Digital Communications

Learning Objectives

• Explain the use of IP addresses and URLs.

• Explain how DNS enables users to access websites.
• Explain the use of encryption to keep data secure during data transmission.
• Know that there are different network topologies, including bus, ring and star.
• Explain the role of protocols in transmitting data, including TCP/IP and HTTP.
• Explain the scalability factors that should be considered when designing networks.
• Understand the role of parity bits in error detection.

Client- Server Model

Server A server or web server Client

is a computer that
A client usually
performs one or more
requests content or
tasks that other
service from a server.
computers can request
from it.

The server receives the Clients initiate

request, performs the communication
required process, and sessions with servers,
then sends the result which await incoming
on. request
URL

It stands for Uniform Resource Locator

• It is the address of a resource on the World Wide Web.

• It is used to indicate the location of a web resource to access the web pages.
• For example, to visit the google website, you will go to the URL www.google.com, which
is the URL for the website.
• It is writtern on the address bar of the web browser window.

IP Address

It stands for Internet Protocol

It is numerical address that is used to uniquely identify a device on a network.

IP addresses are used to identify the destination of data when it is transferred, so that it
reaches its correct destination.

What does IP stand for?

Answer: Internet protocol
What are IP addresses assigned to?
Answer: devices that need to connect to a network
What is the purpose of an IP address?
Answer: to give devices an address so that data can be transferred to them.

Each web server has an IP address. This is the address that other devices use to send their
requests for accessing webpages.

DNS: Domain Name Server

Domain Name System, or address directory, of the internet.

It allows web browsers to connect with websites.
DNS process of converting a URL to an IP for example:

• the user enters a URL into the web browser

• the web browser sends the URL to the DNS
 • the DNS looks for the URL in its database, to find its IP
• the DNS sends IP back to the web browser.
• The web browser then sends a request to the IP address for the webpage.

Video Link that explains how DNS server works:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ZUxoi7YNgs

Use of encryption to keep data secure during data transmission.

Encryption is the process of encoding information.

This process converts the original information known as plaintext, into an alternative form
known as ciphertext.

Why is encryption used?

Answer: When secret messages are being sent or when you do not want someone else to
access the data or message.
Encryption can be used when transmitting data between computers, both wired and wirelessly.
This will ensure that, if someone else intercepts or receives the message, they will only see the
jumbled-up message and will not be able to decipher or understand it.
What type of data should be encrypted when it is transmitted over the internet?

• when purchasing items, using personal financial and address details

• when logging onto websites using passwords
• when a business is using a digital platform to discuss confidential information about new
products

A secure website means the data that is transmitted to and from it is encrypted.
Firewall prevents unauthorized access through the Internet .

Firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predetermined security rules. A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted
network and an untrusted network.

Network Topology :
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology:

Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. All devices share single communication line or cable.
 Backbone/Main Cable

Advantages of Bus topology:

• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the single cable.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is simple, but still it requires a lot of cabling for every
individual device.
• If any fault occurs in the main cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.

Ring Topology
Ring topology is where nodes are arranged in a circle (or ring). The data can travel through the
ring network in either one direction or both directions, with each device having exactly two
neighbors.
Advantages of Ring topology:

• Ring topology has cheap installation and expansion. To connect one more host in the
existing network, we will need only one more extra cable.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

• If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes. The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.

Star Topology
Star Topology is the kind of network topology in which all the nodes/devices are connected via
cables to a single node called a hub, which is the central node.
Every node in the network is directly connected to one central hub via cable.
Acting as a server, this central node manages data transmission.
Advantages of Star Topology:

• Fast performance and low network traffic.

• Since each of the nodes is independently connected to the central hub, so if one node
goes down, the rest of the network will continue functioning unaffected.

• Limited failure: As each node is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open
ports on the hub.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• Cost of installation is high.

• If the hub/central node fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
Role of protocols in transmitting data, including TCP/IP and HTTP
• Different data transmissions may have different requirements.
• This leads to the need for different protocols, depending on the data.

Protocols: A network protocol is set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between
different devices in the same network.
It allows connected devices to communicate with each other, regardless of any differences in
their internal processes, structure or design.

TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

• TCP/IP as the protocol, or set of rules, that dictates how data is transmitted over the
Internet.
• Any data being transmitted is formatted and sent by these sets of rules.
• It is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the
internet.
• TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private computer network.

HTTP- Hypertext transfer Protocol

• HTTP as the protocol dictates how HTML webpages are requested by web browsers and
transmitted by web servers.
• It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
• The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text, hypertext,
audio, video, and so on.

Scalability factors that should be considered when designing networks.

Scalability can be limited to factors including:

• Distance data has to travel

• Amount of data to be transmitted

To ensure the scalability, the distance can be mitigated using boosters (wi-fi and/or ethernet).
The amount of data can be mitigated by having further bandwidth, or by using multiple smaller
networks that then connect together. This will mean that all the data is not all travelling on the same
route at the same time. Transmission can instead be managed in smaller areas and, therefore, not all be
using the same transmission media all the time.

What is the role of a router in a network?

Answer: To receive and forward data, to connect a network to the Internet

How does a signal booster help transmit data in a network?

Answer: It allows devices that are further away to connect with the network

Why is a signal booster sometimes needed in a network?

Answer: Because the signal does not reach far enough, or because obstacles are in the way.

Error Detection

There is always the chance that data has been corrupted (changed in some way) during transmission.

This is true regardless of the distance of transmission.

To avoid having corrupted data it is really important that computers check for errors and correct them
wherever possible.

There are several methods of error checking, with some being more effective than others.

Understand the role parity bit in error detection

A parity bit is a check bit, which is added to a block of data for error detection purposes. It is used to
validate the integrity of the data. The value of the parity bit is assigned either 0 or 1 that makes the
number of 1s in the message block either even or odd depending upon the type of parity. Parity check is
suitable for single bit error detection only.
The two types of parity checking are
• Even Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made even.
• Odd Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made odd.

Error Detection by Adding Parity Bit

Sender’s End − While creating a frame, the sender counts the number of 1s in it and adds the parity bit
in following way
 • In case of even parity − If number of 1s is even, parity bit value is 0. If number of 1s is
odd, parity bit value is 1.
• In case of odd parity − If number of 1s is odd, parity bit value is 0. If number of 1s is
even, parity bit value is 1.

Receiver’s End − On receiving a frame, the receiver counts the number of 1s in it. In case of even parity
check, if the count of 1s is even, the frame is accepted, otherwise it is rejected. In case of odd parity
check, if the count of 1s is odd, the frame is accepted, otherwise it is rejected.

What is a parity bit?

Answer: An extra bit added to a binary number to identify if there is an odd or even number of 1s.

How do you know what the parity bit should be?

Answer: Add the number of 1s, and add a 1 or 0 to make it odd or even as required

How does parity help you identify if there has been an error in transmission?

Answer: If the received data is not odd or even as required, then an error has occurred.