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Edexcel GCSE Physics Your notes

Atomic Structure
Contents
Inside the Atom
Protons, Neutrons & Electrons
Atomic & Mass Number
Isotopes
Electron Structure
Positive Ions
Developing Models of the Atom

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Inside the Atom

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Inside the Atom
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter
Atoms have a tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus at their centre, with negatively charged
electrons orbiting around the nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000 times smaller than the whole atom, but it contains almost all of
the mass of the atom

Diagram showing the structure of a Lithium atom. If drawn to scale then the electrons would be around
100 metres away from the nucleus!
Parts of the Atom
The nucleus contains:
Protons - positively charged particles with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Neutrons – no charge, and also with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Almost all of the atom is empty space, but moving around the nucleus there are:
Electrons – negative charge with almost no mass (1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron)

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The Size of the Atom

Atoms are incredibly small, with a radius of only 1 × 10-10 m Your notes

This is 0.0000000001 m when written without standard form

This means that about one hundred million atoms could fit side by side across your thumbnail
A group of atoms can bond together to make molecules, such as water
A water molecule is comprised of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom

A 200 ml glass of water will contain approximately 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 water

molecules!

Examiner Tips and Tricks

There are many different models of the atom. As you progress through the topic you will discover
that the atom can be described in many different ways, such as the Plum Pudding Model that is
covered later, but for your exam, make sure to only use the model and descriptions described here.

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Protons, Neutrons & Electrons

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Relative Mass & Charge
Properties of Sub-atomic particles
The different particles that make up atoms have different properties
Relative mass is a way of comparing particles. It is measured in atomic mass units (amu)
A relative mass of 1 is equal to mass of 1.67 × 10-27 kg
Charge can be positive or negative
Relative charge is, again, used to compare particles
The fundamental charge is equal to the size of the charge on a proton and an electron, however the
electron's charge is negative
The properties of each of the particles are shown in the table below:

Positrons
A positron is the antiparticle of an electron
It has the same mass as an electron, and the same size of charge, however it has a positive charge
Positrons can be produced during nuclear beta-plus decay
a proton spontaneously changes into a neutron and a positron
They only exist in normal conditions for a fraction of a second before they react with electrons and are
destroyed

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Electrons & Protons

Although atoms contain particles of different charge, the total charge within an atom is zero Your notes

This is because the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons

A Lithium atom has three protons, four neutrons and three electrons
The following table sets out the calculation of the total charge in the Lithium atom:
Total Charge Calculation Table

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If an atom loses electrons, then it is said to be ionised

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Worked Example
A nucleus of carbon-12 is shown below.

How many electrons are there in an atom of carbon-12?

Answer:
Step 1: Count the number of protons in the carbon nucleus
There are 6 protons in the carbon atom
Step 2: Determine the number of electrons
Remember, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons
Therefore there must be 6 electrons in the carbon atom

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Atomic & Mass Number

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Atomic & Mass Number
Atomic Number
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number (it can also be called the proton number)
Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
For example:
Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
This is because a neutral atom has the same number of electrons and protons in order to have no
overall charge

Mass Number
The total number of particles in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number (it is also called the
nucleon number)
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom
The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number
Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number
For example, if a sodium atom has a mass number of 23 and an atomic number of 11, then the number of
neutrons would be 23 – 11 = 12
The mass number of an element can change, which means they are are isotopes

Nuclear Notation
The mass number and atomic number of an atom are shown by writing them with the atomic symbol
This is called nuclear notation

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Here are three examples:

Your notes

Examples of nuclear notation for atoms of Hydrogen, Sodium and Uranium

The top number is the mass number
This is equal to the total number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
The lower number is the atomic number
This is equal to the total number of protons in the nucleus
The atomic and mass number of each type of atom in the examples above is shown in this table:
Protons, Neutrons & Electrons Table

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Your notes
Worked Example
The element symbol for gold is Au. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in the gold atom?

Answer: D
Step 1: Determine the atomic and mass number
The gold atom has an atomic number of 79 (lower number) and a mass number of 197 (top
number)
Step 2: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is equal to the number of protons
The atom has 79 protons
Step 3: Calculate the number of neutrons
The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons
The number of neutrons is equal to the mass number minus the atomic number
197 - 79 = 118
The atom has 118 neutrons

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Step 4: Determine the number of electrons

An atom has the same number of protons and electrons Your notes
The atom has 79 electrons

Worked Example
State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 atoms.
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is the number of protons
Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 protons
Step 2: Determine the number of neutrons
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons
Chlorine-35 neutrons: 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
Chlorine-36 neutrons: 36 - 17 = 19 neutrons
Step 3: Determine the number of electrons
The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons
Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 electrons

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You may have noticed that the number of electrons is not part of the mass number. This is because
electrons have a tiny mass compared to neutrons and protons. We say their mass is negligible when
compared to the particles in the nucleus.

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Isotopes
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Isotopes
Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the number of neutrons can
be different
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an equal number of protons but a different number
of neutrons
In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:

Hydrogen has three isotopes, each with a different number of neutrons

Isotopes occur naturally, but some are more rare than others
For example, about 2 in every 10,000 Hydrogen atoms is Deuterium
Tritium is even more rare (about 1 in every billion billion hydrogen atoms)

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Differences Between Isotopes

The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom, such as its Your notes
charge, but only its mass
This is because neutrons have no charge but do have mass
The charge of the nucleus of a particular element is always the same
In the periodic table, the mass number of Chlorine is often given as 35.5

This section of a periodic table shows Chlorine as having a mass number of 35.5, but other elements
have an integer mass number
The mass number of chlorine is given as 35.5 because it has 2 isotopes, one with a mass number of 35
and the other with a mass number of 37
Chlorine-35 is about three times more abundant than chlorine-37, so the given mass number of
chlorine is closer to 35 than 37
The number of electrons and protons in different isotopes remains the same
Some isotopes are unstable as they have an imbalance of protons and neutrons

Worked Example

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One of the rows in the table shows a pair of nuclei that are isotopes of one another.

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Which row is correct?

Answer: B
Step 1: Properties of isotopes
Isotopes are nuclei with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
The nucleon number is the sum of the protons and neutron
Therefore, an isotope has a different nucleon number too
Step 2: Calculate protons in the first nucleus
Nucleon number: 37
Neutrons: 20
Protons = 37 − 20 = 17
Step 3: Calculate protons in the second nucleus
Nucleon number: 35
Neutrons: 18
Protons = 35 − 18 = 17
Step 4: Conclusion

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Therefore, they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons and are
isotopes of each other
Your notes
The correct answer is therefore option B

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Electron Structure
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Electron Structure
Electrons in an atom orbit around the nucleus at particular distances, known as energy levels
A certain number of electrons can occupy each energy level
For example, only two electrons can orbit in the first energy level
Only eight electrons can fit in the second energy level, and eight in the third as well
The higher the energy level, the further the distance of the electron from the nucleus

In this diagram the first two energy levels are full. Electrons further from the nucleus have more energy
Like moving up a ladder, electrons in higher energy levels have greater potential energy because they
have more distance between them and the nucleus

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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If you are studying for your Chemistry GCSE then you will need to know the number of electrons that
fit into the different energy levels. They may also be called electron shells.
Your notes
The Absorption and Emission of EM Radiation
Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation
Electrons are able to temporarily move between energy levels when they absorb or emit energy
This means that they change their orbit
When electrons absorb electromagnetic radiation, they move to a higher energy level
This happens when waves of electromagnetic radiation (such as light and heat) hit them

The electron absorbs electromagnetic radiation which causes it to move up an energy level
Dark coloured objects are good absorbers of radiation
They appear dark because they do not reflect the energy that hits them

Emission of Electromagnetic Radiation

When an electron has moved up an energy level, it will be in an excited state
Eventually, it will move back down to its original energy level, which will be closer to the nucleus
As it moves back down, it emits a wave of electromagnetic radiation

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Your notes

The electron emits a wave of electromagnetic radiation and moves down an energy level
All of the colours in the visible spectrum are produced in this way
The light waves come from electrons moving down energy levels and emitting electromagnetic
radiation

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Whilst you are expected to know about energy levels and the absorption and emission of
electromagnetic waves, you are not expected to know about the number of electrons in each
energy level or the way in which they fill up – that’s all part of Chemistry.

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Positive Ions
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Positive Ions
Electrons in the outer energy level can be knocked out from an atom
This can happen in a number of ways:
When objects are rubbed together, electrons can be removed by friction
When electrons absorb electromagnetic radiation they can gain enough energy to leave the atom
From chemical reactions
When one or more electrons are removed from an atom, it becomes positively charged
This is because an electron is negatively charged
The atom becomes a positive ion
An ion is an atom or particle with a non-zero charge

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Your notes

When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock electrons out, leaving the atom with an overall
positive charge
Ions are more chemically reactive than atoms because of their positive charge

Worked Example
Which option describes the change that a Ca (Calcium) atom would undergo in order to form a Ca2+
ion?
A. The atom has gained two protons
B. The atom has lost two protons
C. The atom has gained two electrons

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D. The atom has lost two electrons

Answer: D Your notes
The answer is not A because a change in the number of protons would cause the element
symbol to change
The answer is not B because a change in the number of protons would cause the element
symbol to change and losing protons would result in a more negatively charged particle
The answer is not C because gaining electrons would make a particle more negatively charged
The answer is D because an electron carries a charge of -1
The charge on an atom is 0
When 2 electrons are lost from an atom then it will lose two lots of -1 charge
The new charge can be worked out as:
0 - 2(-1) = +2

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Definitions are very important for picking up marks on this topic. Be clear with your definitions such
as ions and isotopes, and remember that ions have different numbers of electrons, whereas
isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

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Developing Models of the Atom

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Developing Models of the Atom
The understanding of what atoms are has changed through time
Different models have been developed, and then replaced as new evidence from experiments is
discovered
A model is a way of describing something in order to explain the way it behaves

Early Models of the Atom

Greek and Indian philosophers were the first to try and describe the idea of everything being made up
of smaller parts
The Greek philosopher, Democritus, thought that although objects could be cut into smaller pieces,
the smallest possible piece would be indivisible (it could not be cut any further)
The Greek word for ‘indivisible’ is atomos
Therefore, atoms were initially thought to be tiny spheres that could not be divided before the
discovery of the electron
Later models described the atom as small solid spheres

JJ Thompson’s Plum Pudding Model

At the end of the 19th Century, Physicist Joseph Jon Thompson discovered the existence of electrons
This new evidence meant a better model of the atom was required
Thompson proposed the Plum Pudding model
The atom was thought to consist of negatively charged electrons (the ‘plums’) in a positively
charged ‘dough’ or ‘pudding’

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Your notes

J J Thomson thought of the atom as being a positively charged mass embedded with small negatively
charged electrons – a bit like a plum pudding
It was known that electrons were much smaller than atoms, so it made sense that they should be
embedded within the larger atom
Since electrons have a negative charge, it was reasoned that the rest of the atom would be positive,
making the atom neutral overall

Rutherford's Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

In 1909 a group of scientists were investigating the Plum Pudding model
Physicist, Ernest Rutherford was instructing two of his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden
to carry out the experiment
They were directing a beam of alpha particles (He2+ ions) at a thin gold foil
They expected the alpha particles to travel through the gold foil, and maybe change direction a small
amount
Instead, they discovered that :
Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil

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Some of the alpha particles changed direction but continued through the foil
A few of the alpha particles bounced back off the gold foil Your notes
The bouncing back could not be explained by the Plum Pudding model, so a new model had to be
created

When alpha particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through, some are deflected
and a very small number bounce straight back
Ernest Rutherford made different conclusions from the findings of the experiment
The table below describes the findings and conclusions of A, B and C from the image above:
Alpha Scattering Findings and Conclusions Table

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Your notes

The Nuclear Model

Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the atom
In the nuclear model:
Nearly all of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the centre of the atom (in the nucleus)
The nucleus is positively charged
Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus at a distance
Rutherford’s nuclear model replaced the Plum Pudding model
The nuclear model could explain experimental observations better than the Plum Pudding model

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Your notes

The Nuclear model replaced the Plum Pudding model as it could better explain the observations of
Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment
The Bohr Model of the Atom
In 1913 the Danish Physicist, Niels Bohr, came up with an improved model of the atom
He used the nuclear model to create his model
In the Bohr model of the atom:
Electrons orbit the nucleus at different distances
The different orbit distances are called energy levels
Up to 2 electrons orbit in the first energy level
Up to 8 electrons can orbit in the second energy level
Up to 8 electrons can orbit in the third energy level

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Your notes

In the Bohr model of the atom electrons orbit in distinct energy levels, which are at different distances
from the nucleus
Successes of the Bohr Model
The Bohr model became the accepted model because:
It was able to explain the findings from different experiments better than the nuclear model of the
atom
It was able to explain the processes of absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation
Theoretical calculations made using the Bohr model agreed with experimental results

The Changing Models of the Atom

The understanding of the structure of an atom has changed over time
The best model of an atom is the one that can explain the evidence of experiments best
As more evidence has been collected, the models have improved
The image below shows a timeline of the different models of the atom

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Your notes

Scientific models are used to explain observations. Models of the atom have changed and improved
throughout history

Worked Example
Explain:

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a) Why Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment lead to a new model of the atom, called the nuclear
model, and replaced the ‘plum pudding’ model.
Your notes
b) Why it is important that the experimental results and the predictions are the same.
Answer:
Part (a)
The experimental results of the gold foil experiment could not be explained using the plum
pudding model
Therefore, the plum pudding model was disapproved and a new model, the nuclear model, was
devised to match the results
Part (b)
If the predictions are correct, then this proves that the nuclear model is correct

Examiner Tips and Tricks

For the exam you need to be able to describe the features of JJ Thompson’s Plum Pudding model,
but you do not need to know how electrons were discovered (this is covered at A Level), or about
very early atomic models. Try to remember the different advantages that later models had over
earlier models.

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