CHAPTER: 1

Networks Basics
 Concept of network
 Definition & historical review of network
 Definition of Protocol
 Network Criteria
 Advantages of Computer Networks
 Applications of Computer Networks
 Point –to-Point networks and Broadcast networks
 Network Topologies:
Star, Ring, Bus, Mesh, Tree
 Network categories:
o LAN,WAN,MAN

1
 What is Computer Network?

 Computer network is group of devices (nodes/computers) connected to each other with the help o
transmission media (physical link) to transfer information/data from one device to another device.
OR
A Network consists of two or more computers connected to each other by a cable so that they can
share data. The user of one computer connects his computer to other computers, he could share the
data on the other computers & the other devices together are called a network.
OR
A Network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node
can be a computer, printer, or any other devices capable of sending and/or receiving data generated
by other nodes on the network.

The function of computer network is providing better communications.

 The concept of connecting computers for sharing resources is called networking.

 The components or parts of computer networks.

1. Sender
2. Receiver
3. Message
4. Transmission media
5. Protocols.

Rule1: Rule1:

Rule2: Rule2:
Protocol Protocol
………… ……..

Rule n: Rule n:

Message
Sender Receiver
Medium

1. Sender: The sender is a device that sends the data message. it can be computer ,workstation,
telephone handset, video camera.

2. Receiver: The receiver is a device that receives the message. It can be computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television.

3. Message: A message is a group of bits wise information.

The message is the information (data) to be transmitted. Popular form of information includes
text, number, picture, audio and video.
4. Transmission media: The transmission media is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some example of transmission media includes twisted pair, fiber optics,

2
 and radio waves.

5. Protocols: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

 Definition of Protocol

 Protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication ,

 A Protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it

Communicated.
The key elements of protocols are as below:
 Syntax. Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data. Meaning of order in which they are
represented. a simple protocol might expect the first 8-bits of data to be address of the
sender, the second 8-bits the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.

 Semantics. Semantics refers to the meaning of each section bits.

 Timing. Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be send and how fast it can be send.
If the sender produce data at 100 mbps but receiver can process data at only 1 mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

 Network criteria:
A network must be able to meet certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

1. Performance: performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time.

 Transit time: transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another.

 Response time: response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response

 The performance of network also depends on number of factors such as number of users,
type of transmission media, capability of connecting hardware and efficiency of software.

 Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often
need more throughputs and less delay.

 If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we also
increase delay because of traffic congestion in the network.

2. Reliability: in terms of accuracy of delivery.

 Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure.

3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development.

3
  Application of Network (USES OF Network)

You can do the following things with the help of network that you cannot easily do with non-
networked, stand-alone personal computers.

1. Share file:

With the help of network enables many users to share a single copy of file stored on a central file
server, which helps the organization keep its records documents and other file consistent.
An attorney's office may have a common pool of documents that the various servers can access.

2. Transfer files A LAN enable you to copy the fries from machine to machine without having to
exchange floppy diskettes. This is especially useful for large files, that don't fit on single floppy disks.

3. Access Information & Files A LAN enables anyone to run accounting software or their application
software from of the workstation. Employees can access software tools from any LAN-connected
desktop computer
4. Share Applications: A LAN enables people to use the same copy of the Microsoft word processing
program for e.g. They all know they are using the same version of the software, and a LAN
administrator can install software updates that affect everyone immediately. Two-people cannot edit
the same document simultaneous

5. Printer sharing using a LAN you can share one or more expensive printers among several
workstations.

6. Electronic Mail — you can use a LAN as a post office to send memos, reports and typed
messages to other people in other parts of the building.

 Characteristics of Network /Advantages of Computer Network

The following are the characteristics of a network:

1. Resource Sharing: - t means that equipment is shared by all computers. The goal is to make all
programs equipment and especially data available to anyone on the network without regard to the
physical location of the resource and the use.

2. High Reliability: - The next goal of n/w is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of
supply. For e.g. All files could be replicated on two or more machines, so if one of them is
unavailable (due to a hardware failure) lire other copies could be used in addition the presence of
multiple CPUs means that if one goes down, the others may be able to take over its work although
at reduced performance.

3. Saving Money: - Small computers have a much better price/performance ratio than large ones
mainframes (room size computers) are roughly a factor of ten faster than personal computers, but
they cost a thousand times more.

4. Scalability: - It is the ability to increase system performance gradually as the workload grows just by
adding more processors.

5. Powerful Communication Medium: - Using a network if is easy two or more people who live far
apart to write a report together e.g. When one worker makes a change to art on-fine document,

4
 the others can see the change immediacy instead of waiting several days for a letter.

6. Multivendor Support: -The devices, which are used in network any company's equipment can be
added, it is not necessary that particular company's equipment is needed.

7. Improved performance / response: - LAN is very responsible networking and we can improve its
performance by adding new H\W & S\W device.

8. Flexibility of equipment location: - if we can change the location of any LAN or peripheral device
means we can change the place of the printer where we need.

 Line configuration
Networks normally use the following two types of (Line configuration)
connection:

 Point-to-Point connection,
 Multipoint connection.

o Point-to-Point connection:

 In point-to-point connection there is a direct link between two devices.

 The point-to-point connection provides a dedicated (direct) link between two devices.

 The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

 Most point-to-point connection uses an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends.

Station Link Station

In above figure show the there is direct link between computer and printer.

o Multipoint connection:

 In multipoint connection there is a link among three or more devices.

 A multipoint connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link.

5
  In multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporary.

 If several devices can use the link simultaneously , it is a spatially shared connections
 Multipoint connection is a timeshared connection.

St.1 St.2

Main
frame

St.3

In above fig show the three computers are connected with one common printer.
Broadcast Networks:

 Broadcast links connects two/more nodes and support broadcast transmission where one
node can transmit so that all other nodes can receive the same transmission.
 It has a single communication channel that is shared or used by all the machines on the
network.
 A short message called packets sent by machine is received by all the others.
 Broadcast systems generally use a special code in the address field for addressing.
 This mode of operation is called broadcasting(e.g. Ethernet ,TV ,Radio)
 No fixed receiver.

 Network Topology
Definition of Topology:

 The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
 Definition: The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices

 Topology of network refers to the physical connection between link and linking devices (nodes).
OR
 Topology refers to the shape of network.

6
  Topology also refers to the graphical representation between physical link and devices.
 Topology means physical structure by which computers are connected with each other’s.

Depending on requirement there are different types of topologies to construct a network.

There are six basic topologies possible are as follows:
 Mesh
 Star
 Ring
 Bus
 Tree
 Hybrid

 Mesh topology:

In mesh topology, every devices (nodes) is connected to every others devices.

 Mesh topology has a dedicated link point-to-point link between devices.
 A fully connected mesh topology has n (n-1)/2 physical channels. (n=number nodes).
 Every device on network must have n-1 input/output ports.

Advantages of mesh topology

 Use of dedicated links eliminates the traffic problem.

 It is robust means one link become unusable then other work completely.
 Privacy is maintained.
 At the same time one device can communicate with number of devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

 The amount of cabling requires is more.

 The number of I/O ports required more.
 Required more cost.
 Implemented in limited fashion.

7
 Star topology

 In star topology every devices are connected to the centrally devices is

Called HUB.
 Each device on star topology communicated with central hub that resends the data either to all
devices or only to the one destination.

Advantages of Star topology

 Easy to modify and add new devices.
 Less expensive than mesh.
 Easy to install and fault isolation.
 Single computer failure does not affect the network.

Disadvantages of Star topology

 Failure of hub the entire network goes down.
 More cable is required comapare to bus topology.

 Ring topology

 In ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line only with two devices on either side
of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device until it reaches its destination.
 Each device in ring has a repeater.
 When a device receives a signal intended for another device, ites repeater regenerate the bits and
passes them along.

8
 Advantages of Ring topology

 Easy to install and reconfirm.

 Adding or deleting the devices is easy.
 No terminator is required.
 Network efficiency 100% under heavy load.
 Allow equal access to all computers.

Disadvantages of Ring topology

 A break in ring can stop the transmission in network.

 Expensive when compare with other topology.
 Adding and removing the devices disturbs the network.
 Difficult to troubleshoot

 Bus topology

 A bus topology is multipoint.

 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in network.
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and tapes.
 A drop line is a line that running between the devices and main cable.
 A tape is connectors that connect drop line with backbone.

Advantages of Bus topology

 Simple, reliable and easy to use.

 Easy to installation.
 Cheaper than other topology.
 Less cabling required.

Disadvantages of bus topology.

 Can be use only on small network.

 All the computers share the same bus.
 Adding new nodes troubleshooting are difficult.
 It cannot work efficiently under heavy network traffic.
 Terminators are required.
 Entire network goes down if break in the main cable (backbone).

9
 Tree topology

 It is similar to the star topology, but the nodes are connected to the secondary hub that in turn is
connected to the central hub.
 In tree topology the central hub is the active hub contain repeater, which regenerates the bit pattern.
 The secondary hub can be either active or passive .a passive hub provides a simple physical
connection between the nodes.

Advantages

 More devices to be attached to a single central hub.

 It increase the distance a signal can travel between devices.
 It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.

Disadvantages

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

 Classify Networks based on Scale/Categories of Computer Network

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or campus of up to few
kilometers in size.
 These are used to share resources (may be hardware or software resources) and to exchange
information.
 LANs are restricted in size, which means that their worst-case transmission time is bounded and known
in advance.
 Hence this is more reliable as compared to MAN and WAN. It also simplifies the network management.
 LAN typically used transmission technology consisting of single cable to which all machines are
connected.
 The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring and star.
 At any instant at most one machine is the master and is allowed to transmit.

10
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 MAN is designed to extend over the entire city.

 It may be a single network as a cable TV network or it may be means of connecting a number of LANs
into a larger network so that resources may be shared as shown in Fig.
 example, a company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices in a city.
 A MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally uses similar technology.
 A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company or it may be a service provided by a
public company, such a local telephone company (Telco).

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and information over large geographical
areas that may comprise a country, continent or even the whole world.
 It allows various applications such as e-mail, file transfer, remote log-in, World Wide Web, Multimedia,
etc run across the internet.
 When a network spans a large distance or when the computers to be connected to each other are at
widely separated locations, a local area network cannot be used.

11
 A wide area network (WAN) must be installed. The communication between different users of WAN is
established using leased telephone lines or satellite links and similar channels.
 It is cheaper and more efficient to use the telephone network for the links.
 Most wide area network are used for transferring large blocks of data between the users as the data is
from existing records or files.
 Another example of WAN is airline reservation system. Terminals are located all over the country
through which the reservation can be made.
 A WAN provides long distance transmission of data, voice image and video information over large
geographical areas that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole world.
 WAN contains a collection of machines used for running user program.
 The entire machines called hosts are connected by a communication subnet. The function of the subnet
is to carry messages from host to host. The subnet consists of two important components, transmission
lines and the switching elements.
 In WAN the transmission lines moves bits from the machine to another.
 The switching elements are specialized computers used to connect two or more transferring lines.
Switching elements are either called as packet switching nodes, intermediate system, data switching
exchanges or routers

Application of WAN:

 WAN’s may use public, leased or private communication devices, and can speared over a wide
geographical area.
 A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often called as an enterprise
network.
 In most WANs, the network contains a large number of cable or telephone lines each one
connecting a pair of router.

12
 Comparison of LAN and WAN

SR LAN WAN
NO
1 The LAN is owned by a person, college, WAN can be private or it can be public
factory etc. it is privately owned leased type network.
network.
2 LAN is designed to operate over a small WAN is used for network that spans over a
physical area such as office, factory or large distance.
group of buildings.
3 LANs are easy to design and easy to WAN is not so easy to design and maintain.
maintain.
4 The communication medium used for The communication medium used for WAN
LAN is basically guided type. is may be guided or unguided.
5 LAN can be used for time critical WAN cannot be used for time critical
application. application.
6 LAN can operate on very high data rates. WAN operates on low data rates.
7 In LAN each station can transmit and In WAN, each station cannot transmit
receive over communication medium.
8 LAN operates on the principle of WAN operates on the principle of switching.
broadcasting.

 Network Models
 Client – Server Network

 A network architecture in which many clients request and receive services from a server is called client-
server model.
 The server is a dedicated powerful computer. It controls the whole network and provides a centralized
storage area for data and software. It also processes the requests received from clients and manages
other resources in the network. The resources may include printers and scanners.
 All computers (other than computer server) connected in the network are called clients. A client provides
interface the user. The user sends request to the server. Server receives the request from client
computer and takes proper action on it. The result of request is sent to the client.

 Client server network may consist of two or more servers. Some servers on a network perform only one
specific task. These servers are called dedicated servers. For example, a file server stores and manages
files. A database server stores and manages databases. It also provides access to databases. Similarly, a
print server manages printers and print jobs.

13
Advantages

 It reduces the volume of data traffic on the network.

 It provides faster responses to the client.
 Allows less expensive clients because most of the work is done by server.

Disadvantages

 The servers are costly.

 The entire network is affected if there is any problem in the server computer.

 Peer-to-Peer Network
 A network architecture in which all computers on the network have equal status and no one has control
over others in called peer-to-peer model.
 In peer-to-peer network there is no central computer to control other computers on the network. Each
computer can share data and devices (or resources) of other computers in the network. For example, a
printer attached with any computer can be used by all computers connected in the network. Each
computer stores its own data and program files.

14
Advantages

 It is useful in small offices.

 It is easy to design and to maintain.
 It does not require any powerful computer.

Disadvantages

 It becomes slow under heavy use.

 There is no central place for storing data and software.
 It does not provide the security to protect the data stored on computers connected in the network.

 Types of Switching Techniques

In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender and receiver. Information may be switched as
it travels through various communication channels. There are three typical switching techniques available for
digital traffic.

 Circuit Switching
 Message Switching
 Packet Switching

 Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
 Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a path that connects the caller's telephone to
the receiver's telephone by making a physical connection.
 With this type of switching technique, once a connection is established, a dedicated path exists between
both ends until the connection is terminated.
 Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first established, but there are no decisions made
after that time.
 Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same way as the telephone system works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before communication can take place.

Messag

C E

A B G H

D F

Circuit Switching

15
Advantages:

 The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:

 Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more on long- distance or international calls.)
during which no data can be transmitted.
 More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
 Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the channel is not used when the connected
systems are not using it.

 Packet Switching

 Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the advantages of message and circuit
switching and to minimize the disadvantages of both.
 There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram and virtual circuit.
 In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into small parts, called packets.
 Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination addresses.
 Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they can be stored in main memory instead of
disk, therefore access delay and cost are minimized. Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are
optimized.
 With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a first-come, first-served
basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded.

Advantages:

 Packet switching is cost effective, because switching devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
 Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics, because there are no long messages in the queue
(maximum packet size is fixed).
 Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as, busy or disabled links.
 The advantage of packet switching is that many network users can share the same channel at the same
time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by making optimal use of link bandwidth.

16
Disadvantages:

 Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex.

 It can add some initial costs in implementation.
 If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
 Another disadvantage is that packet-switched systems still can’t deliver the same quality as dedicated
circuits in applications requiring very little delay - like voice conversations or movingimages.

 Message Switching:

 With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations.
 When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message.
 The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from node to node.
 Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to
the next node.
 This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
 This technique was originally used in data communications where messages were routed in their
entirety, one hop at a time. An example would be early "store and forward" paper tape relay systems. E-
Mail delivery is another example of message switching.

Advantages:

 Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-switched systems, because more devices are
sharing the channel.
 Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be temporarily stored in route.
 Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward technique.
 Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of broadcast address appended in the message.

Disadvantages:

 Message switching is not compatible with interactive applications.

 Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have large disks to hold potentially long
messages.

17
 Comparison between Circuit switching and Packet switching

18