NAME: EWAGHAN SUCCESS

MAT NO: COT/3988/2017

PROJECT SUPERVISOR: ENGR. OGBARODE N. OGBON

ABSTRACT

The main focus of this study is the difficulties that gas producers generally face while
attempting to manage hydrate formation during the production, processing, and transportation
phases. Gas production pipeline operators face a major difficulty when hydrates build up in the
pipeline because it might affect related production facilities and obstruct the flow of gas via the
pipeline. Another area that requires consideration is the ease with which hydrates can affect the
long-term corrosion of different types of natural gas pipelines through physical and chemical
processes that depend on the size, stage, and duration of the hydrate's contact with the pipe to
wear off its protective layers. This study's primary goal is to use Aspentech HYSYS11, a
hydrocarbon simulation program, to simulate the gas flow via well 101. The aim of this study
is to investigate hydrate formation and evaluate the effects of MEG, DEG, and MeOH on
hydrates in Well101's production lines. The phase envelope plots show that once MEG, DEG,
and MeOH are injected into the gas stream, the hydrate formation line moves from right to left.
MeOH has been found to inhibit hydrates more effectively than DEG and EG. The simulation
results indicate that the hydrate formation temperature and pressure of the gas stream are
approximately 22.05 °C and 2.069 x kPa, respectively, with a water content of 2066
lb/MMSCF. These values closely align with the field operating parameters, posing a potential
risk of gas hydrate accumulation along the production pipeline as the gas stream flows from
well 101 to the processing facility.

1
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background study

The rise in population and industrialization has led to a significant growth in the demand for

energy globally, with over 65% of the major supplies coming from oil and natural gas. Natural

gas is becoming the primary energy source due to its abundance, affordability, and

environmental friendliness when compared to other fossil fuels. While petroleum is a non-

renewable energy source, its crude reserves are rapidly depleting due to prolonged use.Its

composition varies from field to field and region to region. The increasing use of natural gas

as a primary fuel source has led to its greater production and exportation in gaseous and liquid

(Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)) forms from many countries that hold sufficient reserves. This

has equally increased the global transboundary pipeline networks with minimal considerations

to the impacts it could have on the environment.

4500
GAS CONSUMPTION PER DAY

4000
3500
3000
2500
(Bcm)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
YEAR

Figure 1.1: global natural gas consumption per day according to statista.com (2022)

Natural gas is a combustible gaseous mixture of light hydrocarbon compounds and other

components. Methane (CH4) and other non-reactive hydrocarbons in gaseous form at room

2
temperature and atmospheric pressure make up its principal constituents. The low-density gas

can be found either as a non-associated gas or connected with crude oil (either dissolved at

high temperature and pressure or in a gas cap in the same reservoir).The site of deposition,

the kind of formation, the geological structure, and other variables all affect the composition

of natural gas. When burned, the gas produces a lot of energy with less emissions than other

fossil fuels since it is colorless and odorless when it is pure.

Following reservoir production, the distribution of the gas stream entails moving it via

extensive pipeline networks from the production platform to various terminals, treatment

facilities where the gas stream is cleaned to remove impurities, and high-pressure processing

units where the gas is refined to the necessary specifications. The product is then transported

to an off-take (city gate) by a different set of pipeline systems (transmission lines), and it is

then sent to end customers via lower-pressure pipelines (distribution lines). The pipes may be

buried beneath earth, buried across a number of kilometers on land, or completely submerged

in water.

1.2 Pipeline failure and consequences

Pipelines that may be laid over several kilometers, buried underground, or submerged deeply

inside water are susceptible to failure in the form of leakage or full bore rapture (FBR) as a

result of hydrate formation and/or corrosion (Huang et al., 2012; Zhang and Wu, 2012). The

characteristics of the fluid and the flow circumstances are what lead to these two flow assurance

issues. Several possible issues might arise in a pipeline when gas, oil, and water are all running

at the same time. A high enough water cut may result in corrosion; pressure and temperature

changes along the pipeline and/or incompatible water mixing may cause scales to form and

deposit inside the pipeline, restricting flow; severe slugging may form inside the pipeline and

cause operational issues for downstream processing facilities; and water and hydrocarbon

3
fluids may form hydrate and block the pipeline. Wax and asphaltene may deposit on the wall

and eventually block the pipeline. Hydrate formation is a major problem for the transportation

and production of oil and gas. The buildup of these hydrates can clog pipelines carrying gas

and oil, causing interruptions in flow rates, possible equipment damage, and interrupted

operations. Hydrates may readily affect the long-term issue of natural gas pipeline corrosion

through physical and chemical processes that depend on the size, stage, and duration of contact

to wear off the protective layers on the pipe. The hydrate composition and the pipeline interact

and react at each stage of the hydrate process, ultimately starting internal corrosion. Corrosion

will cause the material to gradually deteriorate and the integrity of the pipe to deteriorate, in

addition to rupturing it like hydrate. Thus, the problem for engineers is to ensure that

multiphase fluids are carried from the reservoir to the downstream processing facilities and the

end consumers in a cost-effective and safe manner. Developing techniques for managing solids

like hydrates, waxes, and asphaltenes, and occasionally scale and sand, requires an

understanding of fluid characteristics as well as a thermal-hydraulic study of the system. Flow

assurance is the process of locating, measuring, and reducing the majority of the flow hazards

connected to pipelines, especially subsea systems.

1.3 Statement of the problem

Hydrate formation in gas pipelines poses a significant challenge to the oil and gas industry,

impacting flow assurance and operational integrity. Hydrates, ice-like structures formed when

water combines with natural gas under certain temperature and pressure conditions, can lead

to flow disruptions, pipeline blockages, and safety concerns. To prevent hydrate formation,

there is a need to consider measures such as insulation, depressurization, or the injection of

inhibitors into the gas stream to mitigate the risk and ensure the safe operation of the pipeline.

4
Also, early detection of conditions encouraging hydrate formation and operating at key points

in the pipeline are considered effective methods of preventing hydrate formation in gas

pipelines. This study uses a software-oriented approach (ASPEN HYSYS) to analyze a well

system to predict hydrate formation conditions and investigate the effect of inhibitors on

hydrates.

1.4 Aim and objectives of the study

This study aims to investigate hydrate formation and its influence on gas pipeline corrosion by

using the hydrocarbon ASPEN HYSYS software tool and available data to predict the

conditions that encourage hydrate formation in gas pipelines and also investigate the effect of

methanol (MeOH), ethylene glycol (EG), and diethylene glycol (DEG) on hydrate formation.

The objectives of the study are stated below.

i. comprehensive literature review on the hydrate-corrosion relationship

ii. To acquire well data, pipeline parameters, and fluid data.

iii. To investigate hydrate formation occurrences in gas pipelines.

iv. To predict hydrate formation temperature and pressure conditions using ASPEN HYSYS

software

v. To investigate the effect of hydrate inhibitors (MEG,DEG and MeOH)

vi. To discuss the result and conclusion of the model

1.5 The scope and limitation of the study

Hydrate formation and gas pipeline corrosion are major flow assurance problems in the oil and

gas industry. The corrosion of pipelines as a result of hydrate formation is experienced in both

5
gas and oil pipelines. This study focuses mainly on hydrate formation, its influence on gas

pipeline corrosion, and the risks of pipeline failure as a result of hydrate formation. If the

investigating problem could be solved, early detection, effective preventive measures, and

maintenance practices could be developed to mitigate the risks imposed by hydrate formation

in gas pipelines. The scope of this study covers the following areas of the ASPEN HYSYS

hydrates model:

i. To accurately simulate hydrate formation along the gas pipeline

ii. The simulation has been conducted on a gas well saturated with water vapor in a reservoir

condition.

iii. As observed earlier, there are several other techniques for predicting hydrate formation

conditions along gas pipelines, such as PVTsim and PIPESM. However, this study focuses

on the use of ASPEN HYSYS as a hydrate modeling tool in gas pipelines.

iv. The scope of this research is limited only to the use of the hydrocarbon ASPEN HYSYS

tool in the modeling of gas hydrates in gas pipelines. This implies that other software exists

for hydrate modeling, but this project only focuses on the use of ASPEN HYSYS.

v. This study does not incorporate manual calculations on hydrate formation conditions but

uses software alone; it also does not incorporate the economic analysis of the simulation

model of the well. Future modifications to this project may see all these incorporated.

vi. This study only considered the transmission of the gas stream from the wellhead to the

production facility.

6
1.6 Significance of the study

Gas hydrates and pipeline corrosion have been identified as the major factors responsible for

pipeline failure, while an accident in such an environment can contaminate the environment,

destroy the biological component of the ecosystem, and affect human health.

Numerous attempts by the industry to address one issue at a time are always unsuccessful

because of unanticipated circumstances where one can help the other. It is also possible that

the gas hydrates that were already present in the pipe would have started to corrode before they

were removed. Should this occur, the corrosion would progressively weaken the pipe's

structural integrity by annihilating its constituent materials, ultimately leading to its collapse.

The integrity of the gas pipeline system may be seriously jeopardized by hydrate formation and

the ensuing corrosion. Investigating the presence of hydrates in gas pipelines, the degree of

corrosion in the pipes, and possible hazards are the goals of this study. By understanding the

factors influencing hydrate formation, this study can help in the development of preventive

measures and management strategies for gas pipeline operators. This knowledge can lead to

enhanced pipeline integrity, reduced maintenance costs, and improved safety for gas

transportation.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Natural Gas production and transportation

Natural gas production and transportation play vital roles in meeting the energy demands of

societies worldwide. Natural gas is a versatile and abundant energy source that can be used for

various purposes, including electricity generation, heating, and as a fuel for vehicles etc.

Natural gas can occur as non-associated, associated (or solution), or gas-cap gas in subterranean

formations known as reservoirs. The gases that exist in a reservoir without coming into touch

with the oil are known as non-associated gases, the gases that dissolve in the oil under the

circumstances of the reservoir are known as solution gases, and the gases that cover the oil

phase in the reservoir are known as gas caps. The table below lists the main components in

natural gas.

Table 2.1: basic components of natural gas

NAME CHEMICAL BOILING STATE AT atm. PRESSURE

FORMULA POINT (℃)

Methane 𝐶𝐻4 -165.5 Gaseous

Ethane 𝐶2 𝐻6 -88.6 Gaseous

Propane 𝐶3 𝐻8 -42.1 Gaseous

Is-butane 𝐶4 𝐻10 -11.7 Extremely volatile

n-butane 𝐶4 𝐻10 -0.5 Extremely volatile

Is-pentane 𝐶5 𝐻12 27.9 Liquid

n-pentane 𝐶5 𝐻12 36.1 Liquid

n-hexane 𝐶6 𝐻14 68.7 Liquid

n-heptane 𝐶7 𝐻16 98.4 Liquid

n-octane 𝐶8 𝐻18 125.7 Liquid

8
There are several steps involved in the generation of natural gas. Usually, onshore or offshore

wells are drilled to recover it from subsurface reserves. By extracting natural gas from shale

deposits, sophisticated methods like hydraulic fracturing have greatly improved output. After

the gas is recovered, pipes are linked to move it off the field and across a considerable distance

to a flow station, where it can undergo different separation processes depending on its

composition. Different end customers receive different goods after being carried over different

lengthy pipeline networks.

2.2 Natural Gas mode of transportation

Following processing, there are several ways to transport natural gas from off-take, including

lengthy pipelines, liquefied natural gas (LNG), and compressed natural gas (CNG) at pressures

ranging from 3000 to 3600 psi (Imperial Venture Corp., 1998). Because pipelines are

dependable, safe, and reasonably priced, they are the main form of transportation. These pipes

link to form an extensive network that allows natural gas to be efficiently delivered to

customers across long distances.

Figure 2.1: natural gas pipeline

9
Pipeline transmission of natural gas necessitates large infrastructure investments. The

construction, upkeep, and periodic upgrades of pipelines are necessary to guarantee the secure

and dependable transportation of natural gas. Furthermore, compression stations are positioned

at key locations throughout the pipeline network to uphold the pressure required to transport

the gas through the system.

2.3 Classification of pipeline

Pipelines are mainly divided into gas and oil pipelines depending on the nature of the cargo

conveyed. Main components of a pipeline network are operational areas and the pipeline

segments. Operational areas may be distribution centers, ports or refineries and are connected

by pipeline segments. Gas and liquid hydrocarbon pipelines are essentially similar with the

greatest operational difference resulting from the varying needs of transporting gas versus

liquid. Oil pipelines require pumps to propel the liquid contents while gas lines rely on

compressors to force the resource through the pipes. While the overall layout and function of

gas and oil pipelines are identical, their conveyance technologies differ. Gas well flowlines link

separate gas wells to field, gas treatment, and processing facilities, or to branches of a more

extensive collection system. The pollutants are treated at the treating plant before being

connected to individual gas wells. Similar to the oil trunk line system, dried and cleaned natural

gas from field processing facilities enters the gas transmission pipeline system (EPA, 1997).

After being pumped out of a reservoir, oil goes to a tank battery in an oil pipeline. A single

field may have one or more tank batteries, each of which would service several different wells.

Oil is transported from the tanks to refineries or other storage terminals via trunk lines with a

big diameter and a long route. Because of the nature of the cargo to be delivered, pipelines are

often constructed from materials with unique qualities and features. The effects of high and

low temperatures on the mechanical properties; corrosion resistance; thermal conductivity,

10
electrical resistance, and magnetic properties; availability in standard sizes—plates, sections,

and tubes—are among the factors that are given special consideration. Other factors include

tensile strength, stiffness (elastic modulus), toughness (fracture resistance), hardness (wear

resistance), and fatigue resistance and expense. Materials including carbon steel, stainless steel,

and Monel are frequently utilized. In the chemical sector, stainless steel is the most often used

corrosion-resistant material. The amount of chromium in an alloy determines its corrosion

resistance; the higher the concentration, the more resistant the alloy is to oxidation. To improve

corrosion resistance in non-oxidizing environments, nickel is added, depending on the kind of

material. It is classified as ferritic, austenitic, or martensitic in three main categories. Often

utilized in the chemical industry, Austenite's homogeneous structure is the ideal structure for

resistance to corrosion.Monel, the traditional 2:1 nickel-copper alloy, is most likely the alloy

that came before stainless steels. Quite to 5000 °C, its mechanical qualities hold quite well.

Although it costs more than stainless steel, it may be used in situations where stainless steel

would not be appropriate and has good resistance to diluted mineral acids.

Because of its exceptional corrosion resistance and high purity, the die casting magnesium

alloy AZ91D is regarded as a good substitute for zinc and aluminum in the industry. Its ability

to act as a barrier and lower corrosion rates in coated pipelines is a result of its ability to stop

non-metallic ions from attacking the pipeline. As a result, it makes the alloys less susceptible

to corrosion; yet, it was shown that raising the concentration of stannate had a negative impact

on the corrosion resistance (Hamdy, 2008).

2.4 Flow Assurance

Flow assurance in natural gas pipelines is a critical aspect of the oil and gas industry. It refers

to the set of measures and strategies put in place to ensure the safe and efficient transport of

natural gas from the production source to the end-users, without any interruptions or issues

11
related to flow disruptions. The goal of flow assurance is to maintain the integrity of the

pipeline system, prevent blockages, and minimize downtime, which can be costly and

potentially dangerous. Some of the common flow assurance problems encounter in the oil and

gas industry includes;

i. Sand production

ii. Corrosion

iii. Thermal issue

iv. Hydrate and wax formation

v. Scale formation

vi. Erosion

vii. Asphaltene deposits

viii. Multiphase flow

Here are some key components and considerations in the field of flow assurance for natural

gas pipelines.

2.5 Hydrates and wax management

Hydrate and wax formation are common issues in natural gas pipelines. Hydrates, in particular,

can lead to blockages and flow restrictions. Flow assurance strategies for managing hydrates

and wax include the use of chemical inhibitors, insulation, and heat tracing to maintain the

pipeline’s temperature above the hydrate formation point.

1. Corrosion control: Corrosion can affect the integrity of pipelines, potentially leading to

leaks or failures. Corrosion control methods involve the use of corrosion-resistance

materials, coatings, and cathodic protection systems to prevent deterioration.

12
2. Pipeline Design: Proper pipeline design is essential for ensuring smooth and efficient gas

flow. Design considerations include the selection of appropriate pipe diameter, routing, and

elevation changes to avoid pockets where liquids can accumulate and create flow issues.

3. Monitoring and Surveillance: Real-time monitoring and surveillance systems, including

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), help operator keep track of pipeline

conditions. These systems can detect issues like pressure drops, leaks, and flow restrictions,

allowing swift responses.

4. Pigging Operations: Pipeline inspection gauges commonly known as “pigs,” are used for

maintenance and inspection. Regular pigging operations help remove debris and sediments

that can accumulate inside the pipeline, ensuring the smooth flow of gas.

5. Gas Quality Control: Ensuring the quality of natural gas is crucial. Impurities in the gas

can lead to problems, such as corrosion or hydrate formation. Gas quality control involves

the removal of contaminants like sulfur compounds and water-vapor

6. Predictive Modeling: Advanced software and modeling techniques are used to predict

potential flow assurance issues. This enables operators to proactively address problems

before they escalate.

7. Emergency Response: Despite preventive measures, emergencies can still occur. Having

well-defined emergency response plans in place, including shutdown procedures and rapid

intervention protocols, is vital to minimize the impact of incidents.

8. Environmental considerations: Pipeline operators must adhere to environmental

regulations and best practices to prevent any negative impact on ecosystems and

communities along the pipeline route.

9. Research and Innovation: The field of flow assurance is continuously evolving, Research

and innovation play a significant role in developing new technologies and techniques to

13
 enhance flow assurance strategies and improve the overall efficiency and safety of natural

gas transportation.

2. 6 Multi-phase flow in natural gas pipeline system

In order to fulfill the world's energy demands, natural gas is essential. An enormous network

of pipes is used to move this priceless resource from production locations to end customers.

But the nature of natural gas, which contains a variety of pollutants and hydrocarbon

components, frequently leads to multi-phase flow in these pipes. Transporting two or more

phases simultaneously in a single pipeline—usually liquid and gas—is referred to as multi-

phase flow. For safe and effective transportation, it is crucial to comprehend the various forms

of multiphase flow and the consequences they have for natural gas pipelines. Numerous

domains confront multi-phase flows in pipelines; a few instances are as follows:

i. Oil Well Heads: In this case, many phases and components of flow are clearly visible, as

sand, shale, water, gas, and oil all emanate from the well head.

ii. Power Plant: Water and steam must flow together for the boiler, turbine, and condenser

cycle to function normally.

iii. Cavitation: Cavitation is the temporary removal of the vapor phase from the liquid by high

fluid velocities in pumps and valves.

iv. Leaks in Pipelines: air leaking through gaskets, glands, seals, or other parts allows air to

enter a pipeline that is operating at or below atmospheric pressure. Usually, this happens

accidentally, but occasionally—for example, in hydroelectric power schemes—air can be

purposefully added to reduce the impact waves caused by water hammer shocks. In

refrigeration systems, cryogenic fluids such as nitrogen, liquid oxygen, LNG, freons, etc.

are utilized.

The well-known single phase ideas of turbulent or non-turbulent flow and velocity profile

become obsolete when gas and liquid move together in a pipeline. Rather, a wide range of flow

14
regimes are evident, the specifics of which rely on the relative ratios of oil and gas as well as

the respective velocities of each phase. Most expertise is limited to horizontal or vertical flows

since the flow regimes vary based on the pipe orientation through which the phases pass. When

flows shift from horizontal to vertical, they can cause severe slug flow, while flows at

intermediate orientations mix the two. Different types of flow regimes related with vertical

flow in gas pipelines are shown in Figure 2.2

Figure 2.2: (a) Schematic of Flow Pattern (b) Idealized Flow Region (Flow Assurance in Oil
and (Gas, 2010)
Multi-phase flow can be of several types. They are;

i. Gas-Liquid Flow: For natural gas pipelines, this is the most typical kind of multiphase

flow. It happens when the pipeline's gas and liquid phases coexist. Here, the liquid is

usually carried by the gas, and the flow patterns can range from annular flow—where the

gas forms a core encircled by a liquid film to stratified flow, where the phases split

vertically.

ii. Slug Flow: The irregular motion of sizable gas bubbles, or "slugs," divided into liquid and

gaseous areas, is what defines slug flow. Slug flow in pipelines carrying natural gas can

15
 pose serious operational problems and need the deployment of slug catchers to reduce

disturbances in flow.

iii. Wavy Flow: Wavy flow is a type of gas-liquid flow where the liquid phase forms wavy

patterns within the gas phase. It can occur when the gas velocity is relatively high, and the

liquid is dispersed in the form of droplets or waves. Managing wavy flow is critical to

ensure efficient gas transportation.

iv. Solid-Liquid-Gas Flow: In some natural gas pipelines, solids such as sand, mud, or

corrosion byproducts may be present in addition to gas and liquid phases. The presence of

solids can lead to erosion and corrosion issues, which necessitate the use of protective

measures like pigging or coatings.

2.6.1 Implications of multi-phase flow in natural gas pipelines

1. Operational Challenges: Operational difficulties brought on by multiphase flow include

pressure changes, shifts in the flow regime, and stratification of the flow. These

difficulties may compromise the effectiveness and security of gas transportation, requiring

the use of sophisticated monitoring and control systems.

2. Pipeline Integrity: The presence of multiphase flow can lead to erosion and corrosion,

impacting the integrity of the pipeline. Over time, these factors can lead to pipeline

failures, requiring continuous maintenance and inspection to ensure safe and reliable

operation.

3. Measurement and Monitoring: Multiphase flow increases the complexity of accurately

measuring the characteristics of the gas, such as composition and flow rates. For the

purpose of billing, custody transfer, and operation, accurate data must be obtained using

specialized measuring procedures and equipment.

16
4. Flow Assurance: Problems including scale accumulation, wax deposition, and hydrate

formation can result from multiphase flow. Transportation of gas may be hampered by

these flow assurance issues, necessitating the application of chemical inhibitors or

insulating materials.

2.6.2 Definition associated with multiphase flow

Different methods can be used to solve fluid flow issues; in a perfect world, the governing

equations and the pertinent boundary conditions would be applied to provide solutions.

The governing equations for all fluid flow systems are

 The mass continuity equation

 The momentum equation (Newton’s 2nd law)

 The energy equation (newton’s 1st law of thermodynamics)

 The state equation for the fluid.

These represent mathematical models. The flow in the pipe can be laminar, turbulent, or

transitional between these two states, depending on the circumstances, according to liquid

experiment results. The following well-known relationships may be defined for the laminar

flow equations in order to describe the mathematical equations with regard to the fluid

characteristics, taking into account the pipe diameter, fluid parameters, and boundary

conditions:

16
𝑓= (1)
𝑅𝑒

Where 𝑓 is the fanning friction factor defined as;

𝜏𝑤
𝑓=1 (2)
𝜌𝑉 2
2

Where

17
𝜏𝑤 = the wall shear stress

𝜌= density of the fluid

V= velocity of the fluid

𝑅𝑒 =Reynold number

And it is defined as

𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = (3)
𝜇

Where;

𝐷 = Pipe diameter

𝜇 = Fluid viscosity

The fundamental equations for turbulent flow in gas pipelines are more complicated than those

for laminar flow and call for a more successful approach; in fact, dimensional analysis was the

first technique to be used to solve problems relating to laminar flow. Turbulent flow in gas

pipelines is a dynamic and complex phenomenon with both positive and negative effects. Here,

the most crucial elements are identified, and certain simplifying assumptions are made. Among

these is the relative roughness of the pipe walls. From dimensional analysis, it has been found
𝜀
that the friction factor𝑓, is a function of both the Reynolds number and the relative roughness,
𝐷

of the pipe where 𝜀 is the height of the roughness. Thus plots of 𝑓against Re’ for different
𝜀
constant value , could be obtained. The generalized friction factor charts are the result of
𝐷

experimental research, and moody has created a chart for smooth and rough pipes, as seen in

Figure 2.3

18
 Figure 2.3: Moody chart

The chart above shown three flow regime, the laminar flow which defined as 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2000,

transition region defined as 2000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 3000 and turbulent flow which is defined as 𝑅𝑒 >

3000, and the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds number. For a partially rough

region, the Colebrook-White empirical equation can be used

1 𝜀⁄ 2.51
𝐷
= −2log( + )(4)
√𝑓 3.71 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓

Multi-phase flow can be of several types. The main concern with pipelines in this study is with

flowing mixtures of liquid, solid hydrates and gaseous phases. This could be experienced in

the oil well heads, high fluids velocities pumps, power plants etc. below are some few

definitions relating to multi-phase flow in pipelines

i. Continuous Phase: The continuous phase of an oil flow in which separated water droplets

or gas bubbles were suspended is often the dominating phase, or oil. However, in certain

extraordinary situations, like foams, the oil may only make up a small portion of the flow

but nonetheless be the continuous phase where the gas bubbles are suspended. (King, 1989)

19
 ii. Density of the Mixture𝝆𝑻: the time averaged density of the entire contents flowing in the

pipeline.

2.7 Hydrate Formation

2.7.1 What is Gas Hydrate?

Gas hydrates are crystalline compounds formed by the hydrogen-bonded water molecules in a

lattice structure that is stabilized by encapsulating a small guest molecule, such as methane or

ethane. Hydrates are ice-like crystalline compounds - molecular complexes - formed from

mixtures of water molecules ‘host’ and suitably sized 'guest' gas molecules Under Pressure at

Considerable higher and temperature lower than water freezing Point.

Figure 2.4: methane hydrate clathrate

Figure 2.4 illustrates how the water (host) molecules form many interstitial cavity lattice

structures by hydrogen bonding. The guest gas molecules establish hydrogen bonds with the

host water molecules to fill the lattice gaps. When the crystalline structure stabilizes and just a

small number of holes are filled, solid gas hydrates will develop. Hydrates are present in

equipment, chokes, valves, regulators, and so on.

2.7.2 Problems caused by hydrates in natural gas pipelines system

i. Flow Restriction: The ice-like crystals known as gas hydrates can obstruct the flow of natural gas

via pipelines. Reduced operating efficiency and gas throughput may result from this.

20
ii. Pressure fluctuations: Hydrates may cause pressure variations in the pipeline, which may

have an impact on the system's integrity and stability. The efficiency of downstream

machinery may also be impacted by these pressure fluctuations.

iii. Corrosion and Erosion: Hydrate production and dissociation can result in corrosion and

erosion inside pipelines, which can shorten pipeline lifespans and cause structural damage.

iv. Blockages and Plugging: Hydrate crystals can build up and clog pipeline parts like meters,

fittings, and valves, causing interruptions in operation and requiring repair.

v. Increased Operating Costs: Dealing with hydrates often requires additional energy and

resources. Methods such as heating, chemical inhibitors, or pressure control are used to

prevent or mitigate hydrate formation, increasing operating costs.

vi. Environmental Concerns: Hydrate formation can result in unplanned gas releases into the

environment, which may have environmental consequences and contribute to greenhouse

gas emissions.

2.7.3 Hydrate formations as initiators of natural gas pipeline corrosions

The formation of hydrates in gas pipes can significantly impact corrosion and compromise the

reliability and integrity of the infrastructure. When water and natural gas combine at a specific

temperature and pressure, hydrates—which resemble solid ice—are produced. Hydrates may

be extremely problematic in subsea and Arctic pipelines due to the intense cold and high

pressure they experience. Hydrates are first created when water combines with hydrocarbons,

most often methane. Gas pipelines may include water vapor for a variety of reasons, such as

natural gas impurities, surrounding dampness, and water injection for pipeline upkeep. When

the temperature drops below a certain threshold and the pressure rises sufficiently, hydrates

start to form and clog the pipeline.

21
Hydrates, depending on their size, stage, and duration of contact with the pipe to wear off its

protective layers, can readily affect the physical and chemical processes that cause long-term

corrosion in many types of natural gas pipelines. It has been demonstrated that acidic gases,

such as hydrate's hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and chloride, quicken the pace of internal

gas pipeline corrosion. Methane, the main ingredient in natural gas, works as a reducing agent

and promotes metal corrosion. Water is another well-known caustic substance. Internal

corrosion is finally sparked by interaction and reactivity between the pipeline's hydrate

composition and each stage of the hydrate operations. In addition to causing the pipe to burst

like hydrate, corrosion will cause the material to gradually deteriorate and the integrity of the

pipe to deteriorate. After the formation issue is fixed, the pipeline will eventually start to leak

and/or burst completely.

Figure 2.5: Solid hydrate formed in gas pipeline

2.7.4 Corrosion initiation through physical process

Among the several types of corrosion that may be caused by physical processes are cavitations,

erosion, pitting, galvanization, and stress cracking corrosion. The fluid goes through many

stages of development when it changes from a liquid to a semi-solid and then back to a solid

22
 form. A particular kind of corrosion is started throughout each of these stages by an ongoing

contact between the pipe wall and the hydrate phase, as will be discussed below.

i. Cavitation corrosion: The initial stage of development is semi-solid, with liquid within

the voids of the hydrate blocks. It can break apart readily at high impact with a surface at

this point. Cavitations corrosion results from the disintegration of bubbles that develop in

the material at low pressure points. When a fluid encounters a point of discontinuity in its

flow path—particularly at joints and bends—its fast speed will cause a reduction in

pressure. This can cause temporary voids or vacuum bubbles, also known as gas or vapor

bubbles, to develop in the stream.When these bubbles come into contact with the metal

surface, they burst, producing a shock wave strong enough to pull the layers of protection

off.The reaction between the fluid's acidic composition and the pipes' "naked" surface thus

significantly speeds up corrosion at this mechanically injured surface.

ii. Erosion corrosion:The hydrates continue to migrate in chips as they transition over time

from semi-solid to solidified blocks. As these chips travel at a rapid speed, they will batter

the pipe wall's inner surface, causing erosion. Erosion is the abrasion or attrition of a metal

against its surface brought on by the relative motion or flow of a liquid or gas (with or

without suspended particulates in the pipe). The surface of the pipe wall must be

continuously bombarded with particles for erosion-corrosion to take place. This gradually

removes the metal oxide or surface protective covering, exposing the metal surface to

erosion and corrosion from the fluid properties. Turbulence, cavitations, impingement, and

galvanic effects are a few examples of factors that might intensify the erosion-corrosion

attack and ultimately cause the pipeline to collapse quickly.

Hydrate formation affects corrosion in gas pipes via a number of different methods. The

development of ice plugs or solid hydrate deposits is a major worry as they may serve as a

23
barrier between the carried gas's corrosive components and the metal pipeline. Because the

hydrate layer insulates the metal surface from corrosive chemicals, it provides localized

circumstances that are favorable to corrosion. A multifaceted strategy is needed to prevent

hydrate development and the corrosion that goes along with it. One common strategy is the

injection of thermodynamic inhibitors, such as methanol or glycols, into the gas stream to shift

the hydrate formation conditions. These inhibitors alter the phase behavior of the gas-water

mixture, raising the hydrate formation temperature and reducing the risk of blockages.

Moreover, the presence of water within the hydrate structure can exacerbate corrosion by

providing an electrolyte for electrochemical reactions. The combination of water and dissolved

corrosive substances can accelerate the deterioration of pipeline materials, leading to metal

loss, pitting, and the development of corrosion-related defects.

2.7.5 Consequences of the resulting corrosions

Although hydrate formation has been demonstrated to be problematic for the oil and gas

industry, corrosion poses a greater threat because, in addition to its ability to cause a pipeline

system like hydrate to collapse, corrosion will eventually erode the integrity of the pipe and

require its replacement. Apart from their individual ability to bring down a pipeline, these types

of corrosion can also lead to stress cracking or pitting corrosion, which can cause the system

to be damaged whole or in part. One may broadly classify the resulting repercussions as human,

environmental, and economic.

2.7.6 Hydrate formation processes

When water molecules come into contact with gas molecules at low temperature and high

pressure, different geometric structures contrary to those of hexagonal ice are formed. The

water molecules serve as host molecules and create cage lattices that can hold gas molecules

as guest molecules. These cage-like crystalline structures are less dense than crystalline water

24
structures because of the presence of gas molecules. The gas hydrate formed is held together

by the hydrogen bonds of the water molecules and is also stabilized by Vander Waals forces

holding the gas and water molecules together. The Vander Waals force is responsible for the

stable nature of the gas hydrate and even makes the hydrate more stable than normal ice formed

by water.

2.7.7 Structures of Gas hydrate

There are differentstructures of gas hydrate and they are characterized by the shape of their

cages. Natural gas composed mainly of methane gas and the complete combustion of methane

gas gives water, carbon dioxide, and energy, as shown in the Equation (5)

CH4 +O2 ⇒CO2 + H2O+ Energy (5)

There are several uses for the energy that this process releases. Because less CO2 is created

and more energy is released than with other fossil fuels, natural gas is therefore more

ecologically benign. Figure 2.6 depicts the lattice structure of gas hydrate in visual form.In the

center, methane gas is the guest (green), while water molecules are the host (pink). At

equilibrium circumstances, gas hydrate can be transported or stored at either its saturation

pressure or temperature. Hydrates are typically stable at the saturation pressure and

temperature. The hydrate's temperature and saturation pressure are influenced by a few

variables. elements including the environment of the sediments holding the hydrate deposits

and the cost and weight of the materials for the hydrate storage vessel.Hydrates are usually

stable at moderate temperatures and pressures when compared to the conditions required for

LNG and CNG.

Gas hydrates have three distinct structural formations. Although all gas hydrates are either

biogenic or thermogenic, they are classified into three structures. They are:

1. Structure I

25
2. Structure II (sii)

3. Structure H (sh)

i. The structure I (si) hydrates: Theyare body-centered cubic structures formed from small

gas molecules and are usually found in deep ocean environments. They are formed from

two different sizes and shapes of cage; small cages and large cages.

ii. The Structure II (sii) hydrates: Theyhave diamond lattices within cubic frameworks and

are formed when natural gas or oil containing molecules larger than ethane but smaller than

pentane. The structure II hydrates are usually found in oil and gas production and

processing systems. They are also formed from two different shapes and sizes of cages.

iii. The Structure H (sh) hydrates: Theyare the newest structure of gas hydrates discovered

and was also found to occur in the Gulf of Mexico.

Figure 2.7: hydrates crystalline structures

2.7.7Properties of Gas hydrate

i. They have fixed chemical composition but no chemical bond

ii. They behave like chemical compounds.

iii. They are physically like ice or wet snow crystals but do not have solid structure of ice.

26
iv. They have less density than ice.(SG  0.96 – 0.98)

v. They sink in liquid hydrocarbons and float in water.

vi. They contain 90% water by weight

2.7.8 Conditions necessary for hydrate formation

i. Presence of High Concentration of Hydrate forming Gases

ii. Presence of Free Water.

iii. Natural Gas at or Below its Water Dew Point.

iv. Operating Temperature below Hydrate Formation Temperature for That Pressure and Fluid

Composition.

v. Presence of Small Hydrate Crystal.

vi. Operating at High Velocity or Agitation through Equipment and Pipe network.

vii. Turbulence Encourages Hydrate Formation; Hence Their Presence mostly Downstream of

Valves, Regulators, Orifice Plates, Chokes, Sharp Bends, Pipe Elbows, etc. and Upstream

of these Devices if Flow is Turbulent and Temperature is Low.

viii. Hydrates Form at Gas-water Boundary with the Forming Molecules Coming from the

Solution.

ix. Parameters Such as High Temperature That Encourages High Solubility Enhances Hydrate

Formation.

x. Contaminants Such as H2S and CO2 are More Soluble in Water than Hydrocarbon and as

Such, More Conducive for Hydrate Formation.

xi. Very High Solution GOR Encourages Hydrates Formation Due to High Gas Molecules

Presence

2.8 Pressure-Temperature diagram

Figure 2.8 shows the thermodynamic phase boundaries for potential hydrocarbon formation

fluids. The unique hydrodynamic and thermal characteristics of the manufacturing system
27
would define the P-T pathway of production. The likelihood of hydrogen solid formation in

the system is shown by the phase envelope shown in Figure 2.8, where the hydrate formation

line cuts through the envelope at the vapour line intersection between the envelopes.

Broken envelopes do not necessarily signal deposits or obstacles, therefore breaking them does

not ensure difficulties with flow assurance.

Figure 2.8: Gas phase Envelope Generated from Flow Assurance Issues. (Sloan, 2005)

2.9 Hydrate detection and removal advanced technology

There are several methods available for hydrate detection and removal. Some of the most

widely used methods are discussed below

Emerging hydrate detection technologies include:

i. Acoustic Resonance-Based Detection: Acoustic resonance-based detection is an

innovative method that relies on the analysis of sound waves to detect the presence of

hydrates in pipelines. This technology capitalizes on the fact that gas hydrates exhibit

distinctive acoustic properties. By emitting sound waves into the pipeline and measuring

their reflections, acoustic sensors can identify changes in the acoustic characteristics of the

fluid. These changes can indicate the presence of hydrates, allowing for timely intervention

before blockages occur.

28
ii. Fiber-Optic Sensors: Fiber-optic sensors have gained attention for their ability to monitor

various parameters in real-time, including temperature and pressure, which are critical for

hydrate formation conditions. Fiber-optic sensors embedded in pipelines can provide

continuous monitoring, enabling early detection of conditions conducive to hydrate

formation. This data can then trigger automated control systems to mitigate the risk of

hydrate formation.

iii. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): While traditionally associated with medical

imaging, MRI technology is now being explored for hydrate detection in pipelines. By

utilizing magnetic resonance principles, MRI can create detailed images of the hydrate

distribution within the pipeline. This non-invasive approach provides valuable insights into

the extent and location of hydrate deposits, allowing operators to make informed decisions

about removal methods.

2.9.1 Methods used for hydrate prevention and removal

The formation of gas hydrates has been associated with significant blockages in natural gas

pipelines, wellbores, and facilities involved in natural gas processing. Approximately 70% of

challenges in ensuring the smooth flow of deep-water systems are linked to preventing the

development of hydrate plugs and safely eliminating existing ones. The remaining 30% of

issues involve waxes, scale, corrosion, and asphaltenes. The design of a flow assurance system

for an upstream production setup is influenced by the reservoir parameters defining the well's

production behavior.

Consequently, the choice between continuous chemical injection as a hydrate inhibitor for

offshore oil and gas facilities and intermittent injection for shorter durations depends on the

outflow performance of the well stream through the ocean risers. Whether employing a

29
continuous or intermittent chemical inhibition system, the inhibition process should

successfully and efficiently achieve specific objectives. It should effectively accomplish the

following tasks

i. Permit the extraction of gas and oil from hydrate-plugged production strings.

ii. To maintain the risers free of liquid slugs,

iii. Discharge liquids from wet gas wells and boost production rates in the flowing wells.

iv. Backflow injection wells should be used to clear out sediments that have clogged

perforations.

Figure 2.9 shown chemical inhibition system using glycol, which has a strong water affinity.

Water may be removed in bulk using glycol units, which are economical and have minimal

operational issues. The following techniques can be used to stop the production of hydrates:

i. Modulating the temperature and pressure until the development of hydrates is discouraged,

for example, by utilizing coiled tubing.

ii. Gas stream dehydration to stop a free water phase

iii. Preventing the production of hydrates in the free water phase(chemical inhibitors injection)

Several strategies are used in the gas industry to implement these ideas. In order to prevent or

postpone the formation of hydrates in process equipment or a pipeline, process conditions are

regularly changed. To maintain operating temperatures above hydrate formation temperatures,

one possible solution is to employ a line heater. The formation of hydrates can also be

discourage by a drop in pressure. An alternative suppression technique must be used if

changing a gas stream's temperature or pressure is not feasible. Additionally, some solids—

desiccants—have the physical properties needed to absorb water from natural gas. Typical

commercial absorbents include the following;

i. Silica gel

30
ii. Silica-based beads

iii. Activated alumina

iv. Alumina-gel balls

v. Activated bauxite

vi. Molecular sieves

Solid desiccant plants offer the following advantages in comparison to liquid dehydration

systems:

i. Simplicity of design and operation of units

ii. Insensitivity to moderate changes in gas temperature, pressure, flow rate, etc.

iii. Ability to provide extremely low dew points

iv. Generally free from corrosion and foaming problems

v. Ability to dehydrate very small Quantities of gas at a low cost

Solid desiccant dehydration also have disadvantages. These include high initial cost, higher

pressure drop, relatively high heat requirement for regeneration, and susceptibility to breakup

or poisoning (Kohl, 1985)

2.10 Hydrate inhibitors

When the establishment of a comprehensive dehydration unit is not economically viable or

when an operational dehydration unit fails to achieve the required dew point depressions,

hydrate inhibition is often employed as an alternative. This inhibition method involves

introducing a known hydrate inhibitor into the process upstream of the expected solid formation

site. The primary function of the inhibitor in this context is to act as an "antifreeze" agent,

preventing the formation of solid hydrates while simultaneously removing a portion of the

liquid. Commonly used inhibitors include TEG, ethylene glycol (EG), and methanol, with

methanol being a preferred choice due to the challenging separation of glycols under freezing

31
conditions, attributed to glycol's viscosity. In non-cryogenic situations, continuous injection

with one of the glycols is often a more cost-effective approach (Gas Processors Suppliers

Association (GPSA)). Methanol is typically employed in non-renewable systems, while EG

and TEG find applications in regenerable processes. The regenerable method involves cleaning

the glycol in a regenerator before recycling it to the injection point.

Glycol dehydration, utilizing either triethylene glycol (TEG) or diethylene glycol (DEG),

stands as the most widely adopted technique for removing water from natural gas. The high

affinity of glycol for water forms the foundation of this process. Glycol units, as depicted in

Figure 2.9, are designed for large-scale water removal, demonstrating efficient performance

with minimal operational issues. They are easily automated, making them suitable for

unattended operations such as remote production well dehydration. However, in some cases,

dehydration alone may not suffice for the removal of an adequate amount of water for

subsequent low-temperature processing, necessitating an additional process step. To achieve

thorough dehydration, a glycol system is often followed by either an injection unit or a

molecular sieve unit.

Figure 2.9: Glycol Dehydration Process Diagram Mallison (2004)

32
Both economical and physical constraints must be taken into consideration when selecting an

inhibitor. There might be a restriction to the options due to operating circumstances. A chart

that tracks the generation of hydrates from hydraCHEK is shown in Figure 2.10. The

temperature and pressure range that will allow hydrates to develop in pipes may be found on

the chart.

Figure 2.10: Hydrate Inhibition Monitoring System (hydraCHEK)

A well stream may be analyzed using a variety of software programs, including ASPEN

HYSYS, PIPESIM, and PVTSIM, to name a few, for the determination of hydrate formation

temperature and pressure conditions. This study aims to employ ASPEN HYSYS software to

better understand and appropriately determine the conditions that might lead to the

development of hydrates in gas pipelines. ASPEN HYSYS uses mathematical models in the

calculation of all fluid properties in natural gas processes. Some of these mathematical models

are:

1. Peng-Robinson equation of state(PR EOS): The Peng-Robinson equation state has

become the most popular equation of state for natural gas systems in the petroleum

33
 industry. The PR EOS was developed in 1976 at the University of Alberta by Ding-Yu

Peng and Donald Robinson in order to satisfy the followings;

i. The parameters should be expressible in terms of the critical properties and the acentric

factor

ii. The model should provide reasonable accuracy near the critical point, particularly for

calculations of the compressibility factor and liquid density.

iii. The mixing rules should not employ more than a single binary interaction parameter, which

should be independent of the temperature, pressure and composition

iv. The equation should be applicable to all calculation of all fluid properties in natural gas

processes

The equation is given as follows:

𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝛼
𝑃= − 2 +2𝑏𝑉 − 𝑏 2 (6)
𝑉𝑚 −𝑏 𝑉𝑚 𝑚

𝑅 2 𝑇𝑐2
𝑎 = 0.45724 (7)
𝑃𝑐
𝑅𝑇𝑐
𝑏 = 0.07780 (8)
𝑃𝑐

𝛼 = (1 + 𝑘(1 − (√𝑇⁄𝑇𝑐 )2 (9)

𝑘 = 0.37464 + 1.54226𝜔 − 0.2699𝜔2 (10)

Where;
𝑃 =Pressure (Pa)

𝑉𝑚 = molar volume (𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1)

𝑅= gas constant (8.314J𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1)

𝑇 = absolute temperature (K)

𝑃𝑐 = critical pressure for the component of interest (Pa)

𝑇𝑐 = critical temperature for the component of interest (K)

34
𝜔 = acentric factor for the component of interest

a and b are constant that corrects for attractive potential of molecules and corrects volume

respectively

2. The Cubic-Plus Association (CPA) equation of state (EOS): In 1996, the model was originally

published, while the Cubic-Plus Association equation of state was created in 1995. It has

been effectively used to describe the phase equilibrium of natural gas constituents in

alcohol, glycol, and water combinations. This state equation is derived from a mixture of

the association term from Wertheim theory and the Soav-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equation.

The physical interactions between the molecules are explained by the SRK model. The

word "association" considers the particular site connection resulting from hydrogen

bonding between molecules that are similar to one another (self-association) and molecules

that are not (cross-association or solution). There is no explicit discussion of polarity or

quadrupolar interactions. The CPA equation of state can be expressed in terms ofpressure

as a sum of the SRK EoS and the contribution ofassociation term as given by

Michelsen and Hendriks:

𝑅𝑇 𝑎 𝑅𝑇 1 1 𝜕𝑋 𝐴
𝑝= − 2 +𝑉 + ( ) 𝜌 ∑𝐴 ( 𝐴 − ) (11)
𝑉𝑚 −𝑏 𝑉𝑚 𝑚 𝑏 𝑉
𝑚 𝑋 2 𝜕𝜌

Where;

𝑃 =Pressure (Pa)

𝑉𝑚 = molar volume (𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1)

𝑅 = gas constant (8.314 J𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1)

𝑇 = absolute temperature (K)

𝑋 𝐴 = Mole fraction of molecules not bonded at site A

35
𝜌 =Density of the fluid (𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 )

a and b are constant that corrects for attractive potential of molecules and corrects volume

respectively.

3. Redlich–Kwong equation of state: Introduced in 1949, the Redlich–Kwong equation of

state was considered to be a notable improvement to the van der Waals equation. It is still

of interest primarily due to its relatively simple form.While superior to the van der Waals

equation in some respects, it performs poorly with respect to the liquid phase and thus

cannot be used for accurately calculating vapor–liquid equilibria. However, it can be used

in conjunction with separate liquid-phase correlations for this purpose. The equation is

given below, as are relationships between its parameters and the critical constants:

𝑅𝑇 𝑎
𝑃= − (12)
𝑉𝑚 −𝑏 √𝑇𝑉𝑚 (𝑉𝑚 +𝑏)

5
𝑅 2 𝑇𝑐2
𝑎 = 0.42748 (13)
𝑃𝑐

𝑅𝑇𝑐
𝑏 = 0.08664 (14)
𝑃𝑐

Where:

𝑃 =Pressure (Pa)

𝑉𝑚 = molar volume (𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1)

𝑅 = gas constant (8.314 J𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1)

𝑇 = absolute temperature (K)

𝑃𝑐 = critical pressure for the component of interest (Pa)

𝑇𝑐 = critical temperature for the component of interest (K)

36
a and b are constant that corrects for attractive potential of molecules and corrects volume

respectively.

37
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents well data, pipeline parameters, and the well and pipeline configuration

of well 101. Well 101 has a production flowline of about 6km from the wellhead to the

production facility. It is a shallow field located 500 meters offshore. The reservoir condition of

the field's varies throughout the lifetime of the well; the inlet pressure of the well is about 20688

kPa, and the inlet operating temperature is about 22. The gas stream is wet in reservoir

condition, and it is saturated with water to form gas, which results in the formation of droplets

of water and condensate as it flows from the reservoir to the production line, hence encouraging

hydrate formation along the flowline. The area of interest for this study is to determine the

temperature and pressure conditions in which the stream will form hydrates along the

production flowline when transporting the fluid from the wellhead to the processing facility.

For this to be achieved, ASPEN HYSYS software is used to determine the hydrate formation

conditions. Three sets of inhibitors—methanol (MeOH), ethylene glycol (EG), and diethylene

glycol (DEG)—are injected into the gas stream to determine their effect on gas hydrates.

Imputation techniques and representation of the Well data and flowline parameters in the

ASPEN HYSYS software are the focal points of this chapter; however, analysis and

discussions of the results will be in the subsequent chapter.

38
3.2 The Fluid, Well101 Properties

Table 3.1: The fluid, well101 composition

S/N Components Molefraction

1 Methane 0.7911
2 Ethane 0.0312
3 Propane 0.0218
4 i-butane 0.0089
5 n-butane 0.0114
6 i-pentane 0.0090
7 n-pentane 0.0123
8 n-hexane 0.0146
9 n-heptane 0.0404
10 𝐻2 𝑂 0.0435
11 C𝑂2 0.0103
12 N 0.0056

3.3 Pipeline parameters:

i. Inlet temperature is about 20688KPa

ii. Inlet temperature is about 42.78℃

iii. Mass flow rate is 12780kg/h

iv. Length is 6000m

v. Outside diameter (OD) is 1067mm

vi. Steady state conditions are assumed

vii. Horizontal pipeline with no elevation change

viii. Overall Heat Transfer coefficient of the pipe 5.678W/m℃

ix. Sea temperature is 12.5℃

x. Ambient temperature is 4.4℃

39
xi. Pipeline inside surface roughness is 46micron

xii. Density of carbon steel is 7850 kg/𝑚2

3.4 ASPEN HYSYS software

Developed by AspenTech, Aspen HYSYS is a robust chemical process simulator that is used

extensively in many different sectors for process design, performance modeling, steady-state

and dynamic simulation, and optimization. It allows engineers to simulate chemical processes

numerically, from simple unit operations to intricate chemical plants and refineries. HYSYS

makes precise predictions about the behavior of fluids and mixes under a range of

circumstances by utilizing an extensive collection of thermodynamic models.

Figure 3.1: ASPEN HYSYS main default environment

3.4.1 HYSYS Primary Interface elements

There are five main interface components for dealing with HYSYS, while there are many

methods to enter and access information: The model connects all of these interface components

as well as complementary tools like plots, data recorders, strip charts, and case study tools. Any

changes made anywhere in HYSYS instantly get reflected everywhere. Furthermore, there are

no limitations on what can be shown at any one time. For instance, you may access the property

views for operations and streams in addition to the PFD and Workbook.

40
 i. PFD: A property view containing a graphical environment for building your flowsheet and

examining process connectivity. Process information can be displayed for each individual

stream or operation as needed.

ii. Workbook: A property view containing a collection of tabs that displays information in a

tabular format. EachWorkbook tab displays information about a specific object type. You

can install multiple tabs for a given object type, displaying information in varying levels of

detail.

iii. Property View: A single property view that contains multiple tabs. HYSYS extensively

uses these single property views, which include all information about a specific object (in

other words, an individual stream or operation).

iv. Summary View Displays the currently installed streams and operations.

v. Simulation Navigation: A property view that provides a single location for viewing all

stream and unit operation property views in the simulation case, regardless of the flowsheet

they exist in.

3.4.2 Key features of ASPEN HYSYS

i. Simulation of steady state: HYSYS faithfully replicates the behavior of chemical processes

in a steady state, offering insights into the temperatures, pressures, flow rates, and

component compositions at every stage of the process.

ii. Dynamic Simulation: By modeling the dynamic behavior of processes, HYSYS enables

engineers to examine how the system reacts to perturbations or changes in operating

circumstances. This skill is essential to guaranteeing the stability and safety of the process.

Process Design: Engineers may assess various process configurations, optimize equipment

size, and locate possible bottlenecks with the help of HYSYS, an indispensable tool for

process design.

41
iii. Performance Modeling: Engineers may utilize HYSYS to simulate the operation of current

processes, assisting in the identification of problem areas and the optimization of process

efficiency.

iv. Optimization: HYSYS incorporates optimization capabilities, allowing engineers to

determine the optimal operating conditions to maximize process performance or achieve

specific objectives.

3.3.3 Applications of ASPEN HYSYS

i. Oil and Gas: HYSYS is extensively used in the oil and gas industry for simulating gas

processing plants, refineries, and pipelines.

ii. Petrochemicals: HYSYS is a valuable tool in the petrochemical industry for designing and

optimizing petrochemical production processes.

iii. Chemicals: HYSYS is used in the chemical industry for simulating a wide range of

chemical processes, from simple unit operations to complex reaction networks.

3.4 Hydrate Formation Temperature and Pressure prediction –ASPEN HYSYS

Steps to set up a simulation in HYSYS to model a simple hydrate formation temperature-

pressure consisting of:

i. Stream

ii. Energy stream: calculates heat transfer and pressure drop

iii. Mixer: combines multiple inlet feed streams to produces a single outlet stream

iv. Pipe segment: simulates single or multiphase piping; calculates heat transfer and pressure

drop

When the simulation is set up the overall process flow diagram (PFD) should look like the

figure 3.2 shown below

42
 Figure 3.2: HYSYS simulation default environment

3.5 Data input

Create new simulation file

Start HYSYS, and when the program is open, choose the new button. Define the components,

and the property models specify components, fluid property packages, and crude oil assays.

The first step is to add a set of pure chemical species to represent the gas and water phases.

With component lists highlighted, click on the Add button. From the list of pure components,

pick: H2O, Nitrogen, CO2, Methane, Ethane, Propane, i-Butane, n-Butane, i-Pentane, n-

Pentane, n-Hexane, n-Heptane.

43
 Figure 3.3: HYSYS Properties default environment

The next step is to pick a fluid property package. From the Fluid Packages screen click the Add

button. Choose a correlation, for this study Peng-Robinson was chosen and it is associated with

Component list.

Figure 3.4: HYSYS default fluid package environment

3.6 Set up and solve the flowsheet

When the simulation is activated a blank flowsheet will appear. Before hydrate inhibition

injection, select the stream, the pipe, energy stream and the production stream. The inlet of the

44
 pipe is connected to the stream, the energy stream also connected to the pipe while the

production stream is connected to the pipe outlet as show in figure 3.5 below.

Figure 3.5: process flow diagram of well101

The following parameters were input on well101 stream

 temperature ℃

 pressure KPa

 mass flow kg/h

 composition of the fluid

Figure 3.6: data input into material stream well101

3.7 Pipeline design

In the pipeline, the following parameters were input

i. length/equivalent length

45
 ii. elevation change

iii. outer diameter

iv. inner diameter

v. material

vi. roughness

vii. pipe wall conductivity

viii. increments

Figure 3.7:pipeline segment design

3.8 Inhibition injection

To add inhibitors into the gas stream, a mixer is added to the process flow diagram as shown

in the figure 16.

Figure 3.8: process flow diagram after Ethylene glycol injection

After all the necessary data computation into the ASPEN HYSYS software, the result

obtained from the simulation are analyzed and discussed in details in the next chapter.

46
 CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter analyzes the data input into ASPEN HYSYS software and the output of these

inputs in order to arrive at the ultimate result. The simulation results are shown in tables 4.1

through table 4.3.The first case was before inhibition injection, while the second was after

inhibition injection. Table 4.1 indicates the fluid state prior to inhibition injection along the

flowline.

4.1 Pipeline condition before and after inhibition injection

Table 4.1: fluid properties before inhibition injection

Length Elevation Pressure Total dp Temp. Heat Transfer Liquid

holdup
[m] [m] [kPa] [kPa] [℃] [kg/h-m ]
0.00 0.0 20688.00 42.78 1.00
400.00 0.6 20686.33 1.6643 36.63 670.3201 1.00
800.00 1.2 20684.61 1.7233 31.46 562.9456 1,00
1200.00 1.8 20682.83 1.7745 27.12 472.6362 1.00
1600.00 2.4 20681.01 1.8187 23.46 396.6683 1.00
2000.00 3.0 20679.16 1.8564 20.39 332.7715 1.00
2400.00 3.6 20677.27 1.8886 17.80 279.0447 1.00
2800.00 4.2 20675.35 1.9158 15.63 233.8897 1.00
3200.00 4.8 20673.44 1.9389 13.81 195.9587 1.00
3600.00 5.4 20671.46 1.9583 12.27 164.1135 1.00
4000.00 6.0 20669.48 1.9747 10.99 137.3920 1.00
4400.00 6.6 20667.49 1.9885 9.918 114.9812 1.00
4800.00 7.2 20665.49 2.0000 9.01 96.1944 1.00
5200.00 7.8 20663.48 2.0097 8.26 80.4520 1.00
5600.00 8.4 20661.46 2.0178 7.62 67.2656 1.00
6000.00 9.0 20659.44 2.0246 7.09 56.2237 1.00

47
Table 4.2: Fluid properties Well 101, after EG Injection

Length Elevation Pressure Total pd Temp. Heat transfer Liquid

holdup
[m] [m] [kPa] [kPa] [℃] [kg/h-m]
0.00 0.00 20688.00 42.7753 1.0
400.00 0.6 20686.34 1.6577 37.9286 528.7703 1.0
800.00 1.2 20684.63 1.7039 33.8542 444.0847 1.0
1200.00 1.8 20682.89 1.7437 30.4287 372.8895 1.0
1600.00 2.4 20681.11 1.7779 27.5487 313.0330 1.0
2000.00 3.0 20679.30 1.8070 25.1279 262.7140 1.0
2400.00 3.6 20677.47 1.8318 23.0935 220.4216 1.0
2800.00 4.2 20675.62 1.8528 21.3843 184.8852 1.0
3200.00 4.8 20673.75 1.8706 19.9488 155.0348 1.0
3600.00 5.4 20671.86 1.8855 18.7436 129.9687 1.0
4000.00 6.0 20669.97 1.8982 17.7321 108.9268 1.0
4400.00 6.6 20668.06 1.9088 16.8833 91.26820 1.0
4800.00 7.2 20666.14 1.9177 16.1713 76.45292 1.0
5200.00 7.8 20664.21 1.9252 15.5741 64.02618 1.0
5600.00 8.4 20662.28 1.9315 15.0734 53.60512 1.0
6000.00 9.0 20660.35 1.9367 14.6536 44.86769 1.0

48
Table 4.3: Fluid properties Well 101, after DEG Injection

Length Elevation Pressure Total dp Temp Heat transfer Liquid

holdup
[m] [m] [kPa] [kPa] [℃] [Kg/h-m]
0.00 0.0 20685.00 42.7758 1.0
400.00 0.6 20683.34 1.6576 37.9291 528.7797 1.0
800.00 1.2 20681.63 1.7037 33.8547 444.0938 1.0
1200.00 1.8 20679.89 1.7436 30.4291 372.8983 1.0
1600.00 2.4 20678.11 1.7777 27.5492 313.0415 1.0
2000.00 3.0 20676.31 1.8069 25.1283 262.7221 1.0
2400.00 3.6 20674.47 1.8317 23.0939 220.4293 1.0
2800.00 4.2 20672.62 1.8527 21.3846 184.8923 1.0
3200.00 4.8 20670.75 1.8704 19.9492 155.0414 1.0
3600.00 5.4 20668.86 1.8854 18.7439 129.9748 1.0
4000.00 6.0 20666.97 1.8980 17.7324 108.9324 1.0
4400.00 6.6 20665.06 1.9087 16.8836 91.27330 1.0
4800.00 7.2 20663.14 1.9176 16.1715 76.45752 1.0
5200.00 7.8 20661.22 1.9251 15.5743 64.03030 1.0
5600.00 8.4 20659.28 1.9314 15.0736 53.60881 1.0
6000.00 9.0 20657.35 1.9366 14.6538 44.87097 1.0

Pipeline elevation and pressure change: Pipeline elevation pertains to the vertical distance

or height variance between different points along a pipeline route. Changes in elevation can

significantly impact various operational aspects, such as the potential for hydrate formation.

Tables 4.1 to 4.3 depict the gas pipeline's condition both before and after inhibition injection.

As fluid traverses the pipeline, encountering rises and changes in elevation, the pressure at a

specific point in the pipe is influenced by the alterations in the fluid's elevation. As the fluid

gains height, the weight of the fluid above a given point diminishes, resulting in a pressure

reduction at higher points along the pipe. Consequently, there is a pressure loss in the pipe as

49
the fluid ascends. Although additional pressure is needed to elevate gas in the pipeline to higher

points, this increase is relatively minor compared to the overall pressure loss in the pipeline.

Tables 4.1 to 4.3 illustrate that for every 0.6 meters of elevation gain, the pressure drop is

approximately 2 kPa.

Temperature and eat transfer: Heat transfer is the mechanism through which thermal energy

is traded between two systems or entities at varying temperatures, while temperature denotes

the level of warmth or coldness of an object. The heat transfer observed in the simulation results

from temperature disparities among the gas stream, the pipeline, and the environment (sea).

The fluid, which is at a higher temperature, transfers some of its thermal energy to the pipeline

and the environment. The ensuing decrease in temperature due to the thermal exchange

between the fluid and its surroundings (pipeline and sea) could promote hydrate formation

along the pipeline. The outcomes derived from the HYSYS simulation indicate that the gas's

hydrate formation temperature and pressure are approximately 22.05°C and 20671.7 kPa,

respectively, as the fluid flows along the pipeline. These values closely align with the

operational parameters of the field, thus posing a potential risk of hydrate accumulation in the

flowline. The observed water content and water dew point of the gas stream from the simulation

are 2066 lb/MMSCF and 159.8°C, respectively.

Liquid holdup: The percentage or portion of the pipeline's entire cross-sectional area that is

occupied by liquid is referred to as liquid holdup. Understanding the distribution of phases (gas

and liquid) is crucial for optimizing pipeline operation and design in multiphase flow systems,

such as pipelines carrying a mixture of gas and liquid. Although liquid holdup may not directly

cause hydrate formation, it can modify the water content in the pipeline, which can lead to

circumstances that are favorable for hydrate development.

50
4.2 Temperature-pressure survey before inhibition injection

Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the temperature and pressure profiles of the gas pipeline, showing the

point along the pipe at which hydrate will be formed. As the temperature decreases along the

pipeline, represented by the red line, liquid vapor and condensate begin to drop out of the gas

stream. It was already stated that the gas is wet at the reservoir condition, and the continuous

droplet of vapor water, condensate, and, in the present, hydrate formation gases (methane)

along the pipeline may encourage gas hydrate formation along the pipe. At certain temperatures

and pressures called hydrate formation temperature and pressure, gas hydrate begins to form

along the pipeline. From the simulation before inhibition injection, figures 4.1 and 4.2 show

the point in which hydrate begins to form (where the two lines meet) along the pipeline.

Figure 4.1: temperature-pipeline length profile showing hydrate formation point along the

pipeline

51
 Figure 4.2: pressure-pipeline length showing hydrate formation point along the pipeline

4.3 Phase envelops from HYSYS simulation before and after inhibition injection

4.3.1 Phase envelop before inhibition injection

Figure 4.3 depicts the hydrate formation line above the flowline's operating parameters. The

fluid in this condition will produce hydrates in the pipe. The phase envelope depicts the hydrate

formation line before inhibitors were introduced into the stream to suppress hydrate formation.

Figure 4.3 also shows that hydrates will occur at a temperature of roughly 22.05 °C and 20310

kPa. If hydrates occur, we can anticipate the flow to vary dramatically, as the overall effect of

hydrates can shift from the outlet end to the steeper, more hydrate-prone parts near the intake

end of the line.

52
 Figure 4.3: phase envelop before inhibition injection

4.3.2 Phase envelop after inhibition injection

Hydrates in pipelines can be inhibited by ethylene glycol, as Figure 4.4 demonstrates. The

phase envelope's hydrate formation line moves from right to left, below the fields' operating

conditions, when ethylene glycol is injected into the pipeline.

Figure 4.4: phase envelop after EG injection

Figure 4.4 shows the effect of E-glycol on hydrate formation in the pipeline. In the simulation

before the inhibition injection, hydrates will form at a temperature of about 22.02°C. When

53
methanol is injected into the stream, the hydrate formation curve shifts towards the left, as

shown in figure 4.5, thereby increasing the hydrate-free zone in the pipeline. The hydrates were

suppressed to a temperature of about 17.85. Subsequently, Tables 4.4 to 4.6 show the

performance of each of the inhibitors at various injection rates.

Figure 4.5: phase envelop after MeOH injection

Table 4.4: performance of inhibition at the rate of 0.5kg/h

Fluid condition Before EG injection DEG MeOH

injection injection injection
Hyd. temp. [℃] 22.05 21.86 21.87 21.85
Hyd. Pressure[kPa] 20690 2.067 x 104 2.068 x104 2.069 x 104
Water content[Ib/MMSCF] 2066 2066 2066 2066
Injection rate[kg/h] 0 0.5 0.5 0.5
Water dew point temp. [℃] 159.8 159.9 159.9 159.7

54
Table 4.5: performance of inhibition at the rate of 5kg/h

Fluid condition Before EG injection DEG MeOH

injection injection injection
Hyd. temp. [℃] 22.05 21.61 21.73 21.46
Hyd. Pressure[kPa] 20690 2.067 x 104 2.069 x104 2.069 x 104
Water content[Ib/MMSCF] 2066 2066 2066 2066
Injection rate[kg/h] 0 5 5 5
Water dew point temp. [℃] 159.8 161.3 160.4 160.4

Table 5.6: performance of inhibition at the rate of 50kg/h

Fluid condition Before EG DEG MeOH

injection injection injection injection
Hyd. temp. [℃] 22.05 19.15 20.27 17.85
Hyd. Pressure[kPa] 2.069x 104 2.068 x 104 2.068 x104 2.068 x 104
Water content[Ib/MMSCF] 2066 2063 2064 2060
Injection rate[kg/h] 0 50 50 50
Water dew point temp. [℃] 159.8 172.8 169.8 160

4.4 Effect of inhibitors injection rate on hydrate formation temperature water content

As the injection rate of inhibitors increased, a clear trend emerged in the reduction of hydrate

formation temperature. Notably, methanol (MeOH) exhibited greater efficacy in lowering

hydrate formation temperature compared to ethylene glycol (EG) and diethylene glycol (DEG).

This suggests that the choice of inhibitor and its injection rate significantly impact the

prevention of hydrate formation in natural gas pipelines.

55
 Figure 4.6: performance of inhibitors at various rate

Water Content in the Gas Stream: The results obtained from the simulation also revealed a

direct correlation between inhibitor injection rate and the decrease in water content in the gas

stream. This phenomenon can be attributed to the inhibitors' hygroscopic properties, allowing

them to absorb water molecules from the gas stream. Among the inhibitors tested, MeOH again

demonstrated superior performance in reducing water content.

56
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The purpose of this study is to design and simulate hydrate formation in gas pipelines using the

ASPEN HYSYS software tool to predict the temperature and pressure conditions for hydrate

formation in gas pipelines.

The impact of methanol (MeOH), ethylene glycol (EG), and diethylene glycol on the

production of hydrates in gas pipelines was shown by the simulation that was run. The flow

characteristics and the reservoir fluid properties are the fundamental prerequisites for this

simulation.

The following inferences were made from the observed results;

i. Temperature Check: Compare the operating temperature (22°C) with the hydrate

formation temperature (22.05°C) before inhibition injection. Since the operating

temperature is slightly lower than the hydrate formation temperature, there is a possibility

of hydrate formation when transporting the stream along the pipeline.

ii. Pressure Check: Compare the operating pressure (2.0688 x kPa) with the hydrate

formation pressure (20.69 kPa). The operating pressure is very close to the hydrate

formation pressure, indicating a risk of hydrate formation.

Methanol (MeOH), ethylene glycol (EG), and diethylene glycol show effectiveness in

suppressing hydrates in gas pipelines. The comparison of MeOH, EG, and DEG indicates that

MeOH is more effective in lowering hydrate formation temperature and reducing water content

in the gas stream.

57
5.2 Recommendation

Given these comparisons, it seems that the operating conditions are close to the conditions at

which hydrates can form. This suggests that there is a risk of hydrate formation in the gas

pipeline. To prevent hydrate formation, there is a need to consider measures to mitigate the risk

and ensure the safe operation of the pipeline. The following are my recommendations based on

the results of the simulation.

i. An inhibition injection system from well 101 should be implemented to control the risk of

hydrate formation along the flowline for safe transportation of the fluid.

ii. In order to compare data and select the most efficient model, software tools and models

should be utilized in the design of a chemical inhibition system.

iii. The production flowline needs automated monitoring systems to collect real-time data. This

helps production engineers watch how well the field is performing compared to the facility

design and allows quick responses to operational issues like lower well output, pressure

loss, and temperature drop along the flowline.

iv. The choice of a particular inhibitor should be based on cost effectiveness, performance,

compatibility, solubility, stability, and environmental impact.

5.3 Contribution to the knowledge

The efficacy of the hydrocarbon ASPEN HYSYS tool in performing different gas processing

assessments and designs is reaffirmed by this study. The impact of inhibitors is seen following

the model's validation of ASPEN HYSYS's use in improving gas processing. Most notably,

this experiment shows that ASPEN HYSYS may be used to design injection systems in

addition to gas hydrate modeling. In order to progress the study, this project can also be

modified in the future and used in literature reviews.

58