✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

🌍 GEOGRAPHY NOTES 🌍 by
Radhesh Shah

Academic Year: 2024-2025

CONTENTS

Sr. No. Chapter Page No.

01 Climate of India 2-7

02 Soils of India 8 - 13

03 Natural Vegetation of India 14 - 18

04 Water Resources of India 19 - 22

05 Mineral and Energy Resources 23 - 33

06 Agriculture in India - I 34 - 41

07 Agriculture in India - II 42 - 54

08 Manufacturing Industries: Agro-based 55 - 58

09 Manufacturing Industries: Mineral-based 59 - 66

10 Transport 67 - 70

11 & 12 Waste Management - COMBINED 71 - 76

★ Additional Notes for Chapters and Important Summary 77 - 81

Tables (5)

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

CLIMATE OF INDIA

MONSOON
• The term ‘monsoon’ is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ (Mausam) which means
season.
• Thus monsoon winds are the winds that blow from sea to land in one season and from
landmass towards the sea in the other season.
• The climate of South Asia in general and India, in particular, is influenced by
monsoon.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA:

1. Role of the Himalayas:
a. Himalayas protect the country from the cold & chilly winds coming from the
Arctic Circle.
b. Himalayas act as a barrier for the moisture-laden South-west monsoon winds
during summer and help in bringing the rains to the country.

2. Moderating Influence of the Seas:

• The Indian peninsula is surrounded by water bodies. Therefore it has moderating
influence of the seas and experiences maritime/equable/humid climate.
• Places in the north have continental/extreme climate since they are away from the
water bodies.

3. Impact of the Prevailing Winds:

During the summer season, South West monsoon winds blow from the sea towards the
entire country causing the rains. During winter, Northeast monsoon winds blow from
land to the sea causing rains in the Coromandel coastal plains.

4. Latitudinal Position:
1
Tropic of Cancer (23 2 °N) passes through the central part of India. Therefore the
adjacent areas experience tropical climate. The regions above Tropic of Cancer
experience temperate conditions. The Southern region of the country experiences
equatorial type of climate due to its proximity to the equator.

5. Altitude:
For every 1000-meter ascent, there is a drop of 6°C in temperature (lapse rate). Thus
the hill stations like Nainital, Darjeeling etc. remain cold throughout the year. However,
places like Delhi and Jaipur are warmer than the hill station.

6. Upper Air Circulation-Jet Stream:

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These are swiftly blowing winds at a height of 3 to 5 Kms above the subtropical high
pressure belt. Himalayas divide them into easterly & westerly jet.
The westerly jet cause western disturbances in North-west India and bring about winter
rainfall.

7. Presence of Relief Features:

• Western Ghats, Himalayas etc. act as barriers and cause heavy rainfall to the
windward side.
• The amount of rainfall is comparatively lesser to the leeward side of the mountains.
• Thus the relief feature is one of the key factors that determine the climate of India.

8. The El Nino Effect:

The cold Peruvian current keeps the western Pacific Ocean colder than the Indian
ocean which causes high pressure there. But, at times a warm current called El Nino
makes Easterly trade winds to change their direction. Hence, the moisture laden winds
move towards Peruvian coast to cause rainfall there thereby depriving the Indian
subcontinent of the benefits of normal monsoon.

SEASONS
India has four different seasons:
1. The Hot Season - (March to May)
2. Monsoon (Advancing Monsoon) - (June to September)
3. Retreating Monsoon - (October & November)
4. The Cold Season - (December to February)

1. The Hot Season - (March to May)

• Due to the apparent movement of the Sun northwards, Sunrays are vertical near the
1
Tropic of Cancer (23 2 °N). Thus,very high temperatures are recorded. The Southern part
has the temperature of about 35°C while the Northern part records 40°C.
North-western part experiences 45°C temperature.

Local Winds:
• Loo is a hot,dry & dusty wind that blows in Summer in North-West India. It causes
fatal heat wave.
• Kalbaisakhi (Norwesters) are the dust storms with heavy rains accompanied by
thunder and lightening in West Bengal. They cause destruction to life & property.
• Norwesters of Assam are called Bardoli Cheerha. However these moisture laden winds
are beneficial for the tea in Assam, jute & rice in Bengal.

Pre-monsoon Showers

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• The rains which occur before the arrival of monsoon season are called Pre-monsoon
showers.
• They are beneficial for ripening of mangoes in konkana, therefore they are called
Mango Showers.
• They are also useful for Coffee cultivation in Karnataka & Kerala, therefore they are
called Cherry Blossoms in those states.

2. Monsoon (Advancing Monsoon) - (June to September)

The intense heat present in the region causes a low pressure belt in North India &
attracts the moisture laden winds. Thus, the south-east trade winds from the southern
hemisphere are attracted towards India. On crossing the equator, they are deflected to
their right & blow over the country as South-West monsoon winds. These strong
onshore winds bring torrential downpour accompanied by thunder and lightening. This
is known as the “Burst of the Monsoon” Because of the Peninsular shape of India, the
South-West monsoon winds splits into two branches.

-> Arabian Sea Branch of SW Monsoon Winds

These winds strike the coast of Kerala by the first week of June. The western ghats
make them rise high. Heavy rain (200-250cm) occurs on the windward slopes of the
western ghats. While the leeward side receives only 60cm of rainfall.The rain shadow
area receives still less. Further east Chennai receives only 30 to 40 cm of rains. From
South to north, Thiruvananthpuram(325cms), Goa(300 cms) & Mumbai gets 200 cms
rains. The Aravalli hills, being parallel to SW monsoon winds do not form barrier.
Therefore there is little or no rainfall in Thar Desert.

-> Bay of Bengal Branch of SW Monsoon Winds

• These winds strike against the lower ranges of Himalayas,Chittagong & Assam hills &
rise to give very heavy rainfall in W.Bengal, Sikkim & southern slopes of the Khasi,
Jaintia hills. Cherrapunji, located on the windward slope of Khasi hills receives the
heaviest rainfall in the world (1250 cms).
• (Mawsynram near Cherrapunji has received record rainfall of 1350 cm)
• One branch of these winds is deflected in westerly direction and blows towards
Indo-Gangetic plain parallel to the Himalayas. The rainfall decreases from 250 cm in
the Ganga delta region to 100 cm at Patna, 50 cm at Delhi & 25 cm in W. Rajasthan. A
small amount of rainfall is received on the eastern slopes of the Aravallis as they form
the barrier, but Thar on the western side lies in the rain shadow region of the Bay of
Bengal branch of S-W monsoon winds and receives little or no rainfall.

3. Retreating Monsoon - (October & November)

• With the apparent movement of the Sun south of the equator, a low pressure belt over
the north-western India weakens & the S-W monsoon winds start withdrawing from the

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country gradually till early November. This is called Retreating Monsoon. They are
associated with strong winds, torrential and Cyclonic rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu &
Andhra Pradesh. The departure of monsoon from the country leads to bright, hot
conditions known as October Heat.

4. The Cold Season - (December to February)

• These winds blow from high pressure area over the land to the low pressure area over
the sea in N-E direction. These are offshore winds & do not bring rain. However, they
pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal & give rains to coastal Tamilnadu. They give
heavy rainfall as they meet with the damp winds of Retreating monsoons.

Western Disturbances: The temperate cyclones coming from the Mediterranean sea
are called Western disturbances.They bring winter rainfall to Punjab,Haryana,J & K,
Western UP & Northern Rajasthan etc.

Characteristics of Monsoon
1. Monsoons are erratic in nature.
2. They are unevenly spread & are sporadic.
3. They are orographic.
4. They bring rain in Summer

Distribution of Rainfall
1. Regions of Heavy Rainfall (More than 200 cm)
Western ghats, Western coastal plains of Western ghats, S.Kerala, Himalayas, Garo,
Khasi, Jaintia etc.

2. Regions of Moderate Rainfall (100-200cm)

Ganga valley,W.Bengal,Maharashtra, UP,Northern AP,Southern TN.

3. Regions of Scanty Rainfall (50-100)

Eastern Rajasthan,Parts of Punjab & Haryana,J&K.

4. Desert & Semi-desert region (less than 50 cm)

N. J&K, S.Punjab, W Rajasthan, Rain shadow regions.

Turn over to the next page →

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CLIMATE DATA
Study of Climate Data

1. Range of Temperature (°C) = Maximum temperature - Minimum temperature

2. Annual Rainfall (cm) = Add rainfall of all the months
3. Hottest Month = The month having maximum temperature
4. Coldest Month = The month having minimum temperature
5. Wettest Month = The month having maximum rainfall
6. Driest Month = The month having minimum rainfall
7. Determination of Winds/Source of Rain, Place, Continetal/Maritime Climate:

(i) If maximum rainfall is in October and November

Wind/Source of Rain = North-East Monsoon Winds
Coast = Coromandel Coast
Climate = Maritime
Place = Chennai/Puducherry
State = Tamil Nadu/Puducherry

(ii) If maximum rainfall is in December, January and February

Wind/Source of Rain = Western Disturbances
Climate = Continental
Place = Chandigarh
State = Punjab/Haryana

(iii) If the range of temperature is high and maximum rainfall is in the months from
June to September
Wind/Source of Rain = South-West Monsoon Winds - Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal
Branch
Climate = Continental
Place = Patna/Lucknow/Agra
State = Bihar/Uttar Pradesh

(iv) If the range of temperature is low and maximum rainfall is in the months from
June to September
Wind/Source of Rain = South-West Monsoon Winds - Arabian Sea Branch
Climate = Maritime
Place = Mumbai/Panaji/Mangalore/Kochi
State = Maharashtra/Goa/Karnataka/Kerala

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8.
RAINFALL Summer Winter

Punjab and Haryana (i) SW Monsoon Winds - Western

Arabian Sea Branch Disturbances
(ii) SW Monsoon Winds - Bay
of Bengal Branch

Tamil Nadu SW Monsoon Winds - Arabian NE Monsoon Winds

Sea Branch

Rajasthan/Thar Desert SW Monsoon Winds - Bay of -

Bengal Branch

9. If the Range of temperature is above 10°C, then the place experiences Continental
Climate.
If the Range of temperature is below 10°C, then the place experiences Maritime
Climate.
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SOILS OF INDIA

- Soil is the loose material which forms the upper layer of the surface of the earth.
- Process of soil formation is called Pedogenesis.
- Soil formation depends on:
1. Type of parent rock or bedrock
2. Climate
3. Presence of living organisms
4. Topography and drainage
- Soil basically contains silica, clay, chalk and humus.
- Importance of Soil:
1. It is the only medium of plant growth and the source of food.
2. It helps in the percolation of underground water.
3. It provides shelter to creatures like ants & earthworms.

Soil Profile - It’s a vertical cross section of the soil.

O-Horizon- Consists of humus formed by the decay of plant and animal matter.
A-Horizon-Forms the top soil where there is no humus.
B-Horizon- Forms the subsoil containing sand, silt & clay.
C-Horizon-Made up of partially weathered bedrock.
D-Horizon- It is a bottom layer made up of bedrock

TYPES OF SOIL
1. Alluvial Soil
2. Black Soil
3. Red Soil
4. Laterite Soil

ALLUVIAL SOIL
- Is formed by sediments or alluvium eroded from rocks and transported and deposited
by the rivers.
- It is the most extensive soil of India found in the river basins and delta region.
- Alluvial soil is of two types:
A - Deltaic coastal
B - Inland Alluvium
- Deltaic alluvial soil of the South Indian rivers is darker while that of Himalayan rivers
yellowish.
- This soil is called ex-situ.

Distribution: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal. Eastern & Western
coastal strip. Along the basins of major rivers. Delta regions.

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Characteristics:
1. Found at a depth of 500 mts.
2. Colour varies from yellow to brown.
3. Rich in potash, humus and lime.
4. Deficient in Nitrogen & Phosphorus.

Khadar – Lower Course Bhangar – Upper Course

• New alluvial soil. • Old alluvial soil.

• More fertile than Bhangar soil. • Less fertile than Khadar.

• Found in lower valleys or river deltas. • Found 30 m above the sea level.

• Dark coloured, clayey and loamy. • Light grey, coarse and calcareous.

• Gets renewed annually. • Does not get renewed.

Major Crops Grown: Cereals, rice, sugarcane, oilseeds, wheat and sunflower. In the
lower Ganga-Brahmaputra valley, in West Bengal & Assam, it is used for jute
cultivation.

BLACK SOIL/REGUR SOIL/LAVA SOIL

- It is volcanic in origin and formed by the disintegration of Basalt rocks.
- It is formed in Situ. (found in the area where it is formed)
- It is also known as black cotton soil.

Distribution: Occurs mainly in Deccan trap covering the parts of states of Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh & Southern Tamil Nadu.

Characteristics:
1. Colour varies from black to chestnut brown.
2. Rich in iron, potash & lime.
3. Retains moisture & becomes sticky when wet.
4. Develops cracks when moisture is lost from it.

Major Crops Grown: Cotton, jowar, wheat, sugarcane, gram.

RED SOIL
- It is formed by weathering of crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks.

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Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, parts of Andhra Pradesh &
Jharkhand. It also occurs in parts of Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland & Mizoram.

Characteristics:
1. Red in colour due to the presence of Iron Oxide. Colour may vary from chocolate
brown to yellow.
2. Poor in nitrogen & lime, phosphorus & humus.
3. Rich in potash.
4. Does not retain the moisture as it is porous.
5. Being friable, it is easy to till.

Major Crops Grown: Wheat, rice, millets, cotton, sugarcane, pulses, cashew nuts, tea are
grown by adding fertilizers.

LATERITE SOIL
- Laterite soil is formed by leaching of Laterite rocks.
- Leaching - Removal of Lime & Silica from the rocks due to alternate wet & dry spells is
called Leaching.

Distribution: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, WB, Summits of Western & Eastern Ghats,
Goa & Kerala, Summits of Garo, Khasi hills in North East.

Characteristics:
1. Red in colour as it contains iron oxide.
2. Poor in nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus & lime. Rich in Iron.
3. Acidic and does not retain the moisture. One should use organic fertilizer.
4. It is porous and does not retain the moisture.
5. It is coarse and is friable.

Major Crops Grown: Cashew & tapioca. However, by proper irrigation and using
fertilizers, crops like rubber, tea, coffee, coconut, cinchona can be grown.

SOIL EROSION
- Soil erosion: The detachment and transportation of soil by agents of denudation like
weathering, running water and wind is called Soil Erosion.
- Causes of Soil Erosion:
• Vegetation cover - The roots of the plants hold the soil together. But due to
deforestation, the land is exposed to the agents of denudation and suffers erosion.
• Anthropogenic Factors - Defective agricultural practice like shifting cultivation lead to
soil erosion. Similarly overgrazing and mining activities also contribute to soil erosion.
• Rainfall - Heavy rainfall also causes soil erosion.

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• Topography - Hill slopes are more prone to soil erosion.

TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

1. BY RUNNING WATER
A) SHEET EROSION - Due to torrential downpour at the steep slopes, the top soil is
loosened up and leads to the removal of entire top soil cover.This is called Sheet
erosion. Such erosion is common in the Himalayas,North-East India and the
Nilgiri hills.
B) RILL EROSION - The swiftly flowing rivers cuts narrow channels on the ground
by removing the soil.These narrow channels are called Rills.Many such channels
make the land uneven and rugged.
C) GULLY EROSION - When the Rills grow deeper and wider they form Gullies.
Water gushes down in these gullies making them further deeper & wider called
Ravines. In these ravines, bed rock gets exposed and forms ‘’Badland
Topography’. Gully erosion is common in Chambal river valley in Madhya
Pradesh and in South-Eastern Rajasthan.
D) STREAM BANK EROSION - When the rivers overflow their banks and flood the
surrounding plains,the erosion caused is tremendous. Such erosion is prevalent
on the bank of River Brahamaputra, Kosi, Chambal, Damodar & Ganga. The
extensive erosion from one bank and deposition on the other leads to the
shifting of river course.
E) EROSION BY WAVES - Strong sea waves erode the sediments from cliffs and
coastlines and carry them back when they retreat. Such type of erosion is
prevalent in the entire eastern and western coast of Indian Peninsula.

2. BY WIND
• It occurs in the areas with little or no vegetation such as Thar desert, Western
Rajasthan & South Punjab. Wind is the powerful agent of denudation which blow away
fine particles of sand and deposit them in other areas making them infertile.
• Human Factors - Settlements, cultivation, overgrazing, deforestation.

SOIL CONSERVATION
- Soil conservation refers to the steps taken to protect the soil from erosion.
- Soil Conservation: Measures undertaken to prevent the loss and destruction of soil to
maintain the productivity of soil is called soil conservation.
- Objectives:
1. Protection of the topsoil is the main objective of Soil Conservation.
2. It also aims at reclamation of soil which has been damaged over the years.
3. The restoration of soil fertility is the high priority of Soil Conservation.
- Need for Soil Conservation: Soil erosion renders the soil infertile & unproductive in the
following ways:

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• Loss of invaluable topsoil due to intensive farming over the years has caused poor
crop yield.
• Loosening of soils leads to sheet erosion. The sediments coming down the slope fall
into the river and raise the river beds that results in flash floods. Landslides cause
siltation in the dams or obstruct the flow of the river making it overflow.
• The southern slopes of Shivalik range in Punjab & Himachal Pradesh lack forest cover
& hence are highly dissected by seasonal streams called Chos.
• In arid zones strong winds carry loose sand, pebbles, gravel & weathered rock
material and cause them settle as Sand Dunes. Thus desertification is intensified.
• In semi-arid regions of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka overgrazing by
Sheep & Goats leads to the removal of vegetation cover and pulverisation of soil. Such
loose soil is washed away during rains making it unproductive.

METHODS OF SOIL CONSERVATION

• Growing more trees and grass which bind the soil and prevent it from getting eroded.
• Fallow land is vulnerable to agents of erosion. Farmers should grow a cover crop after
a harvest to protect the soil.
• Counter Ploughing involves ploughing the land perpendicular to the slope.This helps to
capture and hold the rainwater.
• Plugging of Gullies by plants,stones,rocks or wooden logs. Over a period of time the
gullies are filled up with sediments.
• Construction of check dams across a stream and rivers check the flow of water.
• Terraced Farming also regulates the flow of water. Low mud walls are built along the
edges of terraces to reduce surface runoff. This is called Contour Bunding.
• Strip Cropping is growing field crops in narrow strips across the slope to prevent
erosion caused by wind and water.
• Crop Rotation is growing alternately soil exhausting & Soil enriching varieties of Crops
to maintain the fertility of soil. Multiple cropping involves growing soil exhausting & Soil
enriching varieties of crops together to replenish the nutrients in the soil.
• Farmers should conserve grazing lands by limiting the time of grazing animals in the
pasture lands.
• Shelter belts - Rows of trees planted perpendicular to the direction of winds to check
the migration of sand dunes from the desert area. It also can be used to check coastal
erosion.

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
• The primitive method of “slash & burn” or jhooming has been much controlled in
North-East parts of India.
• Indiscriminate cutting of forests has been legally banned. Afforestation (NAP)
programmes like Vanmahotsav are undertaken on a large scale.

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• Social forestry, agro-forestry and joint forest management programmes are launched
with people’s participation.
• Chipko movement is the best example of Social forestry programme.
• Integrated watershed management has been adopted by the Government of India for
Soil Conservation.

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NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

NATURAL VEGETATION
• The vegetation that grows without human interference and adapts to the natural
environment is called Natural Vegetation.
• The geographical factors that affect natural vegetation are Climate(Temperature &
rainfall), Soil & Topography.
• Very little natural vegetation is found in India today since humans have encroached
on the forests to meet the rising demand for food and shelter for the growing
population.

IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS
1. Forests are Biodiversity hotspots since they accommodate around 80% of the species
of plants, animals and insects.
2. Reduce Air Pollution by absorbing Carbon dioxide & releasing Oxygen during
photosynthesis. Excessive release of Carbon dioxide has resulted in the threat of Global
warming. Increase in forest cover can reduce the rate of Global warming.
3. Climate Control: Leaves of trees release water vapour during transpiration. This
vapour condenses to form clouds which induces rain and regulate water cycle.
4. Soil & Water Conservation: The roots of trees help in the percolation of water and
helps increasing the underground water reserve. Forests check the flow of water of
floods and prevent soil erosion. The roots of the trees firmly bind the soil. The decayed
vegetative remains called humus increases the fertility of soil.
5. Economic Benefits: Lumbering, Forest tourism, Collecting forest products such as
wood, honey, lac, medicinal plants, bamboo etc. provide employment to many people.
Paper industry, furniture industry obtain their raw material(wood) from the
forests.Moreover industries producing latex, gums, resins, essential oils, fragrances,
perfumes, incence sticks, handicraft, bamboo articles, medicinal herbs require forest
based raw material. Thus forests help to strengthen the economy of the nation.

TYPES OF FORESTS
1) Tropical Evergreen Forests
2) Tropical Deciduous/Monsoon Forests
3) Tropical Dry Forests
4) Delta/Tidal/Marshy/Littoral/Mangrove Forests
5) Mountain Forests

1) TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS

Temperature: 24°C to 27°C
Rainfall: More than 200 cm

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Characteristics:
1. Trees are tall & dense and are impenetrable.
2. Trees are of hardwood type and evergreen.
3. They grow tall with varying heights to compete for sunlight.
4. They are not found in pure stands.(They are in mixed stands)

Examples: Mahogany, Rosewood, Ebony, Shisam, Ironwood, Cinchona

Occurrence: Andaman & Nicobar islands, Western Ghats(Western slopes), W. Bengal &
North Eastern states.

Major Plants of Evergreen Forest

1. Rosewood Making expensive furniture and Andaman, Western

carving Ghats, Assam,
Meghalaya, Manipur, WB

2. Gurjan Railway sleepers and furniture --| |--

3. Shisham (Indian High-quality furniture --| |--

Rosewood)

4. Mahogany Mahogany has beauty, durability, and --| |--

color, and used for paneling, to make
furniture, boats, musical instruments
and other items.

5. Toon Used for furniture, ornamental --| |--

paneling, shipbuilding, and musical
instruments like the sitar, rudra veena,
and drums.

Uses of Mahogany
• Mahogany is a commercially important lumber prized for its beauty, durability, and
color, and used for paneling and to make furniture, boats, musical instruments and
other items.

2) TROPICAL DECIDUOUS/MONSOON FORESTS

Temperature: 25°C to 27°C
Rainfall: 100 to 200 cm

Characteristics:

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1. Trees shed their leaves for about 6-8 weeks in early summer to overcome the
shortage of water.
2. Trees are found in pure stands.
3. Trees are hardwood & broad-leaved.
4. Economically these are most important forests.

Examples: Sal, Teak, Sandalwood, Semal, Mango, Myrobalan (Hirda) etc.

Occurrence: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, Tamil Nadu etc.

• Sal: Railway sleepers, resistant to termites

• Teak: Wood resistant to termites, used in construction and furniture
• Sandalwood: Oil, perfumes, cosmetics, medicines, religious activities.
• Myrobalan: Tanning of hides, dyeing cotton, wood and silk.
• Semal: medicinal properties and natural remedies for diseases, blood purification,
leuccorhea etc.
• Arjun: moth of tassar silk feed on it.
• Mahua: used to make local wine

3) TROPICAL DRY/DESERT/SEMI DESERT FORESTS

Temperature: 25°C to 27°C
Rainfall: Less than 25 cm

Characteristics:
1. Trees are stunted & thorny.
2. They have long roots & small leaves.
3. They are mostly thorny bushes.

Examples: Acacia (babul), date palm, plums and cacti.

Occurrence: Western Rajasthan, Sourashtra, W Punjab, Deccan.

• Date palm: Edible fruit, ornamental plant.

• Babul (Acacia): Firewood, gum
• Kikar: The bark and seeds are the source of tannin. Used to treat diarrhea. The leaves
and the bark are useful in arresting secretion or bleeding.
• Khajur: dates.

4) DELTA/TIDAL/MARSHY/LITTORAL/MANGROVE FORESTS
Temperature: More than 20°C
Rainfall: 200 cm

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Characteristics:
1. Dense & impenetrable forests.
2. Pneumatophores (breathing roots) is the special feature.
3. The trunks are supported by a number of stilted roots which are under water during
high tide.
4. Wood is strong, hard, water & salt resistant.

Examples: Sundri (Mangrove), Gorjan, Hintal, Keora.

Occurrence: Deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna & Kaveri.

• Mangrove: Arrest impact of tsunami.

• Sundri: Hard and durable so used for making boats, telephone posts, boxes etc.
• Hintal: Fuel
• Gorjan: Fuel

5) MOUNTAIN FORESTS
Temperature: Less than 20°C
Rainfall: 150-250 cm

Characteristics:
1. Deciduous & Coniferous type of vegetation.
2. Tropical to Alpine types of trees.
With change in altitude, type of vegetation also changes:
1. Between 1000-2000m, mixed forests of deciduous to coniferous type are found.
Ex., Birch, chestnut, oak and pine.
2. Between 2000-3000m, softwood coniferous plants abound. Ex., Deodar, pine,
spruce, silver fir, etc.
3. Coniferous forest but as one goes higher, alpine grassland is found.
4. Further higher up, we only find grass, lichen and moss.

Examples: Spruce, Silver Fir, Cedar, Pines, Deodar.

Occurrence: Mountainous areas from Kashmir to Assam.

• Chir pine: Extraction of resin and turpentine, making tea chests

• Silver fir: Used for making paper, matches, packing cases
• Deodar: Railway sleepers, house construction and furniture
• Magnolia: ornamental

FOREST CONSERVATION

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• Forest conservation means the proper use of forest resources without causing any
adverse effect on our environment.
• Movements like Vanmahotsava, Social forestry, Agroforestry and Chipko Movement
ensure forest conservation through people’s participation.
• Objectives:
1. Check indiscriminate deforestation
2. Check overgrazing of animals
3. To control shifting cultivation
4. To undertake afforestation and stop deforestation
5. To promote agroforestry
6. Creating shelter belts

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
1. The Forest Conservation Act 1980 was introduced by the government of India to help
conserve the country’s forests.
Objectives:
a. To protect the forest along with its flora, fauna and other ecological
components.
b. It seeks restriction of deforestation and de-reservation of forests (Use of
forest land for non-forest purposes).
2. The National Forest Policy (1988) is also aimed at forest productivity.

-★-

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

- The process of supplying water by artificial means is called irrigation.

- Irrigation is essential in India because…
1. India is an agricultural country. Hence, round the year supply of water is essential.
2. Rainfall is insufficient and unevenly distributed.
3. India has a year long agricultural season, but the rainfall is seasonal. Thus, irrigation
ensures year long cultivation.
4. Crops like rice, wheat, jute and sugarcane require plenty of water which can be
provided only through irrigation.
5. Due to growing population. There is a great demand for food which is fulfilled by
bringing all possible regions under cultivation and providing irrigation to them.
6. Some parts of India are drought prone and are known for uncertain rainfall.
Irrigation becomes indispensable in such parts of the nation.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Traditional Methods: Include wells, tanks & inundation canals.
Modern Methods: Sprinkle and Drip irrigation.

WELL IRRIGATION
- Wells are an age-old method of providing water for agriculture, for drinking and for
household purposes.
- A hole is dug in the ground to obtain sub-soil water.

Wells are found where:

(a) Sufficient groundwater is available.
(b) Groundwater level is not very deep.
(c) Soil is soft.

Well irrigation is concentrated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab & Rajasthan.

• Advantages of Wells:
1. Wells are the simplest & the cheapest means of irrigation.
2. Wells can be dug at any convenient place.
3. It is an independent source of irrigation.
• Disadvantages of Wells:
1. Wells dry up during summer and fail to provide water when needed the most.
2. A well can irrigate only 1 to 2 hectares of land.
3. Well water is brackish.

TANK IRRIGATION

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- An earthen or concrete wall is constructed across a stream or depression to form a

Tank.
- Tank irrigation is practiced in the peninsular plateau in the states of Andhra Pradesh &
Tamil Nadu.
- Tank irrigation is important in the Deccan Peninsula because:
1. The land is undulating and forms natural depression.
2. The underlying hard, impervious rocks prevent the percolation of water.
3. Tanks enable people to arrest the river water which otherwise flows away.

• Advantages of Tank Irrigation:

1. They are naturally formed so there is no need of construction and hence they are
cheap.
2. In South India they are found in more number where there are very few perennial
rivers.
3. It stores the rain water which otherwise will flow away and get wasted.
4. This water can be used for irrigation and for domestic purposes.

• Disadvantages of Tank Irrigation:

1. Tanks occupy a large surface area, which could otherwise have been used for
cultivation.
2. Many tanks dry up during dry season and fail to provide water when it is required
most.
3. Silting of tanks is a problem and desiliting is often needed.
4. Soil flows down the slope and collects in the tank decreasing its water storing
capacity.

MODERN METHODS OF IRRIGATION

These are most reliable & provide irrigation whenever needed. They are easy to
operate, and irrigate a larger area. They are operated by a well designed regulatory
system or technology.

TUBE WELLS
- Tube wells are introduced in the Indo-Gangetic plains where ground water is ample
and available close to the surface.
- A very deep bore, about 15 meter is dug and water is lifted with an electric or diesel
pump.

• Advantages of Tube Wells:

1. Tube wells irrigate much larger area of about 400 hectares.
2. They are more reliable during summer or drought conditions where ordinary wells dry
up.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

3. They are also suited for small land holdings.

• Limitations of Tube Wells:

Tube wells are feasible in the following situations:
1. There must be sufficient groundwater.
2. There must be regular supply of cheap electricity.
3. The land must be fertile & productive so that the cost of operation can be recovered
from increased farm production.

States: Tube wells are widely used in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh & Gujarat.

CANALS
- Canals are drawn either from Dams (perennial canals) or by directly cutting the banks
of the rivers (inundation canals).
- The digging of canals in rocky and uneven areas is difficult. Therefore canals are
practically absent in Peninsular India. More than 15 million hectares of land in our
country are irrigated by canals.
- 39 % of irrigation in India is done by canals.

INUNDATION CANALS
• These are flood water canals and have water in them when river is flooded during the
rainy season.
• These canals are directly taken out by cutting the river banks.
• They do not have any regulating systems like weirs or embankments.
• Inundation canal are found in large number on river Satluj.
Many inundation canals are converted to perennial canals.

• Merits of Canal Irrigation:

1. Most of the canals are perennial and provide water whenever needed.
2. Canal water is loaded with sediments which increase the fertility of the soil.
3. Barring initial cost, canal irrigation is quite cheap.

• Demerits of Canal Irrigation:

1. If canals are not lined, canal water seeps underground and causes water logging.
2. Underground salts occupy the upper surface of the soil and makes the soil ‘reh’ i.e.
saline. Ex. Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana.
3. Marshy areas near the canals become the breeding ground for mosquitoes which
spread malaria.

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

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- It is a type of overhead irrigation. Water is supplied through hoses (pipes). Thus there
is no seepage. There is no loss by evaporation since water is supplied directly on to the
field by sprinkler.
- This method is practiced in arid, semi-arid and hilly areas. It is expensive.

WATER CONSERVATION
- Conservation of water is essential due to its short supply, increased demand,
large-scale pollution & uneven distribution.
- Measures:
1. Developing water saving technologies.
2. Prevent water pollution.
3. Encourage watershed development, rain-water harvesting, reuse & recycling of
water.

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT
Tanks, ponds, check-dams and similar structures have been constructed for water
harvesting. Under this programme, the rain water is arrested and allowed to percolate
underground to raise the level of ground water i.e., Water Table.

Objectives of Rainwater Harvesting:

1. To meet the increasing demand of water.
2. To reduce surface run-off.
3. Avoid flooding of roads.
4. To raise the water table.
5. Improve the quality of ground water.
6. Reduce soil erosion.
7. To fulfill the household requirement of water during hot summer.

Roof water harvesting

- Tamil Nadu is one state which has made it mandatory for every building to harvest
rain water.
- Rain water can also be harvested by methods like recharging hand-pumps, recharge
through trenches and stop dams on small streams.

-★-

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION
• Minerals – Naturally occurring substances that have their own physical properties and
chemical composition.
• Mineral resources – resources obtained from rocks under the earth’s surface.
• Ores – Minerals from which the metal content can be obtained profitably.
• Mineral resources are non-renewable. Thus, should be used with care.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
1. They have the fixed chemical composition. Eg., Magnetite (𝐹𝑒3𝑂4), Haematite
(𝐹𝑒2𝑂3), Bauxite (𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3).
2. Uneven distribution.
3. Quality and quantity are inversely proportional.
4. They play an important role in economic development of the country.
5. They are exhaustible. Eg., coal.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
• Minerals are classified into three types –
1) Metallic minerals : In igneous rocks. Eg:- Iron, manganese ore, bauxite etc.
2) Non-metallic minerals : Associated with sedimentary rocks. Eg:- Limestone, mica,
gypsum etc.
3) Mineral fuel: Source of energy. Eg:- Coal, petroleum etc.

IRON ORE
• Total reserves of India – 6.6 % of the world.
• Singhbhum in Jharkhand is the largest iron ore mine in India.
• Exported to Japan, Korea, European and Gulf countries.
• Four main varieties-
1.) Magnetite : 72% of iron. (Best Quality)
2.) Hematite : 68% of iron.
3.) Limonite : 40% to 60% of iron.
4.) Siderite. Less than 40% iron. (Poorest Quality)

DISTRIBUTION OF IRON ORE

1.) Odisha – Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Sundergarh.
2. Jharkhand – Noamundi, Gua, Chiriya in Singhbhum.
3.) Chhatisgarh – Durg, Bastar.
4.) Goa – Largest producer and exporter. Sahqualim, Sanquem, Satari, Bicholim.
5.) Tamil Nadu – Salem, Madurai.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

6.) Maharashtra – Ratnagiri, Bhandara, Satara.

7.) Karnataka – Bellary, Chikmangalur.

USES OF IRON ORE

• Most important raw material in iron and steel industry.
• Making machineries, transport equipments and agricultural equipments.
• Building infrastructure, buildings, bridges, rail lines, pipes etc.
• Because of wide range of use, known as ‘The foundation of present machine age’.
• Also called the Father of Industrialization.

MANGANESE ORE
• India ranks 2nd in its production.

USES OF MANGANESE ORE

• Manufacturing special type of steel.
• In electrical and glass industries.
• In chemical industries as oxidizer to prepare bleaching powder, disinfectants and
other chemicals also to make colour pigments.

DISTRIBUTION OF MANGANESE ORE

• Extensive deposits are found in –
1.) Madhya Pradesh : Leading producer of Mount Balaghat, Chhindwara.
2.) Odisha : Keonjhar-Bonaigarh and Gangapur area in Sundergarh.
3.) Other : Sanquem Taluka of Goa, Bellary in Karnataka, Banswara in Rajasthan and
Singhbhum in Jharkhand.

BAUXITE
• Source of aluminium.
• Light but strong, doesn’t rust.
• Used in making airplanes (light, strong), ships (light, strong, rustproof), electric wires,
utensils, railway coaches, automobiles.
• Main producers – Jharkhand, Odisha, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

COPPER
1. Copper is very good conductor of heat and electricity.
2. It is highly malleable and ductile. Hence it is used in making electrical wires and
utensils.
3. It is also used in manufacturing parts of automobiles, heating instruments.
4. India has very limited deposits of copper and hence we have to import it.
5. Bronze is the alloy of copper and tin whereas brass is the alloy of copper and zinc.

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DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER
Copper Mines:
1. Rajasthan: Khetri, Udaipur and Jhunjhunu.
2. Jharkhand: Singhbhum and Hazaribaug.
3. Odisha: Sundergarh.
4. Madhya Pradesh: Betul and Balaghat.
5. Bihar: Palamau.

ORES OF COPPER
Copper is obtained from the following ores -
• copper pyrite
• copper glance
• copper sulphide
• chalcocite

COAL
• A sedimentary rock.
• A fossil fuel formed during carboniferous period.
• India – Sixth largest deposits of coal.
• In India we have mostly low quality coal, high quality is less.
• Largest coal mine: Jharia in Jharkhand.
Oldest coal mine : Raniganj in West Bengal.
• Coal is of four types:
1. Anthracite: The best variety of coal found in small quantities in Jammu and Kashmir.
About 85% of Carbon. Best Quality.
2. Bituminous: Second best variety. 80% coal in the world belongs to this category.
About 60% to 80% Carbon.
3. Lignite: Third best. Found in Neville mine in Tamil Nadu. About 50% Carbon.
4. Peat: Inferior quality of coal. Only about 35% Carbon. Poorest Quality.

DISTRIBUTION OF COAL
GONDWANA COAL FIELDS TERTIARY COAL FIELDS

• Formed 200 million years ago • Formed 66 million years ago

• 98% of India’s coal • Very less amount in India

• Found in Damodar river valley in Jharkhand and • Found in Assam, Arunachal

West Bengal; Son river valley of Madhya Pradesh Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and
and Jharkhand; Mahanadi valley of Chhattisgarh Tamil Nadu

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

and Odisha; Godavari & Wardha valley in

Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh

• Main fields – Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Korba, • Main fields – Namchek, Kalakot,
Ballarpur etc. Neyveli, Lakhimpur etc.

USES OF COAL
1.) Main source of energy in India. In thermal power stations to produce electricity.
2.) In metal industries specially for smelting iron.
3.) In railway locomotive, steamships and industries.
4.) Basic raw material for chemical industries, dyes, fertilizers, synthetics, explosives
etc.
5.) By-products of coal (benzyl, phenol, tar and sulphur) are also useful.
6.) As domestic fuel.

COAL MINING - PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

• Irregularities of heavy transport, • Infrastructure of mines and conditions

specially Chhota Nagpur. of miners should be improved.
• As low quality in India, lots of fly ash is • Scientific mining techniques required.
produced after burning coal. The disposal • Safety standards must be raised
is a concern. • Research should be of international
• Lack of high skill and technology. standard.
• Fires or floods of coal mines cause • Selective mining should be discouraged.
heavy losses to the mines and several
lives.

PETROLEUM
• ‘Petro’ - rock and ‘Oleum’ – oil.
• Found in underground fields in sedimentary rock formation.
• Because of its versatile uses, it is called as ‘liquid gold’.
• Derived from buried organic plants and animal life.

DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM
• India – 40% area under the sedimentary rock.
• Main areas of deposits –
1.) Offshore near Mumbai.
2.) Assam valley.
3.) Gujarat and Gulf of Khambat area.

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• Major oil producing areas –

Oil fields in Eastern region Oil fields in Western region

Assam - Digboi, Naharkatiya, Gujarat - Ankleshwar, Nawagaon,

Moran, Hansapung, Rudrasagar; Kalol, Kosamba etc.; parts of
Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura. Maharashtra.

OFFSHORE OIL FIELDS

• ONGC has conducted many surveys, greatest success at Mumbai High, Bassein and
Aliabet.
• Mumbai High – 176 km away from Mumbai. Very promising and drilling done with the
help of a special type of platform, Sagar Samrat.
• Other offshore oil fields are at Bassein, South of Mumbai High and Aliabet oilfield in
the Gulf of Khambat.
• Safaniya - The largest offshore oil field in the world.

USES OF PETROLEUM
1.) Compact and convenient fuel for land, air and water transport.
2.) Can be easily transported through pipelines.
3.) Doesn’t emit smoke and ash like coal.
4.) For power generation.
5.) Its by-products (lubricants, kerosene, vaseline, tar, paraffin, wax, benzene) as raw
materials in many petrochemical and chemical industries.

NATURAL GAS
• Important source of energy which is cheap and eco-friendly.
• Used in chemical fertilizers, petrochemical industries, sponge iron plants, etc.
• CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) – running vehicles.
• LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) - domestic fuel.
• India – largest consumer and producer.
• Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL) is responsible for all matters concerned.

OIL REFINERIES
• Crude oil from oil wells.
• Needs to be refined in refineries before use.
• 1954 – only 1 refinery in India at Digboi.
• At present - 18 refineries in India.
• Eg.- Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOL); Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL);
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL) etc.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

• Reliance Petroleum Ltd. : private sector and Mangalore refinery : joint sector.

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

• Bio fuel.
• Biomass.
• Geothermal.
• Hydropower.
• Solar energy.
• Tidal power.
• Wave power.
• Wind power.

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

•According to energy experts, India’s non-conventional energy potential is estimated at
about 2 lakh MW.
• An estimate of:
- 31% of this potential comes from sun,
- 30% from ocean-thermal,
- 26% from bio-fuel and
- 13% from wind.

Solar Energy:
Sun is the source of all energy on the earth. India, being a tropical country, is well
endowed with plenty of solar energy. Most parts of the country have bright sun-shine
throughout the year except a brief monsoon period.
The daily average of solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/sq.m
depending upon the location.
Solar water heaters, solar refrigeration, solar drying, street lighting, cooking, pumping,
power generation, photo voltaic solar cells, solar ponds, etc. are becoming very popular
in different parts of the country.
The plant, in Kamuthi, Tamil Nadu, comes with a capacity of 648 MW and covers an
area of 10 sq/km.

Areas:
• Tamil Nadu
• Tamil Nadu was the state with the highest installed solar-power capacity of 2,100 MW.
• Rajasthan is one of India's most solar-developed states, with its total photovoltaic
capacity reaching 1,784 MW.
• Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, M.P. and Maharashtra, U.P, Kerala, Haryana are other major
states in this regard.
• Salijipally of Andhra Pradesh is the first village fully electrified with solar energy.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

• India is targeting generation of 20,000 MW electricity by 2020.

Wind Energy
• As of the end of March 2017 the total installed wind power capacity was 32.17 GW,
mainly spread across the South, West and North regions.
• By the end of 2015, India had the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the
world.

Wind Energy
• State Total Capacity (MW):
• Tamil Nadu - 7,600 MW
• Maharashtra - 4,600 MW
• Gujarat - 4,200 MW
• Rajasthan - 4,100 MW
• Karnataka - 3,100 MW
• Madhya Pradesh - 2,300 MW
• Andhra Pradesh - 1,700 MW
• Telangana - 100 MW
• Kerala - 043 MW

Necessary Conditions for harnessing Wind energy

• Wind turbines work on the kinetic energy of wind.
• Generally, annual average wind speeds greater than four meters per second
(4m/s, 14.5 km/h) are required for small wind electric turbines.
• Utility-scale wind power plants require minimum average wind speeds of
6 m/s (21.6 km/h)

Distribution of Wind Energy

Coastal areas with favourable wind speed in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat.
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, are other major states.
Mandavi of TN is the largest wind turbine of Asia - capacity 150 MW.
Kappata in Karnataka is the windiest Indian place.

Tidal Energy
1. Energy can be harnessed by creating a reservoir behind a barrage and then passing
the incoming high and outgoing low tides through turbines in the barrage to generate
the electricity.
2. In order to generate tidal energy, the height of the high tide must be greater than
5m. than the low tide.
Distribution of Tidal Energy
• Gulf and estuaries with strobe tides.

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• India’s capacity is to produce 9000 MW.

• The potential sites are Gulf of Kutchch, Sunderban and Gulf of Khambat.
• Asia’s first Tidal power plant is Hansthal near Kandla port of Gujarat. Its capacity is
900 MW.
• Durgaduani in Sunderban creek is another plant in India.

Geothermal Energy
• Intense Heat Energy present in the rocks deeper within the earth.
• The place where magma gets concentrated becomes the “HOT SPOT’ and is the
potential source for the geothermal energy.
• This heat is trapped at hot geysers, fissures and volcanic vents and used to get
electricity.
• Can also be used for the heating directly.
• It is mainly used for the domestic purposes.
• Its use is relatively new and limited in India.
• Though hot spots are very few, India has potential of 10,000 MW.

Geothermal Power Plants

Geothermal Survey of India has identified 350 hot spots. The most promising one is the
Puga Valley in Ladakh.
Manikaran Himachal Pradesh

Tattapani Madhya Pradesh

Alaknanda Valley Uttarakhand

Puga Valley Ladakh

Cambay Basin Gujarat

Bio Energy
• It is produced from biomass.
• It includes wood, grass, grain, bagasse, dung, urine and other organic waste.
• Biogas plants are put up to obtain energy.
• Biomass in the form of agricultural waste is also being used to produce ethanol and
methanol.
• The residue left after the extraction of energy serves as an excellent organic manure.

Biogas Plant
• Biogas is produced by the anaerobic fermentation of human and animal waste,
agricultural waste.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

• It is a mixture of methane, carbon dixide, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen.

• India has 3,33,000 biogas plants.
• Maharashtra tops the list of biogas plants followed by Gujarat, Punjab, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu.

Biomass Energy conversions are done at:

1. Jhalkari in Punjab
2. Timarpur in Delhi
3. Mumbai city uses municipal garbage
4. Port Blair in Andaman and Nicobar Islands use bagasse.

Nuclear Energy
• This energy is produced during nuclear fission of atom like uranium.
• In nuclear power plants nuclear fission, gamma rays and extremely large amount of
energy (heat) are produced.
• This energy is used to heat water and produce steam which in turn rotates turbines to
produce electricity.
• India produces 5800 MW electricity with nuclear energy.
• By 2020, India aims to produce 20,000 MW electricity.

Distribution of Nuclear Energy

• Uranium is found in Rajasthan and in Jaduguda in Singhbhum in Jharkhand.
• Thorium is recovered from monazite sands found in Kerala.
• Ilmenite, zirconium are found in Malabar and Coromandal coast.
Today India has 21 nuclear power plants. The first one is Tarapur.

India has 7 power plants with 21 nuclear reactors

Tarapur Maharashtra

Kalpakkam and Kudankulam Tamil Nadu

Rawatbhata Rajasthan

Narora Uttar Pradesh

Kakrapara Gujarat

Kaiga Karnataka

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Hydroelectricity
Bhakra Nangal Dam:
• Constructed on river Sutluj in Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.
• It has converted Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh into fertile tracts.
• Bhakra is one of the highest dams in the world. It produces 1300 MW electricity.
• Nangal dam has 2 power plants at Kotla and Ganguwal produces 1500 MW electricity.
• Almost entire Punjab, Haryana, Punjab, Delhi NCR Chandigarh receives energy from
these projects.

Hirakud Dam:
• Constructed on River Mahanadi in Odisha.
• Purpose was to generate electricity, control floods, irrigation and navigation.
• It is the longest dam in the world with the length of 4801 m.
• Along with Hirakud, dams are also constructed at Tikrapara and Naraj and they
together produce 500 MW electricity.
Major Projects in India

Project River State

Damodar Valley Project Damodar West Bengal

Bhakra Nangal Sutluj Himachal Pradesh & Punjab

Tungbhadra Tungbhadra Karnataka

Kosi Kosi Bihar

Chambal Project Chambal Madhya Pradesh

Gandak Gandak Bihar

Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Telangana

Beas Project Beas Haryana

Narmada Valley Project Narmada Gujarat

Sardar Sarovar Project Narmada Gujarat

Tehri Bhagirathi River Uttarakhand

Advantages of Non-conventional Energy Resources

1. Clean and environment friendly projects.
2. Other than nuclear energy, they are based on natural and waste sources.
3. They are inexhaustible.

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4. Provide best alternative to conventional energy sources.

5. Other than nuclear energy, there are no safety risks in using them.
6. Energy is provided at low cost.
7. Nuclear energy is extremely efficient. 1 ton of uranium provide energy equivalent to 3
million tonnes of coal.
8. Bio energy is recyclable.

Disadvantages of Non-conventional Energy Resources (not in syllabi)

• They are not available everywhere. Wind farm can be made only if the speed of wind
is 14.5 km/h throughout the year.
• Solar energy is mainly available in tropical regions and it decreases during winter
season. Morever it is not available 24 hours a day.
• Energy generation depends upon the natural phenomenon which are highly
unpredictable.
• Though the energy available is free of cost, the instrument harnessing it are very
costly.
• Nuclear power plants are risky, very costly and pose danger to environment.
• Geothermal energy involves emission of toxic sulphides, mercury.
• Hydro electricity projects occupy large area, cause less supply of water in lower
reaches, obstruct flow of minerals and thus interfere in ecological balance.

Energy Policy of India

1. To ensure adequate energy supply
2. Achieve self sufficiency.
3. To protect environment from adverse effects of utilizing energy.

Main Features of Energy Policy of India:

1. To explore and achieve indigenous production of petroleum and natural gas.
2. Optimizing current utilization.
3. Focus on development and exploitation of new renewable sources of energy.
4. Proper training of personnel engaged at various levels.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA - I

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
Its the oldest and the most important occupation in India with 2/3rd of population
engaged in it as the conditions are favourable in India. These conditions include:
• Undulating topography, varied climate, soil, ideal temp and sunshine fertile soil,
abundant water etc.
• Agriculture not only provide food and employment but also raw material for
industries.
• About 46% area of the country is under cultivation.
• Indian agriculture is of 2 types: MODERN AGRICULTURE and TRADITIONAL
AGRICULTURE.
• Agriculture plays important role in providing foreign exchange due to export of tea,
coffee, tobacco, jute, cotton etc.
• Major contribution to the Indian economy comes from agriculture.

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

• Dependence of monsoon: 64% of Indian agriculture depends on Monsoon which is
uncertain and irregular so the production too is uncertain.
• Variety of crops: Due to large variety in many factors , variety of crops can grow in
India which include Tropical, Sub tropical and temperate crops.
• Preponderance of food crops: 70% of crops of India are food crops as India has to
feed a very large population.
• Seasonal Pattern: Three types of agricultural seasons in India.
• a) Kharif: June to October (Main crops Rice , maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, jute,
sesame and groundnut, pulses etc.)
• b) Rabi: Nov to March (Main crops include wheat, barley. Oil seeds, tobacco,
and jowar)
• c) Zayad season: Summer cropping season between the harvest of rabi & the
sowing of Kharif crop (vegetables and fruits are grown)

PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

• Small and fragmented land holdings
• Poor quality seeds: All farmers cannot afford good quality seeds due to poverty.
• Lack of proper manure
• Pests and diseases: Use of pesticides, herbicides,etc is very important and farmers
need to be Trained to use them properly.
• Traditional upbringing: Most of the Indian farmers do not like changes. Hence most of
the farming is of subsistence type.
• Erratic Nature of Rainfall.
• Floods and droughts.

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• Excessive pressure on land.

• Low productivity.
• Ignorance of farmers, use of cowdung as fuel instead of manure, costly chemical
fertilizers and inability of farmers to use them are some of the other major problems.

TYPES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Subsistence Agriculture: This is practised for the sole purpose of the subsistence of
farmer’s family. There is no surplus left for the sale.
• Intensive Subsistence Farming
1. Practised mainly in overpopulated land-hungry areas.
2. Very small land holdings due to fragmentation of land due to the law of Inheritance.
3. Double cropping,Crop rotation & multiple cropping are practised.
4. Much human & animal labour involved.
5. Crops like wet paddy are cultivated though other crops are also grown.
• Primitive Subsistence Farming
It is also called Jhumming or Shifting cultivation as farmers abandon the cleared land
in the forest & shift to the other as soil turns infertile.
• Slash & burn involves burning the forest area to clear off the land for farming.
• Practised in the tribal parts of the country. E.g. North-Eastern hilly states, MP,
Chhattisgarh & Jharkhand.
• Primitive tools are used to cultivate crops like Cassava, Yams, Tapioca, Millets etc.
• It is not environment-friendly. So it is banned by the government.

Commercial Agriculture:
• Its done with the aim of obtaining maximum profit by growing the crops commercially
on a large scale with the help of modern techniques.
• Commercial agriculture is of two types:
1. Intensive Commercial Farming -
• Done on small land holdings.
• Maximum yield is obtained with the help of irrigation, fertilizers, HYV seeds &
scientific methods.
• Practised in river valleys & deltas.

2. Extensive Commercial Farming -

• This is practised in sparsely populated areas with ample of land.
• Single crop like wheat, corn predominates.
• Yield per hectare is much less than yield per man.
• Products are raised for sale in the domestic as well as international market.
• Mechanisation is the unique feature due to the absence of human & animal labour.
• It is capital intensive farming.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

Mixed Farming:
When farming and animal husbandry is done together, it is called Mixed Farming. 1.
Livestock rearing & farming is done on the same land.
2. The cattle or poultry thrive on the farm waste.
3. Farmers get substitute income when crops are not ready.
4. It is practised in the densely populated areas.

Plantation Farming:
• The type of farming where single crop predominates is called plantation farming. •
E.g.. Tea, coffee, spices, rubber etc.
• Estates are scientifically managed.
• Crops are grown only for sale.
• It is capital intensive.

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS

1. Improving the health of the farmer.
2. Providing better credit facilities, improved seeds, chemical fertilizers to the farmers.
3. Paying farmers higher prices for their produce.
4. In some states, the tiller has been made the owner of the land. This provides security
to the farmers.
5. New irrigation schemes have been started.
6. Farmers are educated in mechanised & scientific farming techniques.
7. Farmers’ cooperatives have been encouraged.

GREEN REVOLUTION
• It involves the use of HYV seeds, improved irrigation facilities, increased use of
fertilizers, pesticides and modern machineries.
• The Green Revolution resulted in a record grain output and achieved for India a top
ranking agricultural producer.
• The agricultural yield has improved by more than 30%.
• Rice and wheat production has largely grown due to Green Revolution.

FOOD CROPS
• ‘Cereals’ is a collective term for all kinds of grass like plants, which have starchy and
edible seeds.
• The most common cereals include rice, wheat, maize or corn, barely, rye, oats, millets
and sorghum.
• Due to their easy cultivation and high nutritional value, they have formed the basic
diet of mankind since the dawn of history and are often called as “The Staff Of Life”.
[i.e., supporting thing]

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

RICE
• Rice is a kharif crop.
• It is considered to be the oldest cultivated cereal in the world.
• Archaeologists have found the evidence that people cultivated rice for food in about
5000 BC in Southern China, Laos and Vietnam.
• It is the staple food for millions of people ion India.
• After China, India is the largest producer of rice and accounts for 20% of the world’s
output.

Types/Varieties
1. WET OR LOWLAND RICE: It is grown in well watered lowland plain areas. It requires
lot of irrigation during the sowing and growing periods.
2. DRY OR UPLAND RICE: It is the rice grown on terraced fields on hill slopes at higher
altitudes. It depends totally on rainfall as irrigation is not possible.

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature:
• Mean annual temperature of 24ºC
• Range of 22ºC- 32ºC
• Plenty of sunshine required.
2. Rainfall:
• Rice requires annual rainfall of about 150cm-300cm.
• Less rain required if good irrigation is available.
• Flooded fields required during early growing period.
• Slight rain before ripening increases the grain size.
3. Soil:
• Soil must be alluvial with clay like impervious [non-porous] soil.
• Such soil helps in stagnation of water in the fields.
4. Labour:
• Cheap and plentiful labour required as most of work is done by hand.

Methods of Cultivation
1. BROADCASTING: Involves sowing of seeds by sprinkling and scattering them over
the field by hand. It is labor saving. Generally used to sow inferior quality seeds.
2. DIBBLING:
• This is the dropping of seeds at regular intervals in the furrows made by the plough.
3. DRILLING: Best method to sow seeds. It is the dropping of seeds in a straight line at
regular intervals through a bamboo shaft attached to the plough, which makes the
furrows. Prevents wastage of seeds, but is time consuming and labor consuming Mostly
used in Tamil Nadu in peninsular India.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

4. TRANSPLANTATION: Seeds are first sown in nurseries after soaking them in water
for 24 hrs. After 4 wks. When the seedlings are 20 cm tall, they are uprooted and
planted in the flooded fields.
ADVANTAGES:
• Lot of manual labor required is easily available.
• While re-sowing, weeds are removed.
• Less seed wastage compared to broadcasting.
5. JAPANESE METHOD OF CULTIVATION:
• Use of less but good quality seeds (HYV Seeds)
• Sowing the seeds raised in nursery beds.
• Transplanting the seedlings into rows make fertilizing and weeding easier.
• Lots of manuring is done for higher yield.
• Ensures 3 times higher yield and thus its popularity is increasing.

Processing of Rice
• Harvesting of rice is done by hand.
• Harvested crop is left in the field to dry for 3-4 days.
• Threshing is done by bullocks to separate the grain from the chaff.
• Hand pounding is done in a wooden mortar pounded by a long wooden pestle. It
preserves the nutrients.
• Polishing is done to make the rice more attractive and preserve it. It is done in rice
mills. By this process rice loses most of its nutrients.

Regions
TAMIL NADU:
• Largest producer of rice in India.
• Produces 15% of the total rice in India.
WEST BENGAL:
Second largest producer, harvesting three crops per year - in Autumn, Winter &
Summer.
Other rice growing states are Punjab, Haryana, Western Andhra, Odisha and Kerala. In
these states also rice cultivation has developed due to the green revolution.

WHEAT
• Most important food grain for 1/3rd of the world’s population.
• Staple food for the Indian people.
• Believed to be first grown in 3000 BC in the middle east.
• It is a temperate/rabi crop sown in October-November & harvested in March.
• India is the third largest producer of wheat after Russia, USA and China, with 8.7%
yield.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature:
• Wheat requires cool climate.
• Grown in temperate regions.
• Temp during growing period should be 10ºC- 15ºC.
• Temp during ripening period should not be more than 20ºC-25ºC.
2. Rainfall:
• 50-100cm rainfall is ideal.
• Wheat can be grown in drier regions with the help of irrigation.
3. Soil:
• Soil must be clayey, loamy or black soil with well drained and textured with a small
lime content.
• Wheat requires lot of fertilizers.

Methods of Cultivation
• Sown in Oct-Nov after monsoon rain, when the temp. are low.
• Soil should be moist and easily ploughed and fertilized.
• Harvested before March.
• Threshing and winnowing continue till May. Grown by broadcasting, dibbling and
drilling method.

Harvesting
• Done with sickles and now by machines.
• Hailstorms, frost and rains are harmful to the crop.
• ‘Rust’ disease can affect the wheat crop.

Regions
• Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of wheat in India producing 34% of India's
wheat.
• UP, Haryana and Punjab are together called “the granary of India”.
• Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra are the wheat producing
states.

PULSES
• Pulses are Kharif crops in the North & the Rabi crops in the South. They include the
crops [dals] which provide vegetable proteins.
• They are leguminous plants with root nodules and hence they are capable of nitrogen
fixation.
• Serve as excellent food for cattle [forage].
• Gram and tur are the most important pulses.
• Urad [black gram], moong [green gram], masoor [lentil], matar [peas] and moth.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature: 20ºC- 25ºC
2. Rainfall: Low moderate rainfall of 50-75 cm.
3. Soil: Dry light soil
• Pulses are rich in protein. Therefore they provide much essential proteins to the
vegetarians. They are leguminous plants which provide nitrogen to the soil. Hence
grown as a rotation crop. Oil too is extracted from them.

Regions
Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, MP, Tamil Nadu etc.

MILLETS
• Jowar, Bajra & Ragi are Kharif crops.
• Warm weather grasses.
• Grown in inferior areas where wheat and rice are not grown.
• Provides food for the poor and fodder for the animals.
• Hardy, drought and heat resistant plants. Hence are called Dry crops.
• Grown in plain areas or on uplands up to 1200 m.

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature: 27ºC- 32ºC
2. Rainfall: 50-120cm
3. Soil:
• They can also grow in inferior quality of soil.
• Loamy, sandy, clayey, alluvial is best suited for millets.

1} JOWAR (SORGHUM/CHOLUM)
• Most important food crop after wheat and rice.
• It is both a kharif and a rabi crop.

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature: 27ºC- 32ºC
2. Rainfall: 20-100 cm
3. Soil: Dry soil-Clayey loams are the best.

Regions
• Maharashtra- largest producer.
• Karnataka, MP, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, UP and Gujarat.

2} BAJRA

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• Kharif as well as Rabi crop

• Used as food crop as well as fodder for cattle.
• It is also used for thatching roofs in certain areas.
• Sown as rotation or mixed crop. Usually rotated with cotton, jowar or ragi.

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature: 27ºC- 32ºC.
2. Rainfall: 50 to 100 cm.
3. Soil: Variety of soils. Poor light sandy to black or red gravelly soil.

Regions
• Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, UP and Haryana.

3} RAGI [BUCK WHEAT]

• Mainly a kharif crop.

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature: 27ºC- 32ºC
2. Rainfall: 50-100 cm.
3. Soil: Variety of soils are suitable.

Uses
Used as food and fodder for the cattle.

Regions
• Deccan Plateau
• Karnataka - largest producer.
• Tamil Nadu – 2nd largest producer.
• Maharashtra and UP also produce ragi.

-★-

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA - II
——
CASH CROPS
• Cash crops are those crops which are primarily grown as raw materials for industries.
• Cash crops grow in plantations, play a very significant role in the economy of the
country and are valuable for foreign exchange.

The Main Cash Crops are categorized as:

• Oilseeds: edible and non-edible
• Beverages: tea and coffee.
• Agro: fibre: cotton, jute and flax.
• Others: sugarcane, tobacco and rubber.
—
COTTON
• Asiatic cotton first grew wild in East Africa.
• It is a tropical and sub-tropical, annual crop.
• It is one of the most important fibre crops in India used in clothing.
• India has been producing cotton from time immemorial [ancient beyond memory].
• Dacca’s Muslin cotton was the finest before partition.
• China is the largest producer of cotton followed by USA. India ranks 4th in cotton
production with 10% of the world’s output.

Types/Varieties:
1. LONG STAPLE COTTON [AMERICAN UPLAND/EGYPTIAN]:
• It is the longest fibre. Its length is above 2.8 cm.
• Used to make fine quality cotton. Most famous is the Egyptian cotton.
• In India, half of the cotton produced is of this type.
• States producing long stapled cotton are Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh.

2. MEDIUM STAPLED COTTON:

• Has a length of 2.2 cm to 2.8 cm.
• States producing medium staple type of cotton are Rajasthan, Punjab and Tamil
Nadu.

3. SHORT STAPLE COTTON:

• Is less than 2.2 cm.
• States producing short staple cotton are UP, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and
Haryana.

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Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature:
• Cotton plant needs mild, cool, dry climate.
• Temperature range of 20ºC- 32ºC is ideal.
• Needs plenty of sunshine. Warm days and cool nights are good during fruition.
• At least 200 frost free days.
2. Rainfall:
• 50-120cm of moderate rainfall well distributed throughout the year.
• Stagnant water and excessive rainfall is harmful for the crop.
3. Soil:
• Mainly grown in deep black soil as these soil retain moisture.
• Also grown in light and alluvial soils and red and laterite soils.
4. Abundantly cheap manual labor is required for sowing and picking.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION
• Cotton takes 6-8 months to mature.
• Sown as a rabi crop in April/may in Punjab and Haryana. Harvested in Dec/Jan.
• Grown as a kharif crop in the Deccan plateau.
• Seeds are sown by broadcasting method but drilling method is becoming more
popular.
• Cotton quickly absorbs nutrients in the soil and hence regular application of fertilizers
and manure is essential.

HARVESTING
• Done from October-March.
• Less humidity and warm temperature helps in the ripening and bursting the cotton
crop.
• There should be no rain or frost at this time.
• Picking is done by hand immediately after the cotton bolls burst.

PROCESSING
• After picking the first step is ginning.
• Ginning is the separation of seeds from the raw material fibre called Lint.
• After this it is sent to the cotton mills for making threads.

AREAS
Main producers of cotton are Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Problems:
1. Frost destroys the crop.

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2. Cloudy weather is harmful.

3. A beetle called boll weevil lays eggs inside the boll and destroys the crop.
4. Storms & windy weather affect the crop adversely.
5. Rains in the later part of growth makes fibre muddy & discoloured.
—
JUTE
• After cotton, Jute is the 2nd important fibre crop of India.
• It is a long, soft, shiny fibre that can be spun into coarse strong thread. It is a kharif
crop.
• It is known as “golden fibre” because of its color and value as a foreign exchange
earner.
• It is also referred to as the “brown paper bag of wholesale trade” since it is widely
used as a wrapping material-gunny bags or sacks.
• The fibre is obtained from the stem and the inner bark.

Uses
• Used for making cloth to wrap bales of cotton, gunny bags, cloth, ropes, carpets,
strings and fibre.
• Now used for making furnishing material, shopping bags and sail-cloth.
• Very fine threads of jute are made into imitation silk.
• Jute butts-the coarse ends of the plants- are used to make inexpensive clothing.

Types/Varieties:
1. WHITE JUTE:
• Mostly grown in deltas and lowlands.
2. TOSS JUTE:
• Cannot withstand flood, hence it is grown only on top and the fibre in the inner bark is
soft, long and strong.
3. SUBSTITUTE:
• Mestas are a substitute for jute.
• It is a coarser fibre.
• Inferior to jute in quality and strength.
• Used for making gunny bags.
• Can tolerate drier conditions and is mainly cultivated in Bihar, Assam and Orissa.

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature:
• Jute is a tropical crop and thus requires a high temperature of 21ºC- 35ºC (Average
27ºC during growth period)
• A damp hot climate is suitable.
2. Rainfall:

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• Needs heavy rainfall between 150-200 cm.

• Constant and untimely rains as well as prolonged drought conditions are harmful to
the crop.
3. Soil:
• A rich, loamy, alluvial soil formed in delta regions with comparatively flat topography
is ideal.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION
1. SOWING:
• Done in Feb. on lowlands and in march/may on uplands.
• Seeds are sown by transplantation, broadcasting or thread drilling method.
• Weeding regularly is very important in the early stages of growth.
• When the plants are about 15 cm tall, they are thinned out.
2. HARVESTING AND PROCESSING:
• Jute is ready for harvesting after 4-5 months, when the plants are 3-4 m tall and as
soon as the flowering starts.
• The harvesting period is from June to September.
• If the area is flooded, the plants are uprooted, otherwise they are cut to ground
length. Part of it is left in the ground to develop the seeds.
• After this, the retting of the stalks is done. Retting is the soaking of the stalks and the
removal of the fibre from the bark after they are submerged in water to separate the
long strands of the fibers from the stem.
• Kept in water for 20-25 days and then dried.
• Piled in boats for the transportation process. Retting is followed by rinsing, washing
and drying in the sun.

AREAS/STATES
1. West Bengal:
• Is the largest producer of jute and accounts for 70% of India's jute.
• Hot, humid climate and alluvial loamy soil together with cheap abundant labor
provide the most favorable conditions.
2. Other states growing jute are Bihar, Jharkhand, UP, Uttaranchal, Tripura and
Orissa.
3. Assam is the 2nd largest producer of jute.

Problems:
1. Stiff competition in the international market is posed by Bangladesh.
2. In 1947, due to partition the Jute mills remained with India but Jute growing areas
were allotted to East Pakistan (Now Bangladesh). This was a major setback to India.
3. Synthetic fibres like Nylon & natural fibres like Sisal & hemp also offer competition.
—

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——
OILSEEDS
• Oilseeds are mainly used for producing vegetable oils.
• They are of 2 types:
1. EDIBLE OILSEEDS:
• Used for making vegetable ghee.
• E.g.. Groundnuts, sesame, , mustard, sunflower and soybean.
2. NON-EDIBLE OILSEEDS:
• They cannot be used as a part of our diet and are only used for producing industrial
oils and other commercial products.
—
GROUNDNUTS
• India is the largest producer of groundnuts in the world.
• It is both a rabi and a kharif crop but it is grown as a kharif crop.
• Groundnut kernels are very rich source of proteins and vitamins and have high calorie
value.
• It has 40-50% oil that is mainly used in refined oil and vanaspati.

Types/Varieties:
• THE BUNCH TYPE: They grow vertically to a height of about 40 cm.
• THE RUNNER TYPE: These are shorter and widespread and grow horizontally. When
they flower, the flower stalk is bent downwards into the ground where the seed pods
grow and mature.

Geographical Requirements
1. Temperature:
• Temp range between 20ºC- 28ºC
• Warm and dry weather is important at the ripening stage.
2. Rainfall:
• Needs rainfall of 50-70 cm which should be well distributed.
• Responds better to irrigation.
• Prolonged droughts, continuous rains, stagnant water and frost is harmful to the crop.
3. Soil:
• Well drained light sandy loams, red and black soils are well suited.

Uses
• Groundnut oil is used for manufacturing medicinal emulsions [fine dispersion of one
liquid to other], artificial leather, soaps etc.
• Can be eaten raw, roasted, salted or sweetened.
• Residue after the oil extraction[oil cake] is used as an important cattle feed.
• It is a good rotation crop.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

AREAS/STATES
• The leading states are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, UP,
Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, MP, Chhattisgarh and Punjab.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION
1. SOWING:
• Seeds are sown in June.
• It is a leguminous plant hence it increases the fertility of soil.
• Due to the above, it is also used as a rotation crop for millet.
2. HARVESTING:
• Warm winter is needed at the time of ripening.
• Harvested from Oct to December.
• When the pods are mature, they are dug out by hand.
• Hence, it needs cheap and abundant labor.
• After being collected, the pods are dried in the sun.
• Later, the pods are shelled and the seeds are collected.
—
MUSTARD
• It is a rabi crop.

Geographical Requirements
1. TEMPERATURE:
• Needs a cool climate with temp. 10ºC-20ºC.
2. RAINFALL:
• Requires rainfall of about 50-100 cm.
3. Alluvial soil is suitable.

Uses
• Oil content is mainly used as a cooking medium, preservative for pickles and
lubricants.
• Leaves are used as vegetables.
• The oil cakes are used as important cattle feed.

AREAS
• Uttar Pradesh is the leading state. Other states include: Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab,
Assam, WB & Maharashtra.
—
SOYBEAN
• It is both a Kharif as well as Rabi crop.

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✮ RADHESH SHAH ✮

Geographical Requirements
1. TEMPERATURE:
• 20ºC- 30ºC
2. RAINFALL:
• 50-100 cm.
3. SOIL:
• Any type of soil, but must be moisture retentive.

Uses
• It is richer in protein than any other leguminous crop.
• It may be used as a fresh vegetable or paste or fermented sauce called Soya sauce.
• It is also used for making soaps, linoleum and lubricants.
• Soya bean milk is also very nutritious.

AREAS
Maharashtra, UP, Uttarakhand, Gujarat, MP & Chhattisgarh.
—
SUGARCANE
• It is a tall, perennial, tropical and semi-tropical grass the stem of which is used to
produce cane sugar or sucrose. It has a sturdy stalk which is divided into several
sections called internodes which are connected by joints called nodes. Each node bears
a small bud.

Geographical Requirements
1. TEMPERATURE:
• Sugarcane needs an average temp of 20ºC-30ºC
• Excessive or very low temp, frost and dry winds are harmful for the plant.
• Short, cool and dry winter is suitable for ripening and harvesting.
2. RAINFALL:
• Needs a rainfall of about 100cm-200cm. Irrigation may be necessary.
• It cannot withstand water logging.
• Long duration crop takes about 15-18 months to mature depending upon the
geographic conditions.
3. SOIL:
• Soil should be alluvial or lava soil and well drained.
• Sugar cane is soil- exhausting so the soil regularly needs nitrogen fertilizers.
4. Skilled labor is necessary for sowing, harvesting and other processes.

METHODS OF CULTIVATION
1. SOWING:
• The ground is prepared in advance by ploughing and breaking the soil.

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• Proper application of natural manure is essential before planting.

• It can be cultivated by seeds which are sown between Jan and April. But this method
is outdated.

SETT METHOD OF CULTIVATION:

• For preparing the setts, the healthy, well matured sugarcane is cut into several pieces
at the joints.
• They are planted horizontally in well prepared furrows at regular intervals 1.5 to 2 m
apart.
• In about 2 weeks the plant starts growing.
• During this time the plant needs a lot of moisture, hence the rainfall should be well
distributed or irrigation facilities must be made available.

RATOONING:
• In this method the cane is cut close to the ground level where the sugar content is
more.
• This part is well fertilized.
• The stem begins to grow again, giving rise to a new plant.
1. ADVANTAGES:
• It is labor saving and cheaper.
• Ratoon crops have relatively shorter period of maturation.
2. DISADVANTAGES:
• Productivity decreases with each ratoon crop.
• There is an increasing risk of pests and diseases.
• It is soil exhausting and yields thinner canes with less sucrose.

1. PROCESSING:
• Soon after harvesting sugarcane, it should be sent to the factory within 48 hrs. or the
sucrose content falls.
• Hence most of the factories are located near the sugarcane fields.
2. HARVESTING:
• The sugarcane is ready for harvesting after new leaves stop growing and the old
leaves near the stem turn yellow.
• It should be harvested before the flowers appear.
• It is cut at the ground level leaving just the root as the sugar content is concentrated
at the lower stem.

PRODUCTS
Sugar, Khandsari, Jaggery, Candy Sugar

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By-Products:
Molasses is the brown syrup that drains from sugar during manufacture. It is used to
produce Industrial alcohol, Rum, Solvents etc.
Bagasse- Rejected cane-after being crushed is called Bagasse. It is used as a fuel,
animal feed, manufacturing paper & synthetic fibres.

AREAS
• Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Problems
• Sugarcane is a soil-exhausting crop which needs plenty of water thereby increasing
the cost of production.
• Most of the Sugar-mills are away from Sugarcane farm. Due to delayed transportation
Sucrose content is lost from the cane.
• The price of Sugarcane is fixed by the government. Therefore farmers are reluctant to
grow the crop.
——
BEVERAGES
• Beverage crops consisting of tea, coffee and cocoa provide the early morning ‘cup
that cheers’.
• These leading beverage crops are grown in the tropical and sub-tropical zones.
• They are consumed world wide and play a significant role in international trade.
—
TEA
• Tea is the most important beverage crop of India.
• It is considered cheap yet stimulating.
• Tea bush is the native of china.
• Tea bush is a tropical and a sub-tropical plant.
• India is the largest producer of tea in the world.
• Since it is labour intensive it provides employment to over millions of people.
• It earns a lot of foreign exchange for the country.

Types/Varieties:
1. BLACK TEA
2. GREEN TEA
3. OOLANG TEA

Geographical Requirements
1. TEMPERATURE:
• 10ºC-35ºC but 25ºC is the most suitable.

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2. RAINFALL:
• 150-250 cm rainfall, well distributed throughout the year is suitable.
3. SOIL:
• The soil must be well drained and rich in nitrogen.
• Sandy loams are the best.
• As water must be drained away tea is grown on hill slopes upto the altitude of 2000m.
Stagnant water is harmful. Thus water has to be drained away. Frost is injurious to the
growth of new plants.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION
1. SOWING:
• Tea is grown by sowing the seeds in the nursery beds and are grown there for 9
months.
• They are then transplanted on clear hill slopes where shade trees are already planted.
Rows of such trees are called “shelter belts”.
• Tea shrubs are grown at a distance of 1 m in rows.
• The soil is weeded well in advance so that the tea shrubs can grow without any
hindrance.

CLONAL PLANTING
• Cuttings are taken from a good yielding and good quality mother plant.
• These cuttings then grow into tea shrubs producing the same superior quality of tea.
• They are first grown in nurseries, and when they attain a height of about 20 cm, they
are transplanted to the main garden or plantation or estates.

HARVESTING:
About 7500 tea shrubs grow on 1 hectare of land. Tea shrubs are ready for plucking
after 3 to 5 years and produces a flush(new shoots).
Plucking: This is done manually by women and girls early in the morning.
Generally two leaves and bud are plucked. This is known as fine plucking. The average
picking is 40 to 50 kg per plucker. The average tea leaf is 6.3 cm long. The leaves
contain tiny oil cells which imparts flavour to tea. A stimulating substance called theine,
a tannic acid is also found in the leaves.
Regular pruning is done to maintain the height of the shrubs as 1 metre to facilitate
plucking and the growth of fresh softer leaves. A tea shrub has a life of 50 years.

BLACK TEA
The processing of black tea involves:
1. WITHERING:
The leave are spread over shelves called withering racks ad air is blown over them to
reduce the moisture content and to make them flexible.

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2. ROLLING:
This twists the leaves to break the cells, exposing their juice to the air for fermentation
which in turn helps to give the tea a special flavor.
3. FERMENTATION:
Fermentation or oxidation of tannin in the leaves gives the leave a red color as they
change chemically under the controlled humidity and temperature in the fermenting
room where they are spread on racks.
4. FIRING:
The leaves are placed on the conveyor belts in an oven with temperatures of 70-75ºC to
dry them and give them a rich dark brown colour.
5. SIFTING:
Large and small, broken and unbroken leaves are sorted with the help of special sifters
with the holes of different sizes.
6. TASTING & BLENDING:
Tea is grown in different parts of India vary in flavor, taste and quality, so special “tea
tasters” with sensitive taste buds are employed to taste and blend the tea to evolve a
special brand or quality of tea.
7. GRADING:
According to its quality, tea is branded and labelled such as Darjeeling, Bramhaputra,
Nilgiri, Brooke-Bond, Wagh-bakri, Sapat, Taza etc.
8. PACKING AND EXPORT:
Packing is done in tinfoil and plywood chests to retain the quality of tea and prevent it
against dampness. Tea in India is exported from Kolkata, which is the largest tea
exporting port in the world, and from Kochi for the tea produced in the south.

A CTC machine i.e. crushing, tearing and curling machine is now widely used as it
combines all the stages of processing. It is labor saving to the orthodox method
mentioned earlier.

AREA/STATES
Assam is the largest producer of tea. It is grown in Bramhaputra & Surma valleys. In
West Bengal, tea is cultivated on Darjeeling hills. Other tea producing states are Bihar,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kearla, Karnataka & Tamil Nadu. The yield of tea is
higher than average in Tamil Nadu & Karnataka. India is the leading producer of tea &
accounts for 30% of world’s total tea production.
—
COFFEE
• Coffee is the 2nd most important beverage crop of India next to tea.
• While tea is more popular in north, coffee is the favorite drink in the south.
• The name coffee is derived from that of the highland district of Kaffa in Ethiopia.

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• From Arabia Babu Budan brought the seeds in India which were 1st grown in the Babu
Budan hills in Karnataka.
• Indian coffee is well known for its quality and is in great demand in the international
markets.
• Coffee is strictly a highland crop.

Types/Varieties:
1. ARABICA - Superior
2. ROBUSTA - Cheapest
3. LIBERCIA - Instant coffee

The coffee plant:

An Arabica plant is 4 to 6 metres high. However it is pruned to about 3 metres or less.
A coffee plant bears pulpy berries which are green first, then turn yellow and finally
become dark red in colour when ripened.
Each berry contains two seeds called coffee beans which are dried and roasted at 99ºC.
Coffee contains caffeine which is a stimulant.

Geographical Requirements
1. TEMPERATURE:
• 18ºC to 28ºC
2. RAINFALL:
• Needs rainfall of about 125-200 cm and it should well distributed throughout the year.
3. SOIL:
• Must have black lava, well drained, with humus.
• Volcano soil, red and laterite soil are ideal.
• The soil must be properly manured.
• Coffee grows well on an altitude of 1100-2400m.
• Slopes of hills prevent waterlogging. Direct sun is harmful for coffee plants, hence
shelter belts are provided.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION
1. SOWING:
• Coffee are grown on mountain terraced slopes to avoid stagnation of water. Sowing is
usually done during rainy season.
• Seedlings or cuttings are prepared in nurseries and transplanted after 6 months to 2
years in furrows, 3m apart.
• Saplings are protected by the shade of trees like bananas, Silver oak and jackfruit.
• Interplanting with oranges, cardamom and pepper vines is usual and supplements the
farmer’s income.
• Honeybees are reared on coffee plants as they help in pollinating the flowers.

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2. HARVESTING:
• Coffee shrubs bear fruit in the sixth to eighth year. The yield lasts for 30 to 50 years.
• Regular pruning is done to facilitate plucking. Coffee shrubs are allowed to grow to a
height of 2 to 3 m. Plucking is done by hands and continues till January.

3. PROCESSING:
a) Wet method of processing:
• This method is used for the parchment of coffee which consists of removal of skin,
pulping, fermenting, washing and drying.
b) Dry method of processing:
• The covering is removed by drying in the sun. seeds are pounded to remove the outer
covering. The color, flavor and taste of coffee are the result of roasting.

AREA/STATES
• In India coffee is only grown in south India.
• The Nilgiris is the most productive areas.
• Cardamom, Palini and Ananmalai have large coffee plantations.
• Karnataka produces 60% of the India's coffee.
• Kerela has a number of plantations.
• Tamil Nadu has about 7000 plantations.
—
Tea & Coffee are injurious to Health
But in a measure they are wonderful treasure.

-★-

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MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES: AGRO-BASED

AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES

Industries which use raw materials from agriculture are said to be Agro-based
Industries.

SUGAR INDUSTRY
India is the second largest producer of Sugarcane in the world. But the Sucrose content
of Indian sugarcane is less as the canes are thin and dry away as they are transported
over long distances to the sugar mills.
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar produce 30% of the total sugar production.

The reasons for the localization of the Sugar industry in Bihar & Uttar Pradesh:
• The largest quantity of sugarcane is produced in this belt.
• Coal for power is obtained from Jharkhand.
• Railway facilities are widespread.
• Due to dense population, cheap & skilled labour is available.
• Kanpur is the chief distributing and marketing centre for the sugar industry in
northern India.
• India produces about 37% of the world’s sugarcane but only about 5% of the world’s
sugar.
• The sugar industry is the second largest agro-based industry in India after the textile
industry.
• Jaggery and Brown sugar (Khandsari) are the indigenous products. 30% of the
sucrose is used to make white sugar.

By-Products of Sugar Industry

• Bagasse is the rejected cane after the crushing of sugarcane in the mills.
It is used to manufacture paper, cardboard, insulation board etc.
• Molasses is a dark coloured syrup left after the preparation of sugar from cane juice.
It is used to make plastic, synthetic rubber, alcohol, rum & fertilizers.
• Pressmud is used to make shoe polish, carbon paper etc.
• Sugarcane juice is a healthy, nourishing and cooling drink which is in great demand.

Problems faced by North Indian Sugar Producing States

The prices are fixed by the Government which discourages the farmers and they switch
to other food crops like rice.
The crop is produced by small farmers hence yields are low.
The Sugar industry is seasonal as sugarcane is available only during the harvesting
time. Due to short crushing season, overall cost of production increases.
There are great distances from the sugarcane farm to the sugar mills.Therefore the cost
of transport increases the cost of production.
If the sugarcane is not crushed within 24 hours after being harvested, the Sucrose
content is reduced and affects the sugar production.
Outdated & worn-out machinery results in low production and wastages.

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Suitability of South India for Sugar Production

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka & Tamil Nadu are more suitable than
UP-Bihar belt due to the following factors.
Geographical Requirements
Temperature: 20°C to 30°C.
Rainfall: 100 to 200 cm. Water is also supplied by irrigation.
Soil: Regur(Black/lava) soil which is well drained.
Other Factors:
• Fertilizers are commonly used as sugarcane is a soil exhausting crop.
• Land holdings are large. Therefore, sugarcane is grown under scientific conditions
using modern machinery.
• The crushing seasons are longer and mills are near the plantations, so there is no loss
of sucrose.
• The sugar industry is well organized and is run by co-operative sector.
• After Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra has the largest number of sugar mills but is the
largest producer of sugar manufacturing 40% of the total sugar in the country.
• Research centres have been opened at Lucknow & Coimbatore to improve the
industry. New better variety of sugarcane known as “Coimbtore cane” has been crossed
with Jowar.
• New varieties of sugarcane are being experimented which will ripen at different
months of the year so that sugar mills work throughout the year.

TEXTILES
This is the oldest and most widespread industry in India.There are handlooms as well as
powerloom units spread across the country.

COTTON TEXTILES
The first cotton mill was started in Mumbai in 1851. Besides Mumbai, Ahmedabad is the
second town known for cotton mills.

Importance of the Cotton Textile Industry

The cotton textile industry provides employment to nearly 2 crore people. India is the
third largest cotton textile manufacturing country after USA & UK. It is also the third
largest exporter of cotton textiles after Japan & USA.

Mumbai is the most important centre for Cotton textiles since:

1. Mumbai’s hinterland i.e. Deccan plateau grows abundant Cotton due to the presence
of Regur/black soil.
2. Long staple cotton is easily imported from UAE and other countries as Mumbai has
excellent port facilities.
3. The humid climate of Mumbai favours the production of yarns of finer quality.
4. Cheap power is available from Tata Hydroelectric systems.
5. Abundant supply of skilled and unskilled labour is easily available.
6. Mumbai is well connected to the domestic as well as International market through
different modes of transport.
7. Due to these factors, Cotton industry has developed in Mumbai.
Therefore, Mumbai is called the Lancashire of India.

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The manufacturing process of cotton consists of washing fibres, carding & combing
them to form a rope like mass called silver, which is spun to make Cotton yarn.Grey
cloth is bleached, dyed and printed. Cotton has wide range of uses including Surgical
Cotton.

KOLKATA is another important Cotton textile producing centre since:

1. It has an abundant power supply since it is close to Raniganj & Jharia coalfields.
2. It has an abundant capital supply and availability of cheap labour.
3. A humid climate facilitates the spinning of yarn of finer cotton.
4. Fresh water supply from river Hooghly for bleaching and dyeing is plentiful.
5. Kolkata is well connected by road, rail and river for easy transport.
The only disadvantage is that the raw material has to be brought from distant
cotton growing areas of Deccan plateau.

Cotton Textile Industry in the South

Tamil Nadu has the largest number of Cotton mills. The Madurai-Coimbatore-Bangalore
region is situated in the Cotton growing tract of South. Therefore it is dominated by
Cotton textile mills. It also has a vast local market, Availability of cheap & skilled labour
and Hydel power.

Problems of the Textile Industry

1. Inadequate supply of good quality raw material.
2. Low productivity of workers who organize frequent strikes.
3. Outdated & obsolete machinery.
4. Stiff competition from synthetic fibres.

SILK INDUSTRY
This is an animal based industry. The rearing of Silkworm is called Sericulture. This is a
labour intensive industry and provides employment to the rural population.
India produces Mulberry, Tusser, Erie and Muga varieties of Silk. Mulberry silk accounts
for 90% of the total Silk output.
Raw Silk is mainly produced in West Bengal, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh &
Karnataka.
Tusser, Erie and Muga varieties of Silk are produced in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Bihar & Jharkhand.

Why does the Silk Industry prevail in Bengaluru-Mysore region?

1. Favourable temperature of 16°C to 30°C is available.
2. Plenty of fresh water for the processing of Silk fibre.
3. Use of new scientific technology in Silk processing.
4. Skilled & experienced work force.
Thus, Sericulture is the primary occupation in many districts of South Karnataka.
Kashmir, Varanasi, Mysore, Bengaluru and Kanjeevaram silks are world famous.

RAYON TEXTILES
The man-made fibres of Rayon, Terylene, Dacron & Nylon are collectively known as
Synthetic Fibres.

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The chief centres of Rayon weaving are Mumbai, Kalyan, Ahmedabad, Surat etc.

Facilities of Rayon Industries:

1. India has bamboo, grass & cotton waste required for the production of pulp.
2. Chemicals are available in plenty.
3. Ample river water is available.
4. Skilled labour is easily available.
5. Research & Training institutes have been set up.
Rayon is cheaper, durable and easy to maintain.

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MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES: MINERAL-BASED

Industries are the units that convert the raw materials into finished products.
Industrialization is essential to develop the economy of a nation.

Locational Factors: Manufacturing industries are located in the areas having

favourable factors which are termed as Locational Factors.
The main locational factors are:
1. Availability of raw materials
2. Power supply
3. Water supply
4. Skilled labour
5. Transport
6. Market
7. Capital & Management Skills

The industries which exist without any locational factors are called Footloose
Industries.
The raw materials as well as the markets are scattered everywhere. Ex. Cosmetics,
Medicines, Soaps, Toothpastes, Toys etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES
A. On the Basis of Raw Material:
1. Agro-based Industries - Use agricultural products like Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute etc.
2. Mineral-based Industries - Use raw materials obtained from mines such as Coal, Iron
ore, Bauxite etc.
3. Forest- based Industries - Use forest products like Timber, wood, pulp. Resin, lac, gum
etc.

B. On the Basis of Nature of Products:

1. Heavy Industries - Use heavy & bulky raw material like iron-ore & coal to
manufacture heavy products like Steel, Machinery etc.
2. Light Industries - Produce Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals & Drugs.

C. On the Basis of Size of Investment:

1. Large scale industries - Need large capital investment, large workforce and
production is large scale. Ex. Iron & Steel, Petrochemicals.
2. Medium scale industries - Less investment, employs a less number of labours and
produce less volume of goods.
3. Small scale industries - Has a small capital base, labours are quite a few in number.

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D. On the Basis of Management:

1. Public Sector Industries - These industries are owned by the Government (Union or
State). The companies for public welfare & the ones that need huge capital amount
come in this category. Ex. Railways, BSNL, Airline services, Public transport, SAIL,
BHEL, DVC, ONGC, NTPC etc.
2. Private Sector Industries - These are owned & managed by private industrialists. Ex.
Reliance, TISCO, WIPRO, Idea cellular, Indigo Airlines etc.
3. Joint Sector Industries - These are owned jointly by the Government & Private
individuals. Ex. MTNL.
4. Co-operative Sector Industries - These are owned & run by the people on the
principle of Co-operation. Usually the Shareholders produce the raw materials
themselves. Ex. Sugar mills, Textile mills, AMUL (Anand Milk Union Ltd.).

IRON & STEEL INDUSTRY

The Iron & Steel Industry is the backbone of modern Industrial Economy. It supports
the other industries. Hence it is called as Basic Industry. Steel Authority of India (SAIL)
controls the Iron & Steel industries of public sector.

Integrated Steel Plants

Steel plants where smelting, coke making, rolling, casting & various structural steels are
done in a single unit is called an Integrated Steel Plant.
Advantages -
1. They employ a large number of people thus solve the problem of unemployment.
2. It caters to the needs of engineering, automobiles & construction in the domestic and
international market.
3. These steel plants are located in a mineral rich zone in the North-eastern part of
Indian Peninsula.

Mini Steel Plants

These plants use cheaply available scrap iron in the electric arc furnaces to make steel.

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Mini Steel Plants Integrated Steel Plants

1. Use scrap iron as a raw material. 1. Use iron-ore obtained from mines.

2. Does not have a large number of 2. Possesses a large number of

operational units. operational units.

3. They cater only to the local market. 3. They cater to the international as well
as domestic market.

4. Requires less capital and generates 4. Requires huge capital and generates
very less employment. large employment.

RAW MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR STEEL MAKING

1. Iron ore - Required to produce pig iron & steel.
2. Coking coal for smelting.
3. Flux - Limestone & Dolomite or Gypsum are used to remove the slag.
4. Ferro alloys - Tungsten & Nickel are used to galvanise steel products to prevent rust.
Manganese is used to remove Sulphur to make steel tough.

Steel Plants in Private Sector

TATA IRON & STEEL COMPANY (TISCO)
Located at Tatanagar a suburb of Jamshedpur in Jharkhand.
• Facilities:
1. Iron ore is obtained from Singhbhum (Jharkhand) & Mayurbhanj & Bonai (Odisha).
2. Plentiful of water is available from rivers Kharkai & Subarnarekha.
3. Cheap hydroelectric power is supplied by Damodar valley project.
4. Coal is obtained from nearby Jharia.
5. Limestone & Dolomite are secured from Gangpur (Odisha) & Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
6. Manganese is brought from Noamundi (Jharkhand)
7. Cheap labour is available from the densely populated region
8. Jamshedpur is well connected by road and railways.

Steel Plants in Public Sector

BHILAI STEEL PLANT (BSP)
Located in Durg district of Chhattisgarh. It is the biggest Integrated steel plant in
India. It was established in 1957 with the help of USSR.
• Facilities:
1. Iron ore is available from Dalli-Rajhara mines.
2. Coal is obtained from Raniganj & Jharia coalfields.

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3. Limestone is obtained from Nandini mines while Dolomite is obtained from Hirri
quarry.
4. Electricity is obtained from Korba thermal power station.
5. Water supply comes from Tendula canal.
6. Manganese is secured from Bhandara (Maharashtra) & Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh)
7. It is well connected by the South-Eastern Railway.
Bhilai plant manufactures structural rails, pig iron & steel plates.

DURGAPUR STEEL PLANT (DSP)

The Durgapur Steel Plant is located in Bardhman district of West Bengal.
• Facilities:
1.Iron-ore is available from Singhbhum (Jharkhand) & Keonjhar(Odisha).
2. Coking coal is obtained from Raniganj & Jharia.
3. Limestone is obtained from Birmitrapur(Odisha).
4. Water is obtained from the Damodar river.
5. The plant is located on Delhi- Kolkata main Railway line.
The plant manufactures Pig iron, high speed steel alloys, stainless steel & structural
steel.

ROURKELA STEEL PLANT

Rourkela Steel Plant is located in Northern Odisha with the help of German firm,
Krups & Demag.
• Facilities:
1. Iron –ore is obtained from Bonaigarh, Mayurbhanj & Keonjhar.
2. Coal is obtained from Raniganj, Korba & Jharia.
3. Hydel power is secured from the Hirakud Power project.
4. Limestone & Dolomite are brought from Birmitrapur.
5. Manganese is obtained from Noamundi.
6. A dam on Sankh river ensures water supply.
7. Rourkela is well connected through Mumbai-Kolkata Rail line.
Rourkela steel plant supplies pipes for Mathura oil refinery & special Steel for ISRO
space vehicles.

VIZAG STEEL PLANT

Vizag steel plant is the country’s first shore based plant. It is a modern plant that
produces superior quality steel for domestic as well as International market.
• Facilities:
1. Iron ore is obtained from Bailadila mines in Chhattisgarh.
2. Coking coal is obtained from Pookkii & Bhalore in Jharkhand & is also imported from
Australia.
3. Limestone is brought from Andhra Pradesh & Birmitrapur in Odisha.

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4. Being a port city, Visakhapatnam has an access to South-East Asian countries & US.
Visakhapatnam has the largest shipyard in India. Therefore, it fetches iron & steel from
Vizag steel plant for making the ships.

Special Steel Plants

Salem Steel Plant (SSP)
It is located in Tamilnadu & produces best stainless steel sheets to hairline & mirror
finishes. USA is one of the importers of this special steel.
Salem stainless steel is used for automobiles, water tanks, ceiling fans,False ceiling
panels, Elevators etc. Coins too are minted from the steel supplied by SSP.

Alloy Steel Plant (ASP)

It casts austenitic, ferritic & a variety of Stainless Steel including bullet-proof steel.
They are located at Durgapur & Bhadravati as PSUs.

Sponge Iron Plant

It is a substitute to the expensive imported steel smelting scrap for mini steel plants.
They include: Essar in Gujarat, Bellary in Karnataka, Jindal Steel in Chhattisgarh.

ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
Electronics is a branch of Science & Engineering. It has largely contributed to software
industry & space technology.

Bengaluru is a major Electronics & Electrical hub of our country. It houses Indian
Telephone Industries (ITI), Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL), & Hindustan Machine Tools
(HMT).

Space Technology & Electronics:

1. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) at Bengaluru, Karnataka.
2. Satellite Launching Station at Sriharikotta & Thumba is benefitted by this technology.
3. National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) at Hyderabad acquires information about
remote objects through various sensors like satellites.

Software:
Bangalore is the chief centre for Software as well as Hardware. Therefore it is rightly
called as Information & Technology capital of India. It is also popularly known as
Silicon Valley. Leading Software companies like Tata consultancy Services, INFOSYS,
WIPRO, HCL & Satyam Services are stationed in this Metro town. Even the MNCs like
Hewelett-Peckard, Digital Compaq & IBM have opened their trade offices in Bengaluru.
The IT industry has also spread in Hyderabad & Pune. The three cities together
form the Silicon Triangle.

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IT industry has grown in Bengaluru due to:

• Readily available world class IT infrastructure.
• Pleasant & comfortable climate.
• Quality research & development institutions
• Centre for International conferences & Workshops.

Television & Audio System:

Around 1990’s BPL & Videocon were the leaders in Television market. The companies
like Onida & Phillips entered the market later. Global leaders like Panasonic, Sony, Akai,
Samsung, Intex, Sansui etc. have now flooded this market. FM radios, MP3 & MP4
Players, Stereos, LCDs, LEDs are manufactured in Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Pune &
Kolkata.

PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Petrochemicals are the chemicals derived from Coal, Gas & Petroleum.
The petrochemical products are Plastics, Detergents, Synthetic rubber and Synthetic
fibre. The raw materials required for these products are Naptha, Propylene, Ethylene &
Benzene. Plastic is widely used today as it is durable, attractive, light in weight & cheap.
Polythene, PVC, Polysterene, Synthetic rubber are different types of plastics. Synthetic
fibres like nylon, dacron, terylene are cheaper and stronger than cotton, silk & wool.

The Locational factors for the Petrochemical industry are:

1. Presence of Petroleum Refinery
2. Presence of Port facility
3. Availability of Market

Closeness of this industry to the coastal regions is due to the following reasons:
1. Raw material is easily available.
2. Transporting costs are lower.
3. Final product is easily exported to foreign countries.
4. Equipments can be easily brought from the foreign countries.

MAJOR PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

• The Udex plant at Koyali
• IPCL at Nagothane
• IPCL at Vadodara
• IPCL at Dahej in Gulf of Khambat
• Haldia Petrochemicals near Kolkata
• Reliance Petrochemicals Ltd. Jamnagar

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Petrochemicals are gradually becoming popular since:

1. They are cheaper
2. They are durable
3. They generate a large employment
4. They are not agro-based. Hence they are not influenced by climate.

INDUSTRIES CENTRES

Maruti Udyog Ltd Manesar & Gurgaon (Haryana)

Hindustan Motors Ltd Kolkata (WB)

TELCO Pune (Maharashtra), Lucknow (UP)

Mahindra & Mahindra Mumbai & Nasik (Maharashtra)

Bajaj Auto Ltd Pune

Hero Gurgaon (Haryana)

Yamaha Faridabad (Haryana)

Railway Locomotives Chittaranjan (WB)

Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL) Bhopal

Rail Coach Factory Kapurthala (Punjab)

Diesel Locomotives Varanasi (UP)

INDUSTRY CENTRE

Navy ships, passenger vessels The Mazgaon Dock, Mumbai

Tankers, Cargo vessels Kochi (Kerala)

Barges, Bulk carriers, Cargo vessels Visakhapatnam (AP)

MIG, MIG-21, Jet Fighters, Pushpak, Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) located
Chetak & Cheetah Helicopters at Bengaluru, Nasik (Ozar), Hyderabad,
Koraput, Kanpur, Lucknow

Clocks & Watches HMT Bengaluru, Mumbai

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Cycles Sonepat, Mumbai, Patna etc.

Sewing Machines Ludhiana

Telephones Bengaluru, Naini (UP)

-★-

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TRANSPORT

India is a land of vast distances. Hence, an integrated transport system is needed for
the movement of people & goods across the country.
A well developed transport system helps to develop the economy of the nation.

ROAD TRANSPORT
Roads have been existing for thousands of years in India. The oldest road was
constructed by Sher Shah Suri from Peshawar to Kolkata. It was called the Grand
Trunk(GT) Road. It is now known as Sher Shah Suri Marg & connects Amritsar to Delhi.

Importance of Roads:
1. Roads help in the transport of people & goods over short & medium distances.
2. They are cheap & easy to construct and maintain.
3. Roads can be constructed in hilly areas.
4. Roads can act as feeders to Railways.
5. Roads are more accessible to different places than railways.
6. Perishable commodities like milk, fruits & vegetables are quickly carried by
roadways.

Demerits of Road Transport:

1. Roads are not suitable for long distance travel.
2. Heavy & bulky commodities like coal & iron cannot be carried easily by road.
3. More number of vehicles on the road lead to accidents & air pollution.
4. Road transport is expensive than rail transport.
5. Travelling time and cost are more.

The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) comprises the Super Highway which connects
Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata by a six lane Super Highway. It has a total length of
5846 km. The North-South corridor connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari & the East-West
corridor connects Silchar to Porbandar.

Expressways have been constructed to ensure smooth and swift travel between major
cities. These are six lane highways divided in the middle by a wide divider. 2-wheelers,
3-wheelers & tractors are not allowed on the Expressways.
Speed along these roads are generally maintained above 120 km/hr. Most of them
operate under the policy of BOT (build-operate-transfer) & therefore are toll roads.
Ex. Mumbai-Pune Expressway & Kolkata-Durgapur Expressway.

Central Public Works Department (CPWD) & National Highway Authority of India
(NHAI) construct & maintain National Highways. They connect state capitals, big cities

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and major ports. National highways make 2% of the total road length but carry 45% of
the total road traffic.
The historic Sher Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway number 1. Mumbai-Agra
highway is National Highway number 3.

Maximum roads are found in North India due to:

1. Fertile soils
2. High population density.

The North-Eastern states do not have good roads due to:

1. Difficult land surfaces
2. Swift streams
3. Thick forests
4. Backward economy.

BRO (Border Road Organisation) constructs and maintains the roads in the border
areas of the country.

RAIL TRANSPORT
The first Railway was started in India in 1853 between Mumbai to Thane.
The northern plains have dense network of Railway due to:
1. Flat land surface.
2. High density of population.
3. Rich agriculture.

There are few railways in the flood plains, in the Himalayan region due to rugged
terrain. The plateau region & the sandy areas are not suitable for Railways.

Indian Railway operates on three gauges:

1. Broad Gauge - Has a width of 1.676 m. More than 70% of Indian Railway comprises
Broad gauge.
2. Metre Gauge - Has a width of 1 m. Around 23% of the Railways is metre gauge.
3. Narrow Gauge - Has two types. One is 0.762 m & the other is 0.610 m. This type is
found in hilly areas only.

Problems of Indian Railways:

1. Shifting from one guage to another is very time consuming & expensive affair. It also
hampers the flow of passengers & the goods.
2. Perishable goods can not stand the delay.
3. Accidents are frequent due to overcrowded trains and the old & worn out tracks.
4. Most of the passengers travel without ticket.

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WATER TRANSPORT
This includes both inland & coastal waterways. This is the cheapest means of transport
for large, bulky loads. Inland waterways cannot compete with road and railways
because of its slow speed.
National Waterway no. 1 - River Ganga upto Haridwar.
National Waterway no. 2 - River Bramhaputra
National Waterway no. 3 - River Godavari, Krishna & Buckingham canal

India has a long coastline offering coastal waterways. The coastline has 12 major & 184
medium and minor ports.
A port is a place on the coast with docks where people & goods can be loaded or
unloaded.

PORTS ON THE WEST COAST

1. Mumbai has an old port as well as new port at Nhava Sheva, which is a modern port
built to reduce the burden on Mumbai port.
2. Kandla in Gujarat
3. Kochi in Kerala
4. Marmagao in Goa
5. New Mangalore in Karnataka

PORTS ON THE EAST COAST

1. Tuticorin in Tamilnadu
2. Chennai is the oldest artificial harbour
3. Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh
4. Paradeep in Odisha
5. Haldia is a new river port developed in the river Hugli to release the pressure on
Kolkata port.

Limitations of Waterways:
1. Slow means of transport.
2. Are not available in entire country due to:
a. Varied relief features
b. Seasonal nature of rivers.
c. Presence of waterfalls, steep valleys etc.
3. Oil spills, accidents due to overcrowding and improper handling of passengers.

AIR TRANSPORT
This is the fastest mode of transport. It is free of physical barriers like mountain range,
jungles, valleys & deserts. Aircrafts can reach the remote & inaccessible part of the

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Earth. Air transport is an important means of transport as far as speed & time is
concerned.

Limitations of Air Transport:

1. It has a limited carrying capacity due to lack of space.
2. It is not affordable to common masses as the operational costs are too high.
3. Weather conditions pose the hindrances in Air transport.

Air transport in India is well developed.

Air India is a Public Sector operator handling International flights while another PSU
Indian Airlines looks after domestic flights.
Vayudoot provides services in hilly areas.
Pawanhans provides helicopter services.

INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS NAMES

New Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport

Kolkata Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport

Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport

Chennai Chennai International Airport

Hyderabad Rajiv Gandhi International Airport

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WASTE MANAGEMENT - COMBINED

What is Waste?
Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance that is no longer safe for use or does not serve
any purpose and is discarded is called a “Waste”.

NEED FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Unsustainable patterns of production and consumption are generating huge
quantities of persistent wastes at unprecedented rates.
• Oceans also got affected as more and more untreated water was dumped ; air quality
became poorer with the increase in vehicular and industrial pollution.
• The waste problem is particularly severe in the rapidly growing informal settlements
of the developing countries where awareness of waste related diseases are less.

IMPACT OF WASTE ACCUMULATION

• Spoilage of Landscape - Solid waste dumped in the open place starts decomposing
and attracts bacteria, fungi, viruses and other pathogens. These disease causing
microorganisms grow and multiply and contaminate the whole environment. These
wastes also pollute nearby water resources.
• Ground water too gets contaminated. These dumping sites also invite rodents, flies,
insects. Foul smell is produced by such dumping sites.

POLLUTION
The process of adding harmful substances to the environment that degrade the quality
of air, water & soil is called Pollution.

SOURCES OF POLLUTION
A. Industrial pollution is caused by emission of green house gases such as Carbon
dioxide, Nitrogen oxide, Sulphur dioxide and CFCs & Methane. These gases do not only
contaminate air but cause acid rain as well.
B. Agricultural farms - Farmers use chemical fertilizers, pesticides, rodenticides and
other chemicals which contaminate soil and when they flow as runoff pollute the water
bodies.
C. Urban centres situated along the river banks heavily pollute the rivers due to
disposal of sewage and industrial waste. Factories release untreated effluents into the
river. Minicipal waste and domestic garbage too are added to river. This raises the
pollution level to alarming heights.
D. Marine oil spillage that occurs due to leakage, accidents involving oil tankers,
Pipelines, refineries and war is responsible for dumping hazardous waste into seas and
oceans. This threatens aquatic species, harms marine birds and mammals and make
seafood unsafe and also destroys marine ecosystem.

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E. Radioactive pollution is exteremely dangerous since the radioactive wastes remain

active for a long time and can enter human body through food, fish and water. They
may damage tissues, blood cells and may cause cancer.

HEALTH HAZARDS
1. Harmful gases like Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen dioxide etc. cause pulmonary diseases
like Asthma, Lung cancer, Pneumonia & Bronchitis.
2. Lead released by vehicles affects brain.
3. Suspended particulate matter (SPM) can enter the trachea and block the alveoli. This
can cause pneumonia, asthma and bronchitis.
4. Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste contaminates water leading to the spread of
diseases like cholera, diarrhea and typhoid.
5. Burnt solid waste produces smoke and toxic gases which affects the health of
humans adversely.
7. The ‘Minamata’ disease is caused by Mercury poisoning due to dumping in ocean.
Such heavy metals in water may lead to brain damage and nerve problems. Lead
poisoning can damage liver and kidney, mental retardation and reproductive disorders.

EFFECT ON TERRESTRIAL & AQUATIC LIFE

1. Plastic from garbage gets ingested by cattles and other animals causing damage to
their digestive tract in the form of stomach ulcer, lack of growth etc.
2. Air contamination with Fluorine can cause fluorosis in animals. Ozone in air can cause
pulmonary disorders, Oedema and haemorrhage in dogs and cats.
3. Fish and sea birds die owing to acidic water formed by release of hazardous water in
aquatic habitats.
4. The oil from oil spills poisons the sea birds to death. Sea birds ingesting plastic and
such other waste suffer from gastrointestinal disorders. Hazardous waste consumed by
planktons lead to Biomagnification.
5. DDT an insecticide causes thin shells in eggs of birds. Fish and Turtle die after
consuming insects killed by using DDT.
6. Vultures having consumed the carcasses of animal treated with diclofenac medicine
are on the verge of extinction.
7. Nuclear waste causes haemorrhage, bone disorders, ulcers and cancer.
8. Chernobyl disaster devastated the life of humans and millions of animals as
radioactive traces are still found in their bodies.

OBJECTIVES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

• To improve the quality of air.
• Reduce the emission of green house gases to check global warming and climate
change.
• Reduce emission of Ozone depleting gases.

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• Cleaning up the oceans to protect marine life.

• To clean up major rivers like Ganga, Godavari etc.
• To dispose the hazardous waste including radioactive waste.

DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES

1) SEGREGATION OF WASTE: Separation of waste according to methods of treatment
is the first step to waste management. Its objective is to reduce waste from landfills
and control land, water and air pollution.
Wastes may be segregated according to their types:
1. Solid & Liquid waste - Solid waste includes food, paper, rubble,electronics, wood,
metal ,scrap, glass, plastic, Municipal solid waste etc. Liquid waste includes sewage,
chemicals, detergent water, oils discharged from domestic or industrial sources.
2. Dry & Wet waste - These are usually meant for recycle and reuse. Wastes like plastic,
paper,wood, glass and metals are sent to recycle plants to create new products. Wet
waste means organic wastes which are heavy due to dampness. They include
biodegradable kitchen wastes like fruits & vegetable peels,tea leaves, egg shells, meat
and bones, leaves, flowers etc. They are meant for composting
3. Biodegradable & Non-biodegradable waste - The waste which can be degraded by
micro-organism is called bio-degradable waste. It consists of plant and animal matter.
After degradation it is easily absorbed by soil. Hence it does not cause pollution. It
includes kitchen waste, paper, human waste, waste from slaughterhouse etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes are those which cannot be decomposed by microorganisms.
Ex. Plastic, Metals & Glass. They remain in the ecosystem for thousands of years and
cause immense pollution.

2) DUMPING (Land filling):

• In this process the wastes are discarded and collected in low lying areas away from
cities and towns. Bacterial action decomposes and converts it into humus.
• The main objective of landfills is to prevent dispersal of refuse. While selecting
dumping site contamination by groundwater needs to be avoided.
• A sanitary landfill is made by a clay liner backed by a plastic liner to avoid seepage.
• Trash is buried in layers in a pit with a protected bottom and compressed to make it
more solid.
• After layers of waste is deposited it is compacted by a bulldozer and covered with soil
layer.
• The alternate layers of soils and garbage speeds up the process of decomposition.

3) COMPOSTING:
• Nature of waste – Municipal and biodegradable wastes.
• Method of treatment – Composting.

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• Composting is the process of decomposition of organic wastes. The end product is

used as manure for soil fertility replenishments.
• During decomposition process, different types of bacteria decompose organic
material through aerobic process.
• Composting reduces the volume of the waste and forms manure.It also helps to retain
moisture in the soil.
• Vermicomposting is another method involving decomposition of organic waste using
red wigglers, white worms and other earthworms.
• Anaerobic composting is done by covering organic matter with soil. It helps in biogas
generation.

THE THREE Rs: NEED & METHODS FOR REDUCING, REUSING & RECYCLING
WASTE
1. REDUCING WASTE:
• If there is less waste, then there are less products to reuse or recycle. Reducing waste
can happen by adopting new technologies coupled with tradtional techniques to
optimise the use of raw materials. Moreover we refuse to buy new items & contribute
towards a healthier planet.
• Segregation is another way of reducing waste that helps in bringing down the volume
of waste and preventing the pollution. Different bins should be used for composting,
recycling and incineration.
• Avoid using non-biodegradable products since they take years to get decomposed
and make our planet polluted.

2. RECYCLE:
• It’s a process of collecting scraps and reprocessing it into useful products. Glass,
paper, plastic, aluminium and steel are commonly recycled.
• The materials recovered from trash are used as substitutes for natural resources for
recycling which helps in the conservation of natural resources.
• Recycling also helps to lower waste generation and reduces air, water and soil
pollution.

3. REUSE:
• Reuse means making good use of previously used items without reprocessing or
recycling them. It helps save time, money, energy and natural resources.
• Reusing also prevents the objects turning into waste or pollutants.
• Articles such as glass bottles, tin and metal cans, rubber items and paper products
can be reused.
• The Rock garden of Chandigarh was created from waste such as bottles, glasses,
bangles, tiles, ceramic pots, sinks, electrical waste and broken pipes.

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SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

● If coloured bins sometimes, then:

Yellow: Paper
Blue: Glass
Green: Organic
Red: Plastic
● Sanitary Landfill:

● Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): They are finely divided solids or liquids that
are dispersed through the air from the combustion process, industrial activity or
natural sources.
● Eutrophication: The process in which oxygen concentration is reduced from water
bodies like canals, lakes and rivers due to heavy accumulation of toxic wastes and
sewage drained from cities, into them. This happens due to increased levels of
nitrates and phosphates enriching the water causing algal bloom that chokes the
water body. This is known as eutrophication. As the algae dies and settles at the
bottom, the bacteria that decomposes it uses up all the oxygen in the water. This
results in high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) that leads to suffocation and
death of all aquatic organisms.
● Biomagnification: Biomagnification is the process by which toxins, such as
pesticides, get progressively concentrated in the tissues of organisms at higher
levels in a food chain.

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● Minamata disease: Chronic neurological disorder affecting the Central Nervous

System, caused by methyl mercury. The disease was first reported near Minamata
Bay in Japan in 1968 when mercury oxide was being discharged from a chemical
plant into the waters of the bay.
● Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984): Sudden leakage of harmful gases causes instant
deaths. The deadly gas methyl isocyanate which leaked from the Union Carbide
factory claimed thousands of lives and maimed many thousands forever.
● Effluents: Effluents are the liquid wastes produced by factories and industries,
released in rivers or waterbodies.
● Sewage: Sewage is the liquid waste from domestic activities.
● Incineration: The process of burning Municipal solid waste under suitable
temperature and conditions in a specific furnace is called incineration.
● Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Biochemical Oxygen Demand is the amount
of oxygen required by the microorganisms and bacteria for decomposing the dead
remains of plants and animals or organic matter under aerobic conditions (under
the presence of oxygen) at a specified temperature.

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ADDITIONAL NOTES AND IMPORTANT SUMMARY TABLES (5)

LARGEST PRODUCING STATES (please verify)

State Largest Producer Of

Odisha Iron Ore, Manganese

Jharkhand Coal

Madhya Pradesh Copper, Pulses

Maharashtra Mineral Oil, Natural Gas, Bio Gas

Karnataka Solar Energy

Tamil nadu Wind Energy, Nuclear Energy

West Bengal Rice, Jute

Uttar Pradesh Wheat, Sugarcane, Mustard

Gujarat Cotton, Groundnut

Assam Tea

Please turn over —>

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SOILS IN INDIA - Summary Table

Soil Nature Region Major Crops Grown

Alluvial Soil Ex-situ Basins of major rivers, Cereals, rice, sugarcane,

delta regions, Punjab, oilseeds, wheat, jute
Haryana, UP, Bihar

Black/Regur/Lava/Black In situ Deccan Trap: Cotton, jowar, wheat,

Cotton Soil Maharashtra, Gujarat, sugarcane, gram
MP, Andhra P,
Southern TN

Red Soil - TN, Karnataka, With fertilizers: Wheat,

Chhattisgarh, Odisha, rice, millets, cotton,
Meghalaya, Manipur, sugarcane, pulses,
Nagaland, Mizoram cashew nuts, tea

Laterite Soil - Andhra P, TN, WB, Cashew, tapioca

Summits of Eastern With irrigation and
and Western Ghats, fertilizers: Rubber, tea,
Goa, Kerala, Summits coffee, coconut,
of Garo and Khasi hills cinchona

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NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA - Summary Table

Vegetation Temperature Rainfall Examples Region

Tropical Evergreen 24°C - 27°C More Ebony, Mahogany, A & N Islands,

than 200 Shisham, Rosewood, Western Ghats, WB,
cm Ironwood, Cinchona Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur

Tropical 25°C - 27°C 100-200 Sal, Teak, Mahua, Maharashtra,

Deciduous/Monsoon cm Arjun, Myrobalan, Karnataka, Odisha, TN
Sandalwood, Semal,
Mango

Tropical 25°C - 27°C Less than Acacia (babul), Date W. Rajasthan,

Dry/Desert/Semi-De 25 cm palm, Plums, Cacti, Sourashtra, W.
sert Kikar Punjab, Deccan
Plateau

Delta/Tidal/Marshy/Li More than 200 cm Sundri, Hintal, Keora, Deltas of Ganga,

ttoral/Mangrove 20°C Gorjan Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri

Mountain Less than 150-250 Spruce, Silver Fir, Mountanious areas

20°C cm Cedar, Deodar, from Kashmir to
Magnolia, Pines Assam

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Crop Temperature Rainfall Soil Region

Rice (K) Mean: 24°C 150-300 cm Alluvial, clay-like TN, WB

22°C - 32°C impervious

Wheat (R) Growing: 10°C - 15°C 50-100 cm Clayey, loamy, well UP, Haryana, Punjab
Ripening: 20°C - 25°C drained

Pulses (K) 20°C - 25°C 50-75 cm Dry light Haryana, Punjab

Millets (K) 50-120 cm Can grow in inferior soil also. Loamy, sandy, clayey,
alluvial are best. -

1 Jowar 20-100 cm Dry soil-clayey loams Maharashtra, Karnataka,

(K/R) MP
27°C - 32°C
2 Bajra 50-100 cm Poor light sandy to black Rajasthan, Maharashtra,
(K) or red gravelly Gujarat, UP

Ragi (K) 50-100 cm Variety Deccan Plateau,

3 Karnataka, TN,
Maharashtra, UP

Cotton (K) 20°C - 32°C 50-120 cm Deep black Gujarat, Punjab,

Maharashtra, Telangana

Jute (K) Average: 27°C 150-200 cm Rich, loamy, alluvial WB, Assam, Bihar,
21°C - 35°C Jharkhand

Groundnuts 20°C - 28°C 50-70 cm Well drained light sandy Gujarat, Maharashtra,
(K) loams, red and black Andhra P, Karnataka, UP

Mustard (R) 10°C - 20°C 50-100 cm Alluvial UP, Haryana, Rajasthan

Soybean 20°C - 30°C 50-100 cm Any but moisture Maharashtra, UP,

(K/R) retentive Uttarakhand, Gujarat,
MP

Sugarcane 20°C - 30°C 100-200 cm Alluvial or lava, well UP, Maharashtra,

drained Karnataka, TN

Tea 10°C - 35°C 150-250 cm Well drained, Assam, WB, Bihara, HP,
nitrogen-rich, sandy Kerala, TN, Karnataka
loams best

Coffee 18°C - 28°C 125-200 cm Black lava, well drained Karnataka, Kerala, TN
with lots of humus

Silk 16°C - 30°C - - Karnataka, WB, J&K

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CROPS IN INDIA - Mnemonics

KHARIF RABI ZAYAD

June to October November to February March to May (Summer

cropping season between
the harvest of Rabi and the
sowing of Kharif crop)

Mnemonic to learn Mnemonic to learn Mnemonic to learn

examples: examples: examples:
Raat me jab biwi roti, sasural Wild blow jobs often Fruits and vegetables.
chali jati, sasu gussa pakadti. minimize sexual tension.

EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES:

Rice Wheat Fruits

Maize Barley Vegetables

Jowar/Sorghum/Cholum Jowar/Sorghum/Cholum
(Millets) (Millets)

Bajra (Millets) Oil Seeds

Ragi/Buck Wheat (Millets) Mustard

Soybean Soybean

Cotton Tobacco

Jute

Sesame

Groundnut

Pulses

★★★★★

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