Cell and Tissue

The Cell: structural and functional units of all living organisms

Cell theory states that living things are composed of one or more
cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and that cells arise from
existing cells.
Cell Theory are as follows:
a) The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in
living things.
b) All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
c) Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.
Cell theory can also include:
 Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during
cellular division
 All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
 Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells
Prokaryotes (Pro - before): (eu- and archaebacteria)
- bacteria
- lack membrane-enclosed nucleus (= karyon)
- simple structures – unicellular, filaments or colonies
- cell wall (polysaccharides, peptidoglycans)
- cell membrane (lipid bilayer with protein)
- cytoplasm (enzymes, proteins, many RNA species)  cytosol
- one or more copy of chromosome in condensed form
(nucleoid)
 Eukaryotes (Eu - good or true)

- large range of species

- membrane-enclosed nucleus encapsulating DNA
- unicellular or multicellular
- more complex than prokaryotes  5~10 times larger
- cell membrane (lipid bilayer with proteins)
- cytoplasm (enzymes, proteins, many RNA species,
organelles, cytoskeleton)
- 100~1000 times more DNA than prokaryotes

cell size: animal and plant cells: 5~100 m in diameter

bacteria: 1~2 m long
Lower limit – minimum number of molecules for life
Upper limit – ratio of surface area to vol.
Superkingdoms  Domains
The Cell Structures - Bacteria

* plasmids
Cell organelle is a specialized entity present inside a
particular type of cell that performs a specific function
Review of Eukaryotic Cells
Review of Eukaryotic Cells
(1) Cell Membrane and Wall

Cell (Plasma) Membrane:

- contains transporters, signal receptors
- engulfs particles by endo-, phago- and exocytosis
(prokaryotes limited to absorption of nutrients)

Cell Wall:
- plants also have a cell wall (cellulose, and other
carbohydrate polymers)
(2) The Nucleus
(starting point for growth or development, kernel of a cell)
• has a a nuclear envelope (lipid/protein) and holds the majority
of the cell’s DNA.
• storage of genetic information as chromosomes.
• chromosomes consist of chromatin fibers made of nucleosomes
(DNA + histones).
• DNA information transcribed into RNA.
• Nuclear Envelope - double membrane bilayer, perforated with
many pores (900Å) to allow passage of macromolecules
(enzymes in; RNA out).
• Nucleolus - site of ribosomal assembly (exported to cytosol),
contains chromosomal segments encoding ribosomal RNA.
(3) Cytosol (cytoplasm; cyto – cell; plasma – liquid part)
• water based
• includes macromolecules
• excludes membrane-bound organelles

(4) Endoplasmic Reticulum & Golgi Apparatus

• (endo –within; plasma –liquid part; reticulum –network)
• most extensive membrane in cell
• rough ER: ribosome studded, protein synthesis
• smooth ER: no ribosomes, lipid synthesis
• products of ER transported to Golgi apparatus for further
processing
 proteins “addressed”
• Golgi: stack of flattened membraneous sacs
(5) Mitochondria (mitos – thread, chondros – granule)

• evolved from aerobic bacteria

• site of cellular respiration (aerobic metabolism)
• large ellipsoid ~ 2000/eukaryotic cell (~ 1/5 cell)
• two lipid membranes
smooth outer & highly folded inner with invaginations called cristae
• has two spaces (inner membrane space & matrix internal space)
• reproduce by fission (like bacteria) only from other mitochondria
• respiratory enzymes form gel-like matrix of inner membrane
• couples chemical energy from nutrient oxidation to synthesis
of ATP (energy storage molecule)
• ATP is exported to rest of cell to fuel processes
• contains DNA, RNA and ribosomes for the synthesis of
some mitochondrial components
(6) Lysosomes (lysis – cut)

- single membrane, variable size

- membraneous sacs containing a large variety of low pH
hydrolytic
enzymes
- plants contain the analogous vacuoles

(7) Cytoskeleton (“cytosolic skeleton”) (Fig 1-9, p.9)

- organizes, adds structure to the cytosol
- extensive array of filaments (actin, intermediate) and
microtubules
(that make up centrioles)
- gives cell shape and ability to move
- orchestrates internal motion of organelles
 Compartmentalization

•One way to allow

reciprocal regulation of
catabolic and anabolic
processes
Structural hierarchy in the molecular organization of cells
Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:
 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
 The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles
surrounded by a separate membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for
reproduction and cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the
cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly
responsible for the energy transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal
organization of the cell by synthesizing selective molecules and
processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate locations.
What are the functions of the cell?
The essential functions of the cell include:
 The cell provides support and structure to the body.
 It facilitates growth by mitosis.
 It helps in reproduction.
 Provides energy and allows the transport of substances.
 Tissues
Tissues are groups of similar cells, working together to perform a
specific function. They are structurally and functionally similar to the
cells. The word tissue is mainly derived from a Latin word meaning
weave.
In the plant kingdom, tissues are divided into two different types:
Meristematic tissue and Permanent tissue.
In the animal kingdom, tissues are divided into four different types:
1.Connective Tissue: Blood, bone, tendon, adipose, and ligament are
examples of Connective Tissue.
2.Muscle Tissue: Skeletal muscle, Cardiac muscle, and Smooth
muscle are examples of Muscle Tissue.
3.Nervous Tissue: Brain, spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous
system are examples of Nervous Tissue.
4.Epithelial Tissue: Surface of the skin, the reproductive tract, the
airways, and the inner lining of the digestive tract are examples of
Epithelial Tissue.
 Connective tissue underlies and supports other tissue types.
 Muscle tissue contracts to initiate movement in the body.
 Nervous tissue transmits and integrates information through
the central and peripheral nervous systems.
 Epithelial tissue creates protective boundaries and is
involved in the diffusion of ions and molecules.
Nervous cell
Characteristics of Nervous Tissue
 Nervous tissue makes up for the Central nervous system (CNS) and
peripheral nervous system (PNS) of the nervous system
 Contains two distinct cells – neurons and glial cells
 It consists of the dendrites, cell body, axon and nerve endings.
 Neurons secrete chemical neurotransmitters which are responsible for
stimulating other neurons as a result of a stimuli
 Presence of specialization at axonal terminals called synapsis
 Nerve cells live long, cannot be divided and replaced(except memory
cells)
Function Of Nervous Tissue
 Neurons generate and carry out nerve impulses. They produce
electrical signals that are transmitted across distances, they do so by
secreting chemical neurotransmitters.
 Responds to stimuli
 Carries out communication and integration
 Provides electrical insulations to nerve cells and removes debris
 Carries messages from other neurons to the cell body
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
Following are the functions of the epithelial tissues:
 Diffusion: The epithelial cells form a diffusion boundary through which
exchange of substances keeps taking place between the internal and
external environment. The epithelial cells also gain nourishment for
themselves through diffusion from the underlying connective tissues.
 Protection: The epithelial tissue lines almost all the surfaces of our
body. It protects the bodily tissues from mechanical and physical injury,
toxins, radiation and invasion by microorganisms.
 Absorption: The microvilli found on the surfaces on columnar
epithelium cells helps in absorption of nutrients and water through the
length of the digestive canal.
 Secretion: The columnar and cuboidal cells get specialized for
secretion and are then referred to as glandular epithelium.
 Sensation: The sensory cells of the nose, eye and ear that help us in
smelling, hearing and seeing are all specialized epithelial cells.
Meristematic tissue:
The characteristics of meristematic tissue are as follows:
 The cells of these tissues are commonly called meristems.
 The meristematic tissue has the quality of self-renewal. Every time the
cell divides, one cell remains identical to the parent cell, and the others
form specialized structures.
 They have very small and few vacuoles.
 The meristematic tissue is living and thin-walled.
 The protoplasm of the cells is very dense.
 The meristematic tissues heal the wounds of an injured plant.

Permanent Tissues: The tissues that are completely grown and have
lost the ability of division are known as permanent tissues. The
meristematic tissues divide and differentiate to form the permanent
tissues.
Types of Permanent Tissue:
Simple Permanent Tissue
These are also known as homogenous tissues. They are made up of a
single cell type, usually with the same origin, structure, and function.
Simple permanent tissue is further classified into three types:
Parenchyma
•The cells have an oval or round shape.
•The cell wall is made up of hemicellulose or cellulose.
•The cell is thin-walled.
•The cells have vacuoles and very small nucleus.
•It is found in all parts of the plant.
•The protoplasm is living and dense.
Collenchyma
•Cells are long and thick-walled.
•The cell wall is made up of cellulose and pectin.
•It is the only tissue with the highest refractive index due to the presence of pectin.
•It is found in the epidermis and the vascular bundle of dicot leaf.
•The amount of chloroplast is less in the cells.
•The cells have no intercellular spaces.
Sclerenchyma
•These are dead tissues, very hard and rigid in texture.
•Cells are thick-walled with various size and shapes.
•These provide mechanical support and rigidity to the plant.
Complex permanent Tissue
The complex tissues are made up of various types of cells carrying out
distinct functions and are of two types:
Xylem
 It transports water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves of the
plant.
 It provides support to the plants.
 It is divided into-tracheids, vessels, xylem fiber, and xylem
parenchyma.
Phloem
 It translocates the prepared organic food from the leaves to different
parts of the plant.
 It is also known as bast.
 It is composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma,
and phloem fibres.
 CELL TISSUE
Cells are the smallest, structural and Tissues are the distinct types of
functional unit of an organism, which is material consisting of specialized cells
characteristically microscopic. and their products.

Found in both unicellular and multicellular Found only in multicellular organisms.

organisms.
Are microscopic. Are macroscopic.

Comprise of different cellular organelles, Comprise of similar types of cells,

including the nucleus, mitochondria, specialized for a unique function.
lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, etc.

Two types of cells – Eukaryotic cells and Four main types of tissue- Epithelial
prokaryotic cells. tissue, Connective tissue, Muscular
tissue, and Nervous tissue.
Developed from mitosis and meiosis cell Repair through regeneration and
divisions. fibrosis.
Functions include Growth, metabolism, Has its own unique function. A group of
and reproduction. similar cells combines together to
perform a similar function and to form
organs.