Logics

Learning Competencies

After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to:

 Ilustrate and symbolize propositions.

 Distinguish between simple and compound propositions.
 Determine the truth values of propositions.
 Construct switching network.
 Illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions.Illustrate different types of tautologies
and fallacies.
 Determine the validity of categorical syllogisms.
 Establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical propositions, syllogisms, and
fallacies.
 Determine the validity of an argument.

Logic is the technique by which we add conviction to truth.

-Jean de la Bruyere (1645-1696)

Unit 9.1: Logical Statement and Quantifiers

The term "logic" is often used, but not always in its technical sense. Logic is technically defined as "the
science or study of how to evaluate arguments and reasoning."Logic helps us to differentiate correct
reasoning from poor reasoning. It is important in the sense that it helps us to reason correctly. Others
defined logic as discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning Logical reasoning is used on
mathematics to prove theorems, in computer science -to verily correctness of programs and to prove
theorems. In this chapter it will be limited to the discussion of mathematical logic.

Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic) is a branch of mathematics with close connections to computer
science. It includes both the mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other
areas of mathematics. Mathematical logic includes the study of the deductive formal proofs systems and
expressive formal systemg Mathematical logic has four divisions: Set Theory, Model Theory,Recursion
Theory and Proof Theory.

The existence of mathematical logic has contributed to, and has been aggravated by, the study of
foundations of mathematics. The study started in the late 19th century with the development of
axiomatic frameworks for analysis, geometry and arithmetic. In our time the work in the foundations of
mathematics often centered on establishing which parts of mathematics can be formalized, rather than
trying to find theories in which all of mathematics can be developed.
We will start by defining the meaning of statement. A proposition (or statement) is a declarative
sentence which is either true or false, but not both. The truth value of the propositions is the truth and
falsity of the proposition. Let us examine the examples below.

Example 1: Which of the following are propositions?

a. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.

b. What day is it?c. Help me, please.d. He is handsome.Answer.

a."Manila is the capital of the Philippines" is true, therefore it is a proposition.

b."What day is it?" It is a question; it cannot be considered either true or false and thus, it is not

a proposition.

e. "Help me, please." It cannot be categorized as true or false and therefore, it is not a

proposition.

d. "He is handsome." The sentence is neither true nor false because "he" is not speäfied and

thus, it is not a proposition.

There are also propositions (or statements) which are considered ambiguous such as

a. Mathematics is fun.

b. Calculus is more interesting than Trigonometry.

c. It was hot in Manila.

d. Street vendors are poor.

A propositional variable is a variable which is used to represent a proposition. A formal propositional

variable written using propositional logic notation, p. q and r are used to represent propositions. Logical
connectives are used to combine simple propositions which are peferred as compound propositions. A
compound proposition is a proposition composed of two or more simple propositions connected by
logical connectives "and," "or," "if then," "not,""if nd only if," and "exclusive-or."A proposition which is
not compound is said to be simple (also alled atomic).

A. Operations on Propositions

There are three main logical connectives such as conjunction, disjunction, and negation. The following
are briefly discussed in this section. Note that T refers to true proposition and F refers to false
proposition.
Conjunction. The conjunction of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition "p and q."
Symbolically, p^ q, where A is the symbol for"and."

Property 1: If p is true and q is true, then p q is true; otherwise p A q is false. Meaning, the conjunction
of two propositions is true only if each proposition is true.

Example 2: Determine the truth value of each of the following conjunctions.

a. 2+6=9 and man is a mammal.

b. Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female

Philippine President.

c. Abraham Lincoln is a former US President and the Philippine Senate is composed of 24senators.

Answer:

2. Since "2 + 6 - 9" is a false proposition (note that 2 + 6 m 9) and the proposition "man is a

mammal" is true, the conjunction of the compound proposition is false.

b. In the proposition "Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion" is true while the propositian"Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine President" is false (note that Corazon Aquino is the first
female Philippine President), therefore the conjunction of the compound proposition is false.

c. Since both the propositions "Abraham Lincoln is a former US Philippine President" and"Philippine
Senate is composed of 24 senators" are both true, thus the conjunction of the compound proposition is
true.

Disjunction. The disjunction of the proposition p. q is the compound proposition "p or q." Symbolically, p
v q, where v is the symbol for "or."

Property 2: If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are true, then p v q is true; otherwise p v q is false.
Meaning, the disjunction of two propositions is false only if each proposition is false.

Example 3: Determine the truth value of each of the following disjunctions.

a. 2+6=9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion.

b. Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female

Philippine President.

c. Abraham Lincoln is a former US President or man is a mammal.

Answer:

a. Note that the proposition "2 + 6 =9" is false while the proposition "Manny Pacquiao is a
boxing champion" is true; hence the disjunction of the compound proposition is true.

b. Since proposition "Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators" is true and the proposition

"Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine President" is false, therefore the

disjunction of the compound proposition is true.

C. Given that both propositions "Abraham Lincoln is a former US President" and "man is a

mammal" are both true, thus the disjunction of the compound proposition is true.

Negation. The negation of the proposition p is denoted by -p, where - is the

symbol for "not."

Property 3: If p is true, -p is false. Meaning, the truth value of the negation of a

proposition is always the reverse of the truth value of the original proposition.

Example 4: The following are propositions for p, find the corresponding-p.

a.3+5=8.

b. Sofia is a girl.

c. Achaiah is not here.

Answer:

a.3+5#8.

b. Sofia is not a girl.

c. Achaiah is here.

Sofia is a boy.

Conditional. The conditional (or implication) of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition "if
p then q." Symbolically, p→ 4, where - is the symbol for "if then." p is called hypothesis (or antecedent
or premise)and q is called conclusion (or consequent or consequence).

Property 4: The conditional proposition p → q is false only when p is true and q is false; otherwise p → q
is true. Meaning p → q states that a true proposition cannot imply a false proposition.

Example 5: In the proposition "If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is-sour,

is sweet," and the cansequent is "sugar is sour."

Example 6: Obtain the truth value of each of the following conditional

a. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.

b. 2+5=7 is a sufficient condition for 5+6-1.

c. 14-8=4 is a necessary condition that 6+3-2.

atecedent is "vinegar"

conditional of the compound proposition is true.

a. Since the propositions "vinegar is sweet" and the "sugar is sour" are both false, therefore the b. Note
that "2 +5 =7" is true and "5 + 6 = 1" is false, thus the conditional of the compound c. Given that "14-8 =
4" is false proposition (note that 14 -8= 6) while "6 +3=2" is a true

Answer:

proposition is false.

proposition, thus the conditional of the compound proposition is true

Biconditional. The biconditional of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition "p if and only if
q." Symbolically, p e q, where e is the symbol for "if and only if."

Property 5: If p and q are true or both false, then p e q is true; if p and q

have opposite truth values, then p → q is false.

Example 7: Determine the truth values of each of the following biconditional propositions.

a. 2+8=10 if and only if6-3=3.

b. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent to fish live in the moon.

c. 8-2=5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4+2=7.

Answer:

a. Since the statements "2 + 8= 10" and the "6-3 =3" are both true, therefore the conditional of

the compound proposition is true.

b. Note that "Manila is the capital of the Philippines" is true proposition while "fish live in the

moon" is false, thus the conditional of the compound proposition is false.

c. Given that "8-2 =5" and "4 +2=7" are both false, thus the conditional of the compound

proposition is true.
Exclusive-or. The exclusive-or of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition "p exclusive-or q."
Symbolically, p ④ q, where ④ is the symbol for "exclusive-or."

Property 6: If p and q are true or both false, then p ④ q is false; if p and q

have opposite truth values, then p ④ q is true.

Itcan be noted that the truth values of p ④ q is the negation of the truth values of p -* 9.

Given the proposition "Sofia will take her lunch in Batangas or she will have it in Singapore," it can be
noted from the statement that "Sofia cannot have her lunch in Batangas and at the same time do it in
Singapore," thus it is considered false.

If Sofia will have her lunch in Batangas or in Singapore, meaning she can only have it in one location
given a single schedule (the truth value is true). Lastly, if she ought to decide to have her lunch
elsewhere (neither in Batangas nor in Singapore), therefore the truth value is false.

Table 9.1 shows the common words or terms used in the six main logical connectives.

B. Switching Network

A switching network is a collection of wires and switches connecting two terminals, X and Y.A switch
may be either open, O or closed, C. An open switch will not permit the current to flow while a closed
switch will permit current to flow. Figure 9.1 illustrates the diagram for single wire, open switch, and
closed switch. Figure 9.2 shows the series and parallel switching network.

Two switches are complementary if one switch is open and the other is closed, and vice versa.In
addition, two switches are said to be equivalent if they have the same electrical properties concerning
the flow and non-flow of current,

Example 8: Construct the switching network equivalent in each of the following compound

statements.

a. IpAI)V(qA)]V-q

b. lpv(-pvq)v(pv-glAC. (pA~q)A(-pvqA(pv-O Solution:

Note that although the figure above shows a particular pattern of open and closed switches, a number
of different patterns that will allow the current to flow from X to Y are possible. The several patterns are
illustrated in the following diagrams:

C. Quantifiers

A predicate (or open statements) is a statement whose truth depends on the value of one or more
variables. Predicates become propositions once every variable is bound by assigning a universe of
discourse. Most of the propositions are defined in terms of predicates. For example,"x is an even
number" is a predicate whose truth depends on the value of x. The predicate is true for x=2 since 2 is an
even number, but false for x =3 since 3 is an odd number.

The same with other statements, predicates are often represented by a letter. Moreover, a predicate
can also be denoted by a function-like notation. We can denote the given predicate as:P(x)="x is an even
number." Now P(2) is true, and P(3) is false. If P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or false, depending
on the value of x.

A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it becomes a statement only when variable x is given a
particular value. Propositional functions are denoted as P(x), Q(x), R(x), and so on. The independent
variable of propositional function must have a universe of discourse, which is a set from which the
variable can take values.

Consider the sentence "If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of 2." The given sentence has the
logical form P(x)→ Q(x) and its truth value can be determine for a specific value of x. However,
statements such as

There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number.

For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x +1 is an odd number.

cannot be represented using logical connectives because of the presence of the phrases "there exists"
and "for all." These terms are known as existential and universal quantifiers. The universe of discourse
for the variable x is the set of positive real numbers for the proposition "There exists an x such that x is
odd number and 2x is even number."

Before we discuss quantifiers we will first define some important terms. Binding variable is used on the
variable x, we can say that the occurrence of this variable is bound. On contrary, a variable is said to be
free, if an occurrence of a variable is not bound. To convert a propositional function into a proposition,
all variables in a proposition must be bound or a particular value must be designated to them. This is
done by applying combination of quantifiers (universal,existential) and value assignments. The scope of
a quantifier is the part of an assertion in which variables are bound by the quantifier. Therefore, a
variable is free if it is outside the scope of all quântifiers.

The statement "there exists an x such that P(x)," is symbolized by 3x P(). The symbol 3 is called the
existential quantifier. The statement "Ix P(x)" is true if there is at least one value of x for which P(a) is
true. The statement "for all x, P(x)," is symbolized by Vx P(x). The symbol V is called the universal
quantifier. The statement "Vx P(x)" is true if only if P(x) is true for every value of x.

Table 9.3 shows common words associated with existential and universal quantifiers.

Truth Tables, Equivalent Statements, and Tautologies

A. Truth Tables

This section shows the construction of compound propositions through truth tables which referred as
standard truth table form. Let us examine the examples below.

Example 1: Construct the truth table far each of the following propositions,

a. -pv-q

c.(-p^q)V(p^-q)

B. Equivalent Statements

This section covers the definition of logically equivalent propositions and the laws of logical

equivalent which were supported with some examples.

Logically Equivalent. Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent (or equivalent) if they have the
same truth value for every row of the truth table, that is if x → y is a tautology.Symbolically, x=y.

Example 2: Show that the following are equivalent.

a. pA(qvr)and(pAq)v(P^r)

b. p→q and-q→-p

c.pe qand(p→q)^(9→p)

C. Tautologies

There are three important classes of compound statements namely tautology, contradiction,and
contingency which are briefly discussed below.

Tautology is a compound statement that is true for all possible combinations of the truth values of the
propositional variables also called logically true.

Contradiction is a compound statement that is false for all possible combinations of the truth values of
its propositional variables also called logically false or absurdity.

Contingency is a compound statement that can either.be true or false, depending on the truth values of
the propositional variables are neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Conditional, Biconditional and Related Statements

There are different ways to express the conditional proposition p → q. The conditional

proposition p→ q can be expressed in three variations using the logical connectives- and→.

Observe that p → q is equivalent to -q →-p, while q → p is equivalent to -p →-q. On the

other hand,p→ qis not equivalent to q→p and-p→-g.

Example 1: Given the conditional proposition "If Achaiah goes to school, then Sofia will go

home," determine the converse, inverse, and the contrapositive of the proposition.

Solution:Converse:Inverse:

If Sofia will go home, then Achaiah goes to school.

If Achaiah does not go to school, then Sofia will not go home.Contrapositive: If Sofia will not go home,
then Achaiah does not go to school.

Symbolic Arguments

A. Arguments

A proof is an argument from hypotheses (assumptions) to a conclusion. Each step of the argument
follows the laws of logic and rule of inference. In mathematics, a statement is considered valid if it is
accompanied by a proof. Proof is one of the important things that make mathematics different from
other discipline. It is not easy to establish proofs; there is no single guideline for proofs and it is not just
following rules, memorizing formulas, or even looking at some examples in text.

Most of the rules of inference are from tautologies. Since a tautology is a statement which is"always
true," it is used in drawing conclusions. Logic proofs usually begin with premises -statements that are
allowed to be assumed, while conclusion is the statement that needs to be proven. The idea is to make
use of the premises using rules of inference until we arrive at the conclusion. The arguments can be
written in symbolic form which will be discussed in the following examples.

Let us examine one rule of inference to prove the validity of arguments. One of the rules of inference is
the rule of detachment. Rule of Detachment (or Modus Ponens) means the method of affirming. The
truth table below shows that Ip A (p→ q)]→ q is a tautology.

p→q

The preceding examples show how to represent statements in logical symbols and the use of
tule of inference to prove the validity of the arguments.

Example 1: Rule for Detachment

a. Sofia wins P20,000,000 lotto.

b. If Sofia wins P20,000,000 lotto, then Achaiah will put up a business.

c Therefore, Achaiah will put up a business.

Example 2: Law of Syllogism

a. If 18 is divisible by 6, then 6 is divisible by 3,

b. If 6 is divisible by 3, then 18 is divisible by 3.

C. Therefore, if 18 is divisible by 6, then 18 is divisible by 3,

Example 3: Modus Tollens

a. If Manny Villar is elected Philippine President,then Erap Estrada will pledge as cabinet secretary b.
Erap Estrada did not pledge as cabinet secretary.

C. Therefore, Manny Villar was not elected Philippine President.

Example 4: Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism

a. Gregorio's pencil is in his bag or it is on his table.

Gregorio's pencil is not in his bag.

Therefore, Gregorio's pencil is on his table.

B. Fallacies

Logical Fallacies refers to faulty reasoning in logic of an argument. It is advantageous to know logical
fallacies in order to avoid them in an argument. There are different types of fallacies that we might use
to present our position. The following are the list of common types of fallacies with their corresponding
examples.

1. Appeal to Authority (or Argumentum Ad Verecundiam). It is an argument that occurs when we accept
or reject a claim merely because of the sources or authorities who made their positions on a certain
argument.

Example 1: The government should impose death penalty. Many respected people, such as the

former Secretary of Justice, have publicly stated her opposition to it.

Example 2: Floyd Mayweather signs autographs with Parker pen, so evidently Parker pen is
the most reliable pen on the market.

2. Appeal to Force (or Argumentum Ad Baculum). It is an argument which attempts to establish a

conclusion by threat or intimidation.

Example 1: You will support my idea and tell the others that I am right; because if you don't1

will do everything for you to lose your job.

Example 2: If you don't believe in God, you won't go to heaven.

3. Appeal to Ignorance (or Argumentum Ex Silentio). It is an argument supporting a claim

merely because there is no proof that it's wrong.

Example 1: Since time people have been trying to prove that God exists. But no one has yet

been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not exist.

Example 2: If you.can't say that there aren't Martians living in Mars, so it's safe for me to

accept there are.

4. Appeal to Pity (or Argumentum Ad Misericordiam). It is an argument that involves an irrelevant or

highly -exaggerated appeal to pity to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for
someone.

Example 1: Mark has worked hard on his research project; and he will be depressed if he fails.

For these reasons, you must give him a passing grade.

Example 2: The city engineer is a vital part of this city. If he is sent to prison, the city and his

family will suffer. Therefore, you must find in your heart to forgive him.

5. Appeal to the People (or Argumentum Ad Populum). It is an argument that the opinion of the

majority is always valid.

Example 1: Most Filipino like soda. Therefore, soda is good.

Example 2: Everyone I know is voting for Juan dela Cruz, so he's probably the best choice for

mayor.

6. Argumentum Ad Hominem (Latin for "to the man"). It is an attack on the character of a person of his
opinions or arguments. It is a tactic used by an adversary when they do not have a logical counter-
argument.
Example 1: Don't listen to Peter' s assertions on instruction, he's a simpleton.

Example 2: You can't believe that Presidential candidate is going to lower taxes. He's a liar.7. Circular
Argument (or Petitio Principii). If a premise of an argument presupposes the truth of its conclusions;
meaning, the argument takes for granted what it's supposed to prove.

Example 1: Senator Chiz Escudero is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.

Example 2: God exists because the Holy Bible says so. The. Holy Bible is true. Therefore, God

exists.

8. Equivocation. It is an argument used in two or more different senses/meanings within a single

argument.

Example 1: Giving financial support to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have the

right to our finances.

Therefore, some real numbers are less

Example 2: Some real numbers less than any number.

than itself.

9. Fallacy of Division. A reasoning which assumes that the characteristic of a group is also the

characteristic of each individual in the group.

Example 1: University of the Philippines is the best university in the country. Therefore, every

student from UP is better than any other university in the country.Example 2: Your family is crazy. That
means that you are crazy, too.

10. False Dilemma. It is an argument which implies one or two outcomes is inevitable and both

have negative consequences, but actually there could be more choices possible.

Example 1: If you don't vote for this candidate you must be antichrist.

Example 2: You either broke the glass door, or you did not. Which is it?

11. Hasty Generalization. It is an argument that a general conclusion on a certain condition is

always true based on insufficient or biased evidence.

Example 1: A MacBook broke after a month, so there must be something wrong in the

manufacture of MacBook.
Example 2: My cousin said that mathematics subjects were hard, and the one I'm enroled in

is hard, too. All mathematics classes must be hard.

12. Red Herring. It is an argument which introduces a topic related to the subject at hand. It is
diversionary tactic to avoid key issues, often way of avoiding opposing argument rather than addressing
them.

Example 1: Some politicians may be corrupt, but there are corrupt police, corrupt lawyers,

and even corrupt leaders of the church. There are also many honest police

officers. Therefore, let's put corrupt politicians in perspective.

Example 2: I know I forget to clean the toilet yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.13. Slippery Slope
(or snowball/domino theory). It is an argument which claims a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in
some extreme and after ludicrous will happen, but there's really not enough evidence for such
assumption.

Example 1: If high school students are given 15 minutes rather than 5 minutes break between

classes, they'll just start skipping classes.

Example 2: If I fail Algebra, I won't be able to graduate. If I don't graduate, I probably won't

be able to get a good job, and may very well end up like a beggar.

14. Strawman Fallacy. It is an argument that misrepresents position of the opponent in an

extreme or exaggerated form or attacking the weaker and irrelevant portion of an argument in order to
make it appear weaker than it actually is. The objective is to refute the

misrepresentation of the position, and conclude that the real position has been refuted.

Example 1: Congressman who does not support the proposed national minimum wage

increase hates the poor.

Example 2: A mandatory helmet law for motorcycle drivers could never be enforced. You

can't issue tickets to dead people.