TITLE

Intermolecular forces and molecules

AUTHORS
Ted Clark (The Ohio State University)

Julia Chamberlain (University of Colorado Boulder)

COURSE
General Chemistry

TYPE
Interactive Lecture Demonstration Guide

TEACHING MODE
Lecture Demonstration

LEARNING GOALS
Students will be able to:
 Use VSEPR theory to construct common molecules.
 Sketch electron density and identify partial charges based on molecule geometry and
electronegativity.
 Distinguish between bond and molecule dipoles.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 1

 Classify molecules as polar or non-polar.
 Compare and contrast permanent and induced dipoles.
 Identify hydrogen-bonding, and discuss its origin in terms of molecule geometry and
electronegativity.
 Explain properties, such as boiling or melting point, by considering different intermolecular forces.
 Relate the relative strength of intermolecular forces with melting point or boiling point data, and
with particle-level representations of substances at different temperatures.
 Describe the dynamic particle motion in a liquid, including the arrangement and motion of
molecules accompanying hydrogen-bonding and ion-dipole interactions.
 Explain ion-pairing at the particle-level, and describe how this affects colligative properties.

COPYRIGHT
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

This license allows users to share and adapt the materials, as long as appropriate attribution is given
(with a link to the original), an indication if changes have been made, and an indication of the original
licensing.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 2

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES

Different intermolecular forces and their role in phase changes are introduced and investigated
by examining molecule geometry, polarity, and charge distribution in molecules.

PLACEMENT IN COURSE:
 This activity follows the PhET activity “Intermolecular Forces and States of Matter”.

 End of 1st semester or start of 2nd semester of General Chemistry.

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE:
 States of Matter, Physical and Chemical Changes

 Lewis Structures, VSEPR-predicted Geometry

 Electronegativity, Bond and Molecular Dipoles, Partial Charges

 Polar and Non-polar Molecules

 Electrostatic forces have been introduced, e.g. to introduce ionic compounds, but may not have
been explicitly identified in molecules.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Simulations Format Objectives, concepts

Molecule Instructor-
 Use VSEPR theory to construct common molecules.
Shapes led

Molecule Instructor-  Sketch the electron density and identify partial charges
Polarity led for different molecules based on molecule geometry and
electronegativity.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 3

  Distinguish between bond and molecule dipoles.

 Classify molecules as polar or non-polar.

 Compare and contrast permanent and induced dipoles.

 Identify hydrogen-bonding, and discuss its origin in terms

of molecule geometry and electronegativity.

 Explain properties, such as boiling point and melting

point, by considering different intermolecular forces.

States of Instructor-  Relate the relative strength of intermolecular forces with

Matter led melting point or boiling point data, and with particle-level
representations of substances at different temperatures.

Sugar and Instructor-  Describe the dynamic particle motion in a liquid, including
Salt led the arrangement and motion of molecules accompanying
Solutions hydrogen-bonding and ion-dipole interactions.

 Explain ion-pairing at the particle-level, and describe how

this affects colligative properties.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 4

 RESOURCES:
Molecule Polarity: http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/molecule-polarity

Molecule Shapes: http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/molecule-shapes

States of Matter: http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/states-of-matter-basics

Sugar and Salt Solutions: http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/sugar-and-salt-solutions

KEYWORDS:
Electrostatic potential, molecule geometry, VSEPR, dipoles, partial charges, electronegativity,
polar and non-polar molecules, intermolecular forces, ion-pairing, phase changes.

TEACHER WARM-UP:
Use the sim for 10 minutes before you teach with it to achieve the following goals:

 Find and understand all the controls and what they do. Which will be most useful for
illustrating your learning objectives? Make sure you can use the sim to answer student
questions and illustrate additional points that come up.

 Practice the actions and pacing for your demonstration using the sim. Make sure you are
comfortable explaining what you’re doing while controlling the sim.

 Think about how you will use the sim to engage students in making predictions, observing and
experiencing the demonstration, and reflecting on those predictions and observations.

TEACHER-LED ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION

BENCHTOP DEMONSTRATION – DISCUSSION OF LIQUID NITROGEN

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 5

 Consider a container of liquid nitrogen. This liquid is used in industry, in laboratories, and in
television and movies.

 Would you describe liquid nitrogen as “hot” or “cold”?

 What happens when the liquid is heated up? Do the molecules move apart, do bonds break
within the N2 molecules, or both?

 Would you say the attractions between N2 molecules are strong or weak? This room contains a
lot of nitrogen gas. Is it easy to vaporize N2(l)?

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 6

 MOLECULE SHAPES:

The sim Molecule Shapes allows investigation of VSEPR-predicted geometries for model and
real molecules.

 Using the sim, investigate and review common molecule geometries.

 Prompt students to draw the Lewis structures and apply VSEPR theory for molecules like H2O,
CO2, and SO2. To check answers, students report the number of bonds and/or lone pairs.
Molecules are constructed within the sim to illustrate VSPER theory. These molecular shapes
are then summarized on a slide (Slide 1).

 Emphasize that identifying the proper molecule geometry is necessary for determining a
molecule’s polarity.

Slide 1: Practice with VSEPR and Determining Molecule Geometry

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 7

 MOLECULE POLARITY – THREE ATOMS SCREEN PART I:

Use the Three Atoms screen of the Molecule Polarity sim to manipulate the
electronegativity of, and angle between, the three atoms.

 Keep in mind; you are likely much more familiar with these different representations than
your students. As you do this demonstration, explicitly note what various representations
communicate, including partial charges, bond and molecular dipoles, and electrostatic
potential.

 Use the sim to illustrate how differences in electronegativity lead to bond dipoles as follows:

 Make a change in the sim, e.g. increase electronegativity, and see the response in the sim. This
may lead to predictions, such as “given the electronegativity difference, which region is
partially negative?” that may be checked within the sim.

 Turn on the electric field, causing a polar molecule to align with the field. Use this to show how
the negative region of the molecule becomes aligned toward the positive. Introduce the term
dipole moment.

 After using the sim, summarize the information on a slide (Slide 2). Prompt students to discuss
how this analysis applies for H2O, CO2, and SO2. Which molecules will rotate and align when
placed in an electric field? Return to the sim and check predictions.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 8

 Slide 2: Summarizing Molecule Polarity and Determining Dipole Moments

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 9

 MOLECULE POLARITY – THREE ATOMS SCREEN PART II:

 Students may not understand how a molecule can have bond dipoles but not a molecular
dipole. As needed, investigate a molecule (like CO2) that has bond dipoles but not a molecular
dipole.

 Walk students through exploration of the non-polar three-atom model example in the sim:

o Adjust the electronegativity, predict then show the bond dipoles and partial charges.
o Change the bond angle, predict then show the molecular dipole.
o Predict then show the response in an electric field.
o Identify as non-polar
o Summarize findings on a slide (Slide 3)

Slide 3: Summarizing Polar and Non-Polar Findings

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 10

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 11
 MOLECULE POLARITY – REAL MOLECULES SCREEN:

The Real Molecules screen of Molecule Polarity allows the user to investigate various
molecules and examine various representations.

 Identify the molecules H2O, CO2, and H2, as polar or non-polar. Prompt students to
predict/sketch what the electrostatic potential looks like. Which regions are positive? Which
regions are negative?

 Since H2O has clear positive and negative regions, it is possible to envision how polar
molecules are attracted to each other (and “fit” together). This orientation is observed in the
States of Matter sim for H2O(s). It is less clear how/why non-polar molecules are attracted to
each other, and even less obvious how a covalently bonded molecule (like H2) has
intermolecular attractions (see Slide 4).

 The sim images show that a molecule like H2, even though it does not have a permanent dipole,
still has a surrounding electron density. This point can lead to a discussion of van der Waal
forces and spontaneous and induced dipoles.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 12

 Slide 4: Comparison of Electrostatic Potential in Polar and Non-Polar
Molecules.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 13

 STATES OF MATTER – STATES OF MATTER SCREEN

The sim States of Matter shows particle-level representations of different substances in

different phases. The relative strength of intermolecular forces can be compared for different
substances by examining which phase exists at a particular temperature.

 Begin with Ne(s) and add heat. Prompt students to identify when the phase change occurs; this
requires an understanding of how the solid and liquid differ at the particle-level. Estimate the
temperature for this phase change. Continue and identify the approximate boiling point Ne(l).
Record the data.

 Discussion: “Would the melting point and boiling point be different for a substance with
stronger intermolecular forces? One with weaker intermolecular forces?”

 Move on to an image (like Slide 5) that shows the particle-level representations for different
substances at the same temperature. Analyze and discuss the relative strength of
intermolecular forces. The manner in which molar mass (and polarizability) affects van der
Waals forces may be introduced to explain the differences between neon and argon.

 Given their experiences, ask students to identify the relative strength of H2O’s intermolecular
forces when compared to argon and oxygen.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 14

 Slide 5: Intermolecular Forces Question

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 15

 MOLECULE POLARITY – REAL MOLECULES SCREEN:

To investigate dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen-bonds, it is important to first examine

molecular geometry. Use the Molecule Polarity sim to illustrate the geometry of various
molecules.

 Begin by having students determine the molecular geometry (based on Lewis structures and
VSPER theory) and sketch each one. Within the sim confirm their structures and then share
the information on a slide (Slide 6). Rotating a molecule is a good way to show its geometry.

 Having determined the geometry of different molecules, ask students to predict partial charges
and molecule dipoles for each one. The electrostatic potential and partial charge
representations are then added in the sim and summarized on a slide (Slide 7).

 Compare and contrast the negative and positive regions in molecules with hydrogen-bonding
(H2O, HF, NH3) versus those without (BF3, CH3F, H2).

 When identifying hydrogen bonding, a common misconception is labeling hydrogen bonds

within a molecule as “hydrogen bonding”. Utilize this in-class assignment to address this
point: “Sketch a mixture of H2O and H2. Use about 5 molecules of each, and include the correct
molecular geometry. Then, within the sketch, show the hydrogen bonding with dashed lines.”

Slide 6: Molecular Shapes for Real Slide 7: Showing the Electrostatic Potential for
Molecules Molecules with and without Hydrogen-bonding.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 16

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 17
 MOLECULE POLARITY – REAL MOLECULES SCREEN:
Intermolecular forces and electrostatic interactions at the particle-level may be used to
explain variations in a physical property.

 Different molecules are shown, along with their electrostatic potentials and electronegativity
values (Slide 8).

 Both CH4 and CF4 are non-polar, but CF4 has stronger intermolecular forces leading to a higher
boiling point. Do electronegativity differences account for this difference? Due to the molecule
geometry, the bond dipoles in each cancel. In this case, differences in molar mass
(polarizability) account for the variation in boiling point.

 Having noted that molar mass affects van der Waals forces, a comparison is then made
between CF4 and CH3F. Which has stronger intermolecular forces? The CH3F. How can CH3F
have the stronger intermolecular forces than CF4 since it has a smaller molar mass? As shown
in Slide 7, CH3F is a polar molecule with dipole-dipole intermolecular forces.

 There are many topics included in this discussion and subtleties to the reasoning:

o All of the molecules have van der Waal interactions, but it was only used to explain
differences between the non-polar molecules.

o The electronegativity for fluorine is much greater than hydrogen, but both CH4 and CF4
are non-polar and neither has a dipole moment.

o Even though these molecules include H and F, there are not hydrogen-bonds.

 Many times intermolecular forces are used to explain variation in a property once the “answer
is already known”. In other words, given the boiling point data, differences in molar mass
cannot be the determining factor when comparing CF4 and CH3F. Note that multiple
intermolecular forces are required to explain the boiling point differences between CH4, CF4,
and CH3F. Questions like the one on Slide 8 help students to think broadly about the possible
intermolecular forces for each case, rather than choosing one intermolecular force as a
category for “ranking”, without considering other factors.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 18

 Slide 8: Showing the electrostatic potential for molecules along
with electronegativity values.

SUGAR AND SALT SOLUTIONS – WATER SCREEN:

Another type of intermolecular forces is ion-dipole interactions. Ion-dipole interactions are

present in a NaCl(aq) solution.

 Use the sim to show H2O(l). Partial charges may be included and the alignment of the
molecules noted. This helps reinforce the idea that intermolecular forces are acting between
molecules.

 Due to particle motion, the + and – charges are not always aligned. The sim is well-suited to
illustrate the dynamic motion in the liquid and the balance of intermolecular forces and kinetic
energy.

 NaCl(s) is then added to the water in the sim. It may be helpful to pause and reset the sim
since the Na+ and Cl- ions move quickly on the screen. You can also grab an ion and move it.
Identify the ion-dipole attractions acting between the cation or anion and the water.

 In the sim, solvation is shown to be a dynamic process with H2O molecules moving about an
ion. This is an improvement over static images showing the water always aligned in an
optimal arrangement around an ion when describing ion-dipole interactions.

 Ion-pairing refers to the clustering of ions in the solution, which affects colligative properties
like boiling point elevation by reducing the number of independent solute particles in solution.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 19

 A common misconception is that electric charge “is used up”, e.g. when explaining ionization
energy. Ion-dipole interactions do not “use up” the electrostatic potential and interactions
between Na+ and Cl- still occur. This point is considered in Slide 8.

 Summarize the intermolecular forces uses the examples and information in Slide 9.

Slide 9: Identifying the Intermolecular Forces in Water and Salt

Water

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND MOLECULES 20