎯⎯
Δ
→ Fe + CO2

Slag Formation Zone :

Higher temperature range (900 – 1500 K) middle part in the blast furnace

CaCO3 ⎯⎯
Δ
→ CaO + CO2
SiO2 + CaO ⎯→ CaSiO3
Acidic Basic Fusible
Impurity flux Slag

The slag is in molten state and separates out from iron.

Iron oxide + 3C ⎯→ 2Fe + 3CO ↑

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Metallurgy Part-09

Slag Formation Zone :

➢ After Smelting molten metal is obtained.

➢ Slag being lighter is deposited at surface of molten metal.

➢ Slag stops further oxidation of molten metal.

Fusion Zone :
➢ Iron obtained at the bottom of furnace is called pig iron.

➢ All the solid metal is obtained in fused form.

Manufacturing of wrought iron from the cast iron

Puddling Process :
➢ Wrought iron or malleable iron is the purest form of commercial iron

➢ It is prepared from cast iron by oxidising impurities in a reverberatory furnace lined with haematite.
➢ This haematite oxidises carbon to carbon monoxide:
Fe2O3 + 3C ⎯→ 2Fe + 3CO

➢ Limestone is added as a flux and sulphur, silicon and phosphorus are oxidised and passed into the slag.

➢ The metal is removed and freed from the slag by passing through rollers.
➢ Iron obtained from puddling furnace is called wrought iron (purest form of iron)
➢ Wrought iron contain 0.1 to 0.25% impurity of ‘C’.

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Metallurgy Part-09

Manufacturing Steel from the Cast Iron :

Purification of Iron : In Bessemerisation process, impurities present in pig iron are oxidised by air.

Bessemerisation process

Purification of Iron :
Mn / Si + O2 ⎯⎯ Δ
→ MnO / SiO2
MnO + SiO2 ⎯⎯ Δ
→ MnSiO3
SiO2 + CaO ⎯⎯ Δ
→ CaSiO3
P4 + O2 ⎯⎯ Δ
→ P4O10
P4O10 + CaO ⎯⎯ Δ
→ Ca3(PO4)2 Thomas slag

We add Mn, Cr and C in this extracted iron and remelt it, this form of iron is called Steel.

Steel contain 0.25 to 1% impurity of carbon.

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Metallurgy
Part-10

Thermodynamics of Reduction Processes (Ellingham diagram)

In these diagrams, graph between G and T is plotted for processes like oxidation of metals.

𝟏
M(s) + O2(g) ⎯⎯→ MO(s)
𝟐

Thermodynamics of reduction processes (Ellingham diagram)

It is explanation of the feasibility of pyrometallurgical process by using Gibbs equation :

[G = H – TS]

If G = – ve Process is stable or spontaneous

G = + ve Then process is unstable or non-spontaneous

When pyrometallurgical process contains more than one type of reaction then spontaneity of reaction can be
explained by Ellingham diagram. Ellingham diagram contains plot.

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Metallurgy Part-10

G vs T :

According to Ellingham diagram, the below metal can reduce the oxide of metal above it in the curve, as
affinity of metal below for oxygen is more.

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