VETERINARY PHYSIOLOGY and

HISTOLOGY

Cytology – Characteristics of animal cells

Prescribed Reading: Dellman’s textbook, p 1-16

Histology – Arrangement of cells (and their products) to form tissues

Organology – Arrangement of tissues to form organs/organ systems

Presentation by Dr Steyn
Department of Anatomy and Physiology
Faculty of Veterinary Science
Theme 2 – Cells and Tissues

 SUBTHEME 2.1:
 BASIC MAMMALIAN CELL AND TISSUE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

 Prerequisite knowledge:
- Molecular and Cell Biology (MLB 111)
 SUBTHEME 2.1: BASIC MAMMALIAN CELL
AND TISSUE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

THE CELL – basic functional unit of mammalian body capable of

performing everything necessary for life.

1. RESPONSIVENESS
2 MOVEMENT
3. METABOLISM
4. GROWTH
5. REPRODUCTION

Integration of cells to form

tissues

Three components:
1. Cells
2. Extracellular matrix (ECM)
3. Tissue fluids
TISSUE – group of cells having the same embryological origin and performing
a similar function.

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3. MUSCULAR TISSUE
4. NERVOUS TISSUE

ORGAN – group of tissues whose different functions together produce a

specific function.

ORGAN SYSTEMS – a group of organs who’s combined functions

produce a specific function necessary for life. Eg.
Urinary System: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
2.1.1:The ultrastructure of the
components of protoplasm

 Prerequisite knowledge:
- Structure and function of cytoplasmic
organelles (MLB 111)
- Cytoplasmic inclusions found in cells, and the components of the
cytosol.(MLB 111)
2.1.1:The ultrastructure of the
components of protoplasm

 Learning objective:
1. Explain the difference between nucleoplasm
(karyoplasm) and cytoplasm
 BASIC STRUCTURE OF A EUKARYOTIC CELL

CELL MEMBRANE (Plasma membrane or Plasmalemma).

PROTOPLASM – Substance surrounded by cell membrane.

A NUCLEUS – consists of a nuclear membrane surrounding the
Nucleoplasm (Karyoplasm).
CYTOPLASM – portion of protoplasm between nuclear
membrane and cell membrane.
CELL MEMBRANE (Plasmalemma)

Modern Theory (Fluid Mosaic or Unit Membrane Theory)

• Bilayer of polar phospholipid molecules with proteins embedded

within. Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic “Head” and hydrophobic “Tails”.

• Cholesterol molecules associated with hydrophobic tails.

Plasmalemma composed of
• Lipids (choline containing phospholipids; cholesterol; glycolipids) and
• Proteins (Integral and Peripheral)

• Proteins appears to move within lipid bilayer (hence fluid mosaic model)
• Lipid rafts – membrane substructures that decrease fluidity of the lipid
bilayer, thus restricting movement of transmembrane proteins. Some rafts
contain caveolins – proteins that form membrane invaginations (caveolae)
which are involved in signaling events and uptake of certain proteins
(albumin).

• Carbohydrate chains extend from proteins (glycoproteins and

proteoglycans) and some phospholipids (glycolipids) on the external surface
(only) of the plasma membrane forming a cell coat (glycocalyx), which
functions in protection, cell recognition, intercellular binding, and
cellular interactions.
2.1.1:The ultrastructure of the
components of protoplasm

 Learning objective:
3. Describe the nucleus and its membrane with respect to
its ultrastructure and function.
Nucleus – Size, shape and
appearance varies in different
cell types and also depends
on functional state of a cell;
however all nuclei have basic
structural similarities.
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

A. Nucleolemma (Nuclear Membrane/Nuclear Envelope)

B. Nucleoplasm (Karyoplasm)
A. Nucleolemma (Nuclear Membrane/Envelope)

• Double unit membrane separated by a perinuclear

space.

• Membrane interrupted by pores covered by diaphragms,

which mediate selective and active transport of substances
into and out of the nucleus.

• Outer nuclear membrane may contain ribosomes and the

outer membrane is continuous with the membrane of the
rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER).

• Nuclear lamina – on inside of inner nuclear membrane. It

is a fibrous sheath of specialized intermediate filaments
(lamins) that give mechanical strength to nucleus.
A. Nucleolemma (Nuclear Membrane)

Pores

Double unit membrane

 B. Nucleoplasm (Karyoplasm)
1. Chromosomes
2. Nucleolus
3. Nuclear Matrix
4. Nuclear Sap
2.1.1:The ultrastructure of the
components of protoplasm

 Learning objective:
4. Explain the differences between a euchromatic nucleus
and a heterochromatic nucleus.
1. Chromosomes Revise information on cell division
 1. Chromosomes
Consist of chromatin in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) combined with
histones and other structural proteins.

a. Euchromatin
b. Heterochromatin
c. Barr Body (sex chromatin)
 1. Chromosomes
a. Euchromatin – uncoiled parts of DNA not visible with light microscope. Site of DNA
replication and mRNA synthesis. (Metabolically active cells)

b. Heterochromatin – highly coiled (condensed) parts of DNA, visible as dark patches

against nuclear membrane and around nucleolus. (Metabolically inactive cells)
c. Barr Body (sex chromatin) – one of the X – chromosomes in
females which is heterochromatic (permanently inactivated) and
visible:

i. At periphery of nucleus in buccal squamous cells.

ii. As a nuclear drumstick in polymorphonuclear leukocytes
(neutrophils).
2. Nucleolus - production of ribosomal RNA.
3. Nuclear Matrix – filamentous material believed to be important for
positioning chromosomes in the nucleus.
4. Nuclear Sap – colloidal protein solution providing rapid diffusion of
metabolites and m- and t-RNA to and from nucleus.
2.1.1:The ultrastructure of the
components of protoplasm

 Learning objective:
2. Explain the ultra structural differences between
organelles and inclusions.
5. Explain the manner in which the outer nuclear membrane
gives rise to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 CYTOPLASM
Portion of protoplasm between nuclear membrane and cell membrane

CYTOPLASMIC CONTENTS

• ORGANELLES – structures consistently present in all cells

(organs of cells responsible for cellular metabolism).

1. Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Mitochondrion
3. Lysosomes
4. Golgi Apparatus
5. Centrosome
6. Microtubules and Microfilaments
 CYTOPLASM

• Inclusions – structures not consistently present (not necessary

for cellular metabolism) and are accumulations of metabolites or
cell products.

1. Secretory Granules
2. Pigment Granules
3. Lipid Droplets
4. Glycogen granules
5. etc.

• Cytosol – a semi viscous liquid containing water, ions, sugars,

amino acids, nucleotides, soluble enzymes, cytoskeletal
components, m-RNA, t-RNA, and other molecules.
 Cytoplasm
Contains various organelles
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
(Granular and Smooth)
• Golgi apparatus
• Centrosome
• Cytoskeletal structures
and inclusions
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
A. ROUGH (GRANULAR) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (rER)

B. SMOOTH (AGRANULAR) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (sER)

 A. ROUGH (GRANULAR) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• Branching Unit Membrane tubules forming cisternae containing pre-secretory

products.

• Tubules continuous with nuclear membrane and perinuclear space.

• Attached ribosomes on cisternae produce protein for cellular secretion, also

lysosomal and membrane proteins.

• Free Ribosomes and Polyribosomes (Polysomes) synthesize protein for

cellular use.

• Basophilic staining cytoplasm – High ribosomal synthetic activity

• Ergastoplasm – rER in pancreatic acinar cells

• Nissl substance – rER in nerve cells

• rER and sER can be interconnected in the same cell.

Granular (Rough) Endoplasmic Reticulum
B. SMOOTH (AGRANULAR) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• Uniform sized Unit Membrane tubules with no attached ribosomes

• Functions in:

 Biosynthesis of phospholipids and fatty acids – Adipose cells

 Transport of absorbed lipids – Intestinal cells
 Biosynthesis and metabolism of cholesterol and steroid
hormones – testicular interstitial cells, adrenal cortical cells
 Capture and release of Ca ions – striated muscle cells
 Concentration of Cl ions – gastric parietal cells
 Substance detoxification – hepatic cells
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Cytoplasm
Contains various organelles
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
(Granular and Smooth)
• Golgi apparatus
• Centrosome
• Cytoskeletal structures
and inclusions
 MITOCHRONDRIA (POWERHOUSE OF CELL) (Mitochondrion – singular)

• Consist of two Unit Membranes (Outer and Inner) separated by

intermembranous space.

• Outer membrane is smooth but Inner membrane thrown into folds

(Cristae).

• Cristae of Inner membranes separated by mitochondrial matrix of

fine and large granules.

• Inner membrane and matrix contain all enzymes of citric acid cycle,
oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation.
 Cytoplasm
Contains various organelles
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
(Granular and Smooth)
• Golgi apparatus
• Centrosome
• Cytoskeletal structures
and inclusions
 GOLGI (APPARATUS) COMPLEX

• Saccules of smooth surfaced membranes, stacked like plates.

• Secretory granules begin as dilated cisternae along periphery of saccules.

• Immature surface (cis surface) – convex side that receives transfer

vesicles filled with pre-secretory product from endoplasmic reticulum. Many
fenestrations in membrane.

• Mature surface (trans surface) - concave surface characterized by trans-

Golgi network (TGN), which is a system of anastomosing tubules and
cisternae, and numerous secretory vesicles budding from the cisternae.
GOLGI APPARATUS - ORIGIN AND FUNCTIONS

• Golgi origin believed to originate from outer nuclear

membrane.

• Functions:
1. Concentration and packaging of pre-secretory products.
2. Synthesizes certain polysaccharides and glycoproteins
(mucous cells).
3. Production of lysosomes.
Cis surface

Trans surface

Golgi Apparatus
 Cytoplasm
Contains various organelles
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
(Granular and Smooth)
• Golgi apparatus
• Centrosome
• Cytoskeletal structures
and inclusions
 LYSOSOMES (Suicide Bags)

• Originate from Golgi apparatus and contain hydrolytic enzymes that

break down proteins, nucleic acids, glycogen and
mucopolysaccharides.

• Primary lysosomes – lysosomes that bud off from maturing face of

Golgi saccules.

Important Terms: Endocytosis (a) Phagocytosis Uptake of solid

material – large macromolecules enter cell via being surrounded by
cell membrane, which pinches off inside cell forming a phagosome. (b)
Pinocytosis Uptake of fluid – results in pinocytotic vesicles (fluid filled
carriers).
 Secondary lysosome – primary lysosome fusion with phagosome.
Digestion begins.

• Dense lamellar body – advanced stage of secondary lysosome.

• Vacuolated dense bodies – further degradation within secondary lysosome

forming lipid droplets.

• Dense residual body – final stage where digestion completed. Usable material
absorbed into cytoplasm. Remaining material either expelled (exocytosis) or
remains as lipofuscin granule (a cellular inclusion).
PEROXISOMES (Microsomes)

• Specialized lysosomes for hydrogen peroxide degradation

• Found in liver, kidney, and brown adipose cells

 Cytoplasm
Contains various organelles
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
(Granular and Smooth)
• Golgi apparatus
• Centrosome
• Cytoskeletal structures
and inclusions
CENTROSOME

• Visible with LM only in dividing cells. Necessary for cell division

• Contains two centrioles (diplosome) situated at right angles to each other and
located near nucleus or Golgi apparatus.

• Each centriole consists of a cylinder of nine groups of three microtubules

embedded in a fibrous material.
Centrosome
 Cytoplasm
Contains various organelles
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
(Granular and Smooth)
• Golgi apparatus
• Centrosome
• Cytoskeletal structures
• Inclusions
 MICROTUBULES

• Minute tubular structures not visible with LM except in dividing cells.

• Function as skeleton of cell, form mitotic spindles, internal parts of cilia and
flagella (movement), and function in cellular cytoplasmic transport nerve cells).
 MICROFILAMENTS

• Minute fibrils (Actin and Myosin) only visible when in bundles.

• Actin – main protein in muscle contraction; also involved with
transmembrane proteins and stabilize cell shape. Forms anchors at
sites of cell attachments; supports microvilli.
• Myosin – usually associated with actin for movement.

• Functions: Associated with junctional complexes, contraction of muscle

cells, maintenance of cell shape.
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

• Size between actin and myosin.

• Perform anchoring and structural functions.

• Not involved in intracellular transport.

 INCLUSIONS

Structures not consistently present (not necessary for cellular metabolism) and
are accumulations of metabolites or cell products.

COMMON INCLUSIONS

• Glycogen granules – seen as clear spaces with LM (Liver and Muscle cells).

• Lipid droplets – also seen as clear (larger) spaces with LM.

• Pigment granules:
Melanin granules – dark brown or black particles (produced by
melanocytes), present in iris, skin, and uterus.
Hemosiderin granules – reddish brown particles in phagocytes and seen
mostly in cells involved in the disposal of erythrocytes (spleen, liver, bone
marrow).
Lipofuscin granules – brownish granules (wear and tear pigment) that are
one end product of lysosomal activity.
2.1.2:The ultrastructure of intercellular
connections
 Learning objective:
1. Describe the basic histological structure of the following intercellular
connections: tight junctions, desmosomes, hemi-desmosomes, adhering
tight junctions and gap junctions.
 INTERCELLAR ADHESIONS

A. Junctional Complexes

B. Desmosome (Macula adherence)

C. Hemidesmosomes

D. Nexus (Gap Junctions)

 A. Junctional Complexes

• Commonly found between simple columnar or simple cuboidal epithelial cells.

• Three components:
a. Zonula occludens (Tight Junction) – upper most component.
Appears as an area of adjacent cell membrane fusion. Two
transmembrane proteins join the cell membranes together. Peripheral
cytoplasmic proteins link transmembrane proteins to a structural protein
within the cell. Extends like a belt around cells and provides an
impassible barrier.
b. Zonula adherens – below Zonula occludens.

Intercellular space (20 nm) separates opposing cell membranes.

Multiple transmembrane proteins bind to each other in the extra cellular
space forming an intercellular protein bridge, between adjacent cells.
On the inside of the cell membranes, transmembrane proteins attach to
linker proteins, which connect to microfilaments. Zonula adherens also
continue as a band around cell.

c. Macula adherens (Desmosome) – found below Zonula

adherens. Structure identical to Desmosome (see below).
 B. Desmosome (Macula adherens)

• Form intercellular bridges in stratum spinosum of stratified squamous epithelia and is a

component of the Junctional Complex.

• At EM level it appears as two disk like thickenings (plaques) of adjacent unit membranes
composed of intracellular adaptor protein complexes on cytoplasmic surface of each
membrane.

• Transmembrane proteins of adjacent cells attach to each other in the extracellular space,
but also attach to the intracellular adaptor protein complexes (plaques) in neighboring
cell forming a very strong bond between cells.

• Intermediate filaments (Tonofilaments) extend from the plaques into the cytoplasm.
 1. Intracellular adaptor protein
complexes
2. Interlinking cadherins in extracellular
space and intracellular adaptor protein
complexes (plaques)
3. Intermediate filaments (Tonofilaments)
extend from plaques into cytoplasm

3
1

Tight Junction Desmosome

 C. Hemidesmosomes

One half of a desmosome that connect cells to basement membranes via specific cell-
surface matrix receptor proteins.
 D. Nexus (Gap Junctions)

• Large plate like communicating junctions found between epithelial, smooth muscle and
cardiac muscle cells.

• Space between membranes about 2.0 nm.

• Protein complexes span space and form narrow channels for passage of small molecules
between cells.
Gap Junctions – contain protein complexes (connexons)
 In conclusion:
 Theme 2.1 - Basic mammalian cell and tissue
structure and function
 2.1.1:The ultrastructure of the components of protoplasm
 Explain the difference between nucleoplasm (karyoplasm) and
cytoplasm.
 Explain the ultra structural differences between organelles and
inclusions.
 Describe the nucleus and its membrane with respect to its ultrastructure
and function.
 Explain the differences between a euchromatic nucleus and a
heterochromatic nucleus.
 Explain the manner in which the outer nuclear membrane gives rise to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 In conclusion:
 Theme 2.1 - Basic mammalian cell and tissue
structure and function
 2.1.2:The ultrastructure of intercellular connections
 Describe the basic histological structure of the following intercellular
connections:
 tight junctions
 Adhering tight junctions
 desmosomes
 hemi-desmosomes
 gap junctions