Fuel Oils

B Laffon, University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain

Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

l Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number (some repre- and in the production of steam and electricity in power plants.
sentative): 70892-10-3 (fuel oil no. 1), 8008-20-6 (kero- The terms distillate and residual fuel oils are losing their
sene), 68334-30-5 (fuel oil no. 1-D), 68476-30-2 (fuel oil significance, since fuel oils are now made for specific uses and
no. 2), 68476-34-6 (fuel oil no. 2-D), 68476-31-3 (fuel oil may be either distillates or residuals, or mixtures of the two.
no. 4), 77650-28-3 (fuel oil no. 4-D), fuel oil no. 6 (68553- The terms domestic, diesel, and heavy fuel oils are more
00-4), 68476-33-5 (fuel oil, residual) indicative of the uses of fuel oils. Domestic fuels are distillate
l Synonyms: Fuel oil no. 1 is a synonym of kerosene and jet fuel fuel oils that are used primarily in the home. This category
1. Fuel oil no. 1-D is a synonym of diesel oil no. 1. Fuel oil no. includes kerosene, stove oil, and furnace fuel oil. Diesel fuel
2 is a synonym of home heating oil. Fuel oil no. 2-D is oils are also distillate fuel oils that distill between 180 and
a synonym of diesel oil no. 2. Fuel oil no. 4 is a synonym of 380  C. Several grades are available depending on uses: diesel
light residual fuel oil. Fuel oil no. 5 is a synonym of residual oil oil for diesel compression ignition (cars, trucks, and marine
no. 5 and bunker B. Fuel oil no. 6 is a synonym of bunker C. engines) and light heating oil for industrial and commercial
uses. Heavy fuel oil comprises all residual fuel oils (including
those obtained by blending). In general, they usually contain
Background cracked residual, reduced crude, or cracking coil heavy product
which is mixed (cut back) to a specified viscosity with cracked
Fuel oils are yellowish to light brown liquid mixtures produced gas oils and fractionator bottoms.
from crude petroleum by different refining processes, depending
on their intended use. They generally have a kerosene-like odor
and are flammable. Fuel oils are composed of complex and
Environmental Fate and Behavior
variable mixtures of aliphatic (alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes)
and aromatic hydrocarbons, containing low percentages of
Fuel oils may be released to surface waters, soils, and air as
sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen compounds. The exact chemical
a result of accidental spills during use or transportation or from
composition of each of the fuel oils may vary somewhat,
leaking underground storage facilities or pipelines. The trans-
depending on the source, the refinery involved, the presence of
port and dispersion of fuel oils are dependent on the water
additives or modifiers, and other factors. The composition can
solubility and volatility of the aliphatic and aromatic hydro-
be further affected by weathering and/or biological modification
carbon fractions. The more volatile components of fuel oils
on release to the environment. Fuel oils differ from one another
(low molecular weight alkanes) evaporate from the water or soil
primarily by their hydrocarbon compositions, boiling point
and enter the atmosphere where they are degraded by reacting
ranges, chemical additives, and uses.
with sunlight (e.g., photooxidation), or other chemicals in the
Fuel oils may be generally classified into two main types:
air. The higher molecular weight aliphatic components have
distillate fuel oils and residual fuel oils. Distillate fuel oils are
very low water solubility and do not volatilize from soils or
vaporized and condensed during a distillation process and thus
surface waters. Consequently, these heavier components remain
have a definite boiling range and do not contain high-boiling
on the soil or in the water column where they may be adsorbed
constituents. Residual fuel oils contain residues from crude
to particulate organic matter or settle to the sediment. Chem-
distillation of thermal cracking, and are generally more
icals that attach to soil or other matter may remain in the
complex in composition and impurities than distillate fuel oils.
environment for more than a decade. They are eventually bio-
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D396
degraded by microorganisms in the soils and sediments,
standard divides fuel oils into several classes, from fuel oil no.
primarily bacteria and fungi. The rate and extent of biodegra-
1 to fuel oil no. 6, based on boiling range, composition, and
dation are dependent on the ambient temperature, the presence
other physical properties. Usually, fuel oils nos. 1 and 2 are
of a sufficient number of microorganisms capable of degrading
distillate fuels; fuel oils nos. 5 and 6 are residual fuels, and fuel
these hydrocarbons, the amount of aromatic species in a given
oil no. 4 is a blend of distillate and residual fuels. Fuel oils have
oil, and the concentration of fuel oil; this may take up to a year
a moderately broad range of volatility and solubility; thus, fuel
to occur, if ever. Aromatic components are the most susceptible
oils nos. 1 and 2 are moderately soluble and volatile, while fuel
to biodegradation in warm water or soil, although some vola-
oils nos. 4, 5, and 6 are not very soluble. All diesel oils are
tilization may occur in colder waters. Aromatics, however, are
considered types of fuel oils. Fuel oils no. 1-D and no. 2-D
also water soluble and therefore are the most likely fuel oil
(diesel oils) are similar in chemical composition to fuel oils no.
components to leach through soil into groundwater.
1 and no. 2, respectively, with the exception of the additives.

Uses Exposure and Exposure Monitoring

Fuel oils are used mainly in industrial and domestic heating, as In general, inhalation and dermal exposure to fuel oils may
solvents, to run many types of internal combustion engines, occur during their production, storage, distribution and use,

Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Volume 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386454-3.00024-5 667

668 Fuel Oils

maintenance of heating equipment, and during the cleaning of The mechanism of carcinogenesis associated with various
fuel oil tanks. formulations of fuel oils is unknown. Although the mechanism
underlying leukemogenesis induced by benzene, the most
l Inhalation exposure: people can breathe fuel oil vapors
carcinogenic compound in fuel oils, is not fully understood,
when filling tanks or after a spill. Other situations include
direct DNA damage, production of oxidative stress, and reac-
using fuel oil heaters, or using fuel oil to clean machinery or
tions of metabolites with essential enzymes such as top-
paint brushes. If water supplies are contaminated, inhala-
oisomerase II have been reported.
tion of the vapors can occur while bathing, doing laundry,
or using the water for other household purposes. Fuel oil
spills in basements or attached garages can seriously Acute and Short-Term Toxicity
contaminate the air inside homes.
l Dermal contact: some fuel oil can pass through the skin The most toxic components of fuel oils are the aromatics, such
when people use it as a solvent, spill it on their skin, or use as benzene, toluene, xylenes, naphthalene, and others. These
contaminated water. Since some of the chemicals in fuel oil aromatics are relatively highly soluble in water. After the
attach to soil particles, children can be exposed as they play aromatic fraction, toxicity decreases from alkenes to cyclo-
in contaminated soil. alkanes to alkanes. Within each of these groups, the lower
l Oral exposure: low level exposure can occur when molecular weight hydrocarbons tend to be more acutely toxic.
contaminated water is used for drinking and/or for Short-term toxicity decreases as the type of fuel oil becomes less
preparing food. Most accidental poisonings involve chil- volatile; thus, fuel oils nos. 1 and 2 are moderately toxic, while
dren who drink fuel oil kept in soft drink bottles. toxicity decreases through fuel oils no. 4, no. 5, and no. 6.
The main hazard associated with fuel oils is chemical
Although no standard procedures exist for identifying and
pneumonitis, a delayed onset and potentially fatal lung
quantifying exposure to fuel oils in general, procedures do exist
disorder characterized by cough, dyspnea, cyanosis, fever, and
for identifying and quantifying some of the hydrocarbon
opacities on chest radiographs, resulting from aspiration of
components of fuel oils in blood, urine, and stomach content,
vomit following ingestion or inhalation of fuel oil liquid or
although neither the route of exposure nor the origin can be
contaminated water.
determined.
Inhalation exposure to some fuel oils for short periods may
cause mild central nervous system symptoms such as dizzi-
ness, nausea, headache, loss of appetite, poor coordination,
Toxicokinetics
light-headedness and difficulty concentrating, and increased
blood pressure and eye irritation. However, exposure within
As fuel oils are mixtures of chemicals, there is no definitive
a confined space at elevated temperature may induce narcotic
ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion)
effects such as narcolepsy, cataplexy, and confusion. Spray
data. Fuel oil vapor is absorbed following pulmonary expo-
applications may result in exposure to high aerosol concen-
sure, and individual components of fuel oils are known to
trations, which may provoke signs of pulmonary irritation such
undergo dermal absorption after skin contact, and gastroin-
as coughing and dyspnea, in addition to mild central nervous
testinal absorption after ingestion. The extent of pulmonary,
system depression. As already mentioned, aspiration of fuel oil-
dermal, and gastrointestinal absorption is dose- and time-
contaminated vomit is a secondary source of pulmonary
dependent. Nevertheless, no quantitative data are available
exposure that may lead to chemical pneumonitis.
regarding the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excre-
Ingestion of small amounts of kerosene may cause nausea,
tion of fuel oils following inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure
vomiting, diarrhea, coughing, stomach swelling and cramps,
in humans. Very limited animal data indicate that kerosene is
drowsiness, restlessness, painful breathing, irritability, and
poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is distrib-
unconsciousness. Ingestion of large amounts of kerosene may
uted to various tissues, although accumulation is low, and that
cause convulsions, coma, or death.
fuel oils are efficiently removed from the circulation by the
Acute dermal exposure may result in local irritation
liver and lungs.
(erythema, pruritis) but is not considered to be a skin sensi-
tizer. Fuel oil is a mild, transient, ocular irritant that may
produce conjunctivitis, hyperemia, and lacrimation.
Mechanisms of Toxicity

The primary risk from ingestion of fuel oils is aspiration during Chronic Toxicity
emesis, which may cause chemical pneumonitis. The
biochemical mechanism of the bronchoconstriction has been Studies in animals chronically exposed to fuel oils have
suggested to be related to action on the parasympathetic reported pulmonary pathology, cardiovascular changes, and
nervous system and to changes in ionic flow across the cellular nephropathy after inhalation exposure, and dermatitis after
membranes of the sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles. dermal exposure.
The biochemical mechanism of central nervous system The most common human health effect associated with
effects induced by fuel oils, common to many organic solvents, chronic/repeated exposure to fuel oils is dermatitis, usually
has not been completely elucidated yet. Still, it has been sug- associated with insufficient or inappropriate use of personal
gested to be mediated by interaction with membrane-bound protective equipment in occupational environments. Long-
integral proteins. term exposures to low concentrations of fuel oils have also
 Fuel Oils 669

been reported to produce nonspecific central nervous system Carcinogenicity

effects such as nervousness, loss of appetite, and nausea that are
not related to hypoxia. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), on
There are currently no unequivocal studies to relate the basis of the evidence for the carcinogenicity of fuel oils in
chronic or repeated exposure to fuel oils to long-term experimental animals and in humans, classified residual
pulmonary dysfunction. There is limited evidence to suggest (heavy) fuel oils (fuel oils nos. 4, 5, 6) as possibly carcinogenic
that chronic exposure may be associated with tightness in the to humans (Group 2B), and distillate (light) fuel oils (fuel oils
chest and breathing difficulties, but not with asthmatic nos. 1, 2) as not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to
respiratory effects. humans (Group 3). IARC also classified occupational expo-
sures to fuel oils during petroleum refining as probably
carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), distillate (light) diesel
Immunotoxicity fuels as not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans
(Group 3), and marine diesel fuel as possibly carcinogenic to
Cellular effects in the bone marrow, lymph nodes, and/or humans (Group 2B).
thymus, and decreases in the relative weights of the lymph
nodes and thymus, resulting from acute dermal exposure to
kerosene and chronic dermal exposure to JP-5 and marine Clinical Management
diesel fuels have been reported in mice. Chronic oral expo-
sure of American minks to a low concentration of bunker C Inhalation: remove person to fresh air as soon as possible. If
fuel oil caused increases in the absolute numbers of specific breathing has stopped, apply artificial respiration. If necessary,
peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets and monocytes, in the provide additional oxygen once breathing is restored. Keep the
level of expression of functionally significant cell surface affected person warm and at rest. Seek medical attention
proteins, and in mitogen-induced mononuclear cell prolif- immediately.
erative responses. Ingestion: do not induce vomiting. Do not give liquids.
No information was found regarding immunotoxicity in Obtain immediate medical attention. If spontaneous vomiting
humans from inhalation, oral, or dermal exposures to fuel oils. occurs, lean victim forward in order to reduce the risk of aspi-
ration. Monitor for breathing difficulties. Small amounts of
material that enter the mouth should be rinsed out until the
Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity taste is dissipated.
Skin: remove contaminated clothing. Wash contaminated skin
Several studies have tested the developmental effects of fuel oils areas thoroughly with soap and water or waterless hand cleanser.
in animals after inhalation exposure. No developmental effects Obtain medical attention if irritation or redness develops.
were found in the fetuses or female rats exposed to heating oil, Eyes: remove contact lenses. Immediately flush with clean,
fuel oil, or diesel fuel vapors during gestation days 6–15. In low-pressure water for at least 15 min. Hold eyelids open to
another study, no pathological effects on reproductive organs ensure adequate flushing. Seek medical attention.
or excessive anomalies in the first generation of pups after
dermal exposure of rats to kerosene were observed following Ecotoxicology
the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) Guideline 421. Following accidental spillage, potential acute toxicity to aquatic
There is not enough information to assess the human life in the water column (especially in relatively confined areas)
reproductive toxicity of fuel oils by oral, inhalation, or dermal as well as potential inhalation hazards are included among the
exposures. Nevertheless, current evidence seems to indicate that short-term hazards of some of the lighter, more volatile and
kerosene does not have a measurable effect on human repro- water-soluble compounds (such as toluene, ethylbenzene, and
duction or development. xylenes) in fuel oils. Oil coating of birds, sea otters, or other
aquatic organisms that come in direct contact with the spilled
oil is another potential short-term hazard, since in the short
Genotoxicity term spilled oils tend to float on the water surface. The heavy
fraction becomes attached to the substrate or sequestered in the
Different fuel oils have been assessed for mutagenic and sediments. Little long-term impact has been observed in the
genotoxic activity in bacterial assays, rodent and human cell supralittoral, littoral, or pelagic zones following a spill.
assays, and animal models. The inconsistent data reported However, the tar-like residue persists for many years in the
do not allow definite conclusions to be reached, and sediments with possible resuspension and continued impact on
preclude their use for the prediction of genotoxic hazards to benthic organisms. Some of the chemicals found in fuel oils are
humans. known to bioconcentrate significantly in plants and animals.
No genotoxicity studies involving human controlled expo-
sure to fuel oils were identified. A few works assessed geno-
toxicity biomarkers in humans exposed to accidental fuel oil Exposure Standards and Guidelines
spills from tankers. They reported positive results in individuals
exposed for several months as a consequence of participating in The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Register (ATSDR)
the cleanup work. established a minimal risk level (MRL) of 0.01 mg m 3 for
670 Fuel Oils

intermediate inhalation exposure to fuel oil no. 1, based on Further Reading

decreased blood glucose levels noted in rats. An MRL of
0.02 mg m 3 has been derived for acute inhalation exposure to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 2010. ASTM D396–10. Standard
Specification for Fuel Oils. ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
fuel oil no. 2, based on dose-related neurobehavioral effects International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 1989. Occupational Exposures in
(mild transient ataxia and central nervous system depression) Petroleum Refining; Crude Oil and Major Petroleum Fuels. IARC Monographs on the
in mice. Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, vol. 45. IARC, Lyon.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) set a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 500 ppm
(approximately 2000 mg m 3) time-weighted average (TWA)
Relevant Websites
of petroleum distillates in the workplace air. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov – Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Toxicological Profile for Fuel Oils.
(NIOSH) recommended exposure limits (REL) for petroleum http://www.hpa.org.uk – Health Protection Agency. Compendium of Chemical Hazards.
distillates are 350 mg m 3 TWA and 1800 mg m 3 short-term Kerosene (Fuel Oil).
http://www.nature.nps.gov – National Park Service. U.S. Department of the Interior.
exposure limit (STEL) (15 min). The REL for kerosene is Environmental Contaminants Encyclopedia. Entries: kerosene, fueloi2 g, fueloi2 h,
100 mg m 3 TWA. fueloil, fueloil4, fueloil5, fueloil6.
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit values (TLV) are
200 mg m 3 TWA for kerosene, and 100 mg m 3 TWA for fuel
oil no. 2 and diesel fuels.
Although there are no drinking water standards for fuel oils,
there are standards for some of their components: benzene,
5 ppb; toluene, 1 ppm; and xylene, 10 ppm.

See also: Otto Fuel II; Jet Fuels; Diesel Fuel; Kerosene.