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5. HEAT TREATMENT IN PRACTICE

5.1 Types of heat treatments

5.1.1 Annealing:
In general, annealing consists of heating a material to a specified elevated temperature for an appropriate length
of time. The purpose of annealing is to:
(1) relieve residual stresses induced by prior processing,
(2) soften the steel for improved machinability or formability.
Full annealing consists of heating the steel to a temperature above the upper critical temperature (A 3 in
hypoeutectoid steels and between the A1,3 and Acm temperatures in hypereutectoid steels). This is followed by
slow cooling, typically at cooling rates of 10C per hour, so that transformation occurs completely in the high-
temperature range (refer to Figure 23). Cooling typically takes place in the furnace, and the slow cooling rate is
maintained down to low temperatures. Since the entire mass of the furnace has to be cooled down along with
the steel component, full annealing is a very slow cooling process and therefore comes closest to following the
equilibrium Fe-Fe3C phase diagram. The slower the cooling rate, the closer equilibrium conditions are
approached. The microstructure of fully annealed hypoeutectoid steel consists of grains of proeutectoid ferrite
and small areas of coarse pearlite, whereas the microstructure of annealed hypereutectoid steels consists of
coarse islands of lamellar pearlite surrounded by a network of proeutectoid cementite.
In some cases, annealing of steel may involve subcritical heating (below the A1 temperature) to relieve stresses,
recrystallise cold-worked material, or to spherodise carbides in previously transformed material. These
processes are often referred to as subcritical annealing, and are considered in more detail below:
 Spherodising: Spherodise annealing is a heat treatment process designed to improve the machinability of
hypereutectoid steels. A microstructure consisting of pearlite and a grain boundary cementite network
generally displays poor machinability. Since cementite is hard and brittle, the cutting tool cannot cut
through these plates. Instead, the plates have to be broken. The cutting tool is therefore subjected to
continual shock loading, and a ragged finish results. Prolonged exposure to an elevated temperature will
break up the pearlitic structure and the cementite network. The cementite will form spherical or globular
carbides in a ferrite matrix. The spherodised structure is desirable when minimum hardness, maximum
ductility and maximum machinability (especially in high-carbon steels) are important. Low-carbon steels
are seldom spherodised for machinability, because in the spherodised condition they are excessively soft.
The cutting tool will tend to push the material rather than cut it, creating excessive heat and causing wear
of the cutting tip. Medium-carbon steels are sometimes spherodise-annealed to obtain maximum ductility
for certain working operations. Prolonged heating at a temperature just below the eutectoid temperature is
normally used.
 Stress-relief annealing: Stress-relief annealing is a heat treatment designed to reduce residual stresses in
steel components without altering the microstructure and mechanical properties of the part to any
appreciable extent. These residual stresses tend to form due to heavy machining or other cold-working
processes, or uneven cooling rates in castings. Stress-relief annealing is usually carried out at temperatures
below the eutectoid temperature, typically in the range of 550C to 650C.
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 Recrystallisation annealing: This heat treatment involves heating a cold-worked low carbon steel to a
temperature below the eutectoid temperature to induce recrystallisation of the ferrite phase.
Typical temperature ranges for each of these annealing heat treatments are shown in Figure 44.

Figure 5.1.1(a): Fe-Fe3C phase diagram with the typical temperature ranges for a number of heat treatments included.
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5.1.2 Normalising:
The process of normalising consists of heating the steel above the upper critical temperature, followed by
continuous air cooling to room temperature. Typical normalising temperature ranges are indicated in the above
Figure. Normalising has four main purposes:

(1) to alleviate chemical segregation of carbon and other alloying elements,

(2) to modify and refine cast dendritic structures,
(3) to improve machinability, and
(4) to produce refinement of the austenite grain size, and a more uniform, finer carbide distribution, so that
carbon dissolution will be promoted during subsequent heat treatment.

The increase in cooling rate due to air cooling (typically on the order of 100C per hour) as compared to furnace
cooling affects the transformation of austenite and the resultant microstructures in several ways. Since cooling
no longer takes place under equilibrium conditions, the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram cannot be used to predict the
amounts of proeutectoid ferrite/cementite and pearlite that exist at room temperature after normalising. There is
less time for the formation of the proeutectoid constituent, consequently there will be less proeutectoid ferrite in
normalised hypoeutectoid steels, and less proeutectoid cementite in normalised hypereutectoid steels as
compared with corresponding annealed steels. The faster cooling rate during normalising also affects the
austenite transformation temperature and the fineness of the pearlite. In general, the faster the cooling rate, the
lower the austenite transformation temperature and the finer the pearlite. Normalising therefore results in a
stronger and harder steel than annealing due to the finer microstructure and the higher pearlite percentage that
forms during cooling.
Hypereutectoid steels are never normalised or annealed from a temperature above the Acm line, since a coarse
proeutectoid cementite network tends to form on the grain boundaries, causing severe embrittlement. These
steels are normally austenitised at temperatures just above the A1 temperature. Austenite forms, but
proeutectoid cementite does not dissolve. At the elevated temperatures involved, the proeutectoid cementite
tends to spherodise.
Most hot rolled steel products, including rails, rods and beams are normalised after rolling. Steel castings are
also often normalised after homogenisation heat treatment.

5.1.3 Austempering:
Austempering is a heat treatment process developed from the IT diagram, and designed to produce a structure
that consists of 100% bainite. The component is first heated to the proper austenitising temperature, followed
by rapid cooling in a salt bath maintained at a temperature in the bainite range (usually between 200C and
450C. The component remains in the salt bath until the transformation to bainite is complete. The steel is
caused to go directly from austenite to bainite, and at no time forms martensite. Figure 45 shows a schematic
illustration of the austempering process.
A comparison between the microstructure and mechanical properties of steel after austempering and after a
conventional quench and temper heat treatment is shown in Table 5. It is evident that, at the same hardness and
strength levels, austempered samples display improved ductility and toughness if a lower bainite structure is
formed. If an upper bainite structure forms, the impact toughness is lower than a corresponding quench and
tempered structure.
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The primary advantage of austempering is that the risk of distortion and quench cracking is significantly
reduced because the quenching step is not as drastic as during full hardening. The limitations of the process
include:
 It is difficult to accurately determine when the transformation is complete (the line on the IT diagram
corresponding to the end of transformation is poorly defined).
 Salt baths are expensive, corrosive and carries a health risk.
 In high alloy steels the required transformation times are impractically long.
 Only sections that can be cooled fast enough to avoid transformation to pearlite can be austempered.
Therefore, industrial application of austempering is limited to sections less than 12 mm thick.

Figure 5.1.3(a) Schematic transformation diagram for austempering.

Table: Comparison between the microstructure and mechanical properties of austempered and conventionally quench and
tempered steels as a function of the treatment temperature.

Treatment temperature Austemper Quench and temper

Just above the Ms (250C–350C) Lower bainite Tempered structure
High hardness and strength, good High hardness and strength, low toughness
toughness (tempered martensite embrittlement)
e.g. For a 0,7%C steel:
e.g. For a 0,7%C steel: Hardness: 50,2 HRC
Hardness: 50,4 HRC Tensile strength: 1700 MPa
Tensile strength: 1950 MPa Impact toughness: 4 J
Impact toughness: 48 J
400C-450C Upper bainite Tempered structure
Low impact toughness due to coarse Improved toughness, other mechanical
needle-like structure properties comparable to austempering
500C (patenting) Fine pearlite Highly tempered structure
Good ductility and machinability, low Good mechanical properties, high impact
impact toughness due to pearlitic structure toughness
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5.1.4 Patenting
In wire manufacture, patenting is defined as a heat treatment applied to medium- and high-carbon steels before
drawing the wire or between drafts. This process consists of heating the steel to a temperature within the
austenite phase field and then cooling to a temperature below the eutectoid temperature in a bath of molten salt
or lead. The main objective of a patenting heat treatment is to form a fine pearlite structure with good ductility
in order to provide a formable structure for the wire drawing process. Patenting is typically performed at a
temperature of approximately 500C.

5.1.5 Martempering:
The main objective of a martempering treatment is to minimise distortion and cracking during quenching. The
steel is heated to the appropriate austenitising temperature, and quenched rapidly in a liquid salt bath held at a
temperature just above the Ms. The component is kept in the salt bath for a sufficiently long period of time to
allow temperature equalisation between its surface and centre, without inducing any transformations. This is
followed by air cooling to room temperature. Since air cooling from just above the martensite transformation
range induces virtually no temperature gradient in the component, martensite is formed nearly simultaneously
throughout the entire component. Martempering therefore minimises residual stresses and greatly reduces the
danger of distortion and cracking. The heat treatment is completed by tempering the martensite to the desired
hardness level. The martempering process is illustrated schematically in Figure 46.

Figure 5.1.5(a): Schematic transformation diagram illustrating the martempering process.

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5.2 The heat treatment of tool steels

5.2.1 Introduction
Tool steels can be defined as high-quality steels made to close compositional and physical tolerances. Although
similar in composition to some Carbon and alloy steels, tool steels are manufactured to rigorous quality
standards, in particular with regards to chemical composition, impurity levels and microstructure. Rigid quality
control is justified by the high cost of constructing intricate tools, dies and moulds, and the cost of downtime
associated with premature tool failure. The family of tool steels comprises alloys ranging from plain carbon
steels to highly alloyed steels with up to 50% total alloy content. Carbon is usually added in amounts ranging
from 0.3% to over 1.0%C. The high Carbon content of many tool steels provides as-quenched martensite
hardnesses that can exceed 60 HRC. In addition to Carbon, the major alloying elements are Si, Mn, Co, Cr,
Mo, Ni, V and W. The major functions of these alloying elements are described in Table 1.
Table: The functions of the major alloying elements in tool steels.
Alloying Quenching Wear Harden- Toughness Tempering Heat
elements hardness resistance ability resistance resistance
C solute strongly positive moderately slightly positive negative no influence no influence
positive
C undissolved moderately strongly positive slightly negative negative no influence no influence
(carbide) positive
Cr solute no influence no influence very positive no influence positive slightly positive
Cr as alloy slightly positive strongly positive slightly negative slightly negative no influence slightly positive
carbide
Si no influence no influence slightly positive no influence slightly positive no influence
Mn no influence no influence very positive no influence no influence no influence
Ni no influence no influence very positive very positive no influence no influence
Mo solute no influence no influence very positive no influence positive very positive
Mo as alloy slightly positive strongly positive slightly negative slightly negative no influence slightly positive
carbide
W solute no influence no influence slightly positive no influence positive very positive
W as alloy slightly positive strongly positive slightly negative slightly negative no influence slightly positive
carbide
V solute no influence no influence reasonably no influence very positive very positive
positive
V as alloy moderately strongly positive negative slightly negative no influence slightly positive
carbide positive

Tool steels are generally used for producing tools for cutting, forming or shaping a material into a part or
component adapted to a specific and definite use. Many alloy tool steels are also widely used for machinery
components and structural applications where particularly severe requirements must be met, such as high-
temperature springs, ultrahigh-strength fasteners, special-purpose valves, punches and dies, wear-resistant
liners, and bearings of various types for elevated-temperature applications.
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In service, most tools are subjected to extremely high, rapidly applied loads. They must withstand these loads
repeatedly without breaking, and without undergoing excessive wear or deformation. In many applications, tool
steels must provide this capability under conditions that develop high temperatures in the tool. No single tool
material combines maximum wear resistance, toughness and resistance to softening at elevated temperatures.
Consequently, selection of the proper tool material for a given application often requires a trade-off to achieve
the optimum combination of properties. These properties are primarily a function of the chemical composition
of the alloy and the type of heat treatment it receives. The hardenability of tool steels follows the same general
rules governing other alloy steels – the higher the alloy content, the greater the hardenability.

With few exceptions, all tool steels must be heat treated to develop specific combinations of wear resistance,
resistance to deformation or breaking under high loads, and resistance to softening at elevated temperatures.
Most tool steels are first formed or machined to produce the required shape and then heat treated as required.
Improper finishing after heat treatment – principally grinding – can damage tool steels through the development
of surface residual stresses and cracks.

5.2.2 Classification and composition of tool steels

Tool steels are normally divided into ten groups according to the AISI classification system shown in Table 2.
The classifications are based on common applications, chemical compositions, or quenching media (water, oil
or air). The identifying symbol for each group is followed by one or two digits identifying specific alloys. The
chemical compositions of 72 principal types of tool steels are shown in Table 3. Over 50% of the total tool steel
tonnage produced in the USA is confined to only 12 to 15 of these 72 compositions. Each of the AISI groups
are briefly described below.
Table: AISI classification system for tool steels.
Identifying
Name Type Properties Uses
symbol
Water-hardening W Plain carbon Tough core; hard Cutlery, trim dies, cold header
tool steels wear-resistant surface dies, wood chisels, hand punches
Shock-resisting S Medium-carbon, low- Excellent toughness; Blank and trim dies, chisels, rivet
tool steels alloy high strength sets, forming rolls, slitting cutters,
structural applications
Oil-hardening O Oil-hardening Wear resistant to Dies and punches where high
cold work tool moderate temperatures are not generated
steels temperatures
Air-hardening, A Medium-alloy, air- Minimum distortion Dies, punches and forming rolls
medium-alloy hardening and cracking on
cold work tool quenching
steels
High-carbon, D High-carbon, high- High hardness; Shear blades, long-run stamping
high-chromium chromium excellent wear dies and brick applications
cold work tool resistance
steels
Low-alloy, L Low-alloy High toughness; good Arbors, cams, chucks, spindles,
special-purpose strength drift pins, cold-forming rolls,
tool steels slitting cutters
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Table continued

Mould steels P Low-carbon Low hardness; low Dies and moulds for low-
resistance to work- temperature die casting and for
hardening moulds for plastics
Hot work tool H Chromium (H1-H19) Good toughness; good High-stressed components and
steels, chromium, Tungsten (H20-H39) resistance to softening high-temperature extrusion dies
tungsten and Molybdenum (H40- at elevated (may be water cooled in service
molybdenum H59) temperatures without cracking)
Tungsten high- T Tungsten High hardenability Cutting tools and high-
speed tool steels and hardness temperature structural
components, drills, reamers,
broaches, milling cutters, punches
and dies
Molybdenum M Molybdenum High hardenability Piercing punches, cutting tools,
high-speed tool and hardness twist drills, planer tools, insert
steels cutter blades

5.2.3 Water-hardening tool steels (W)

These steels are the least expensive tool steels and contain Carbon (0.6 to 1.4%C) as principal alloying
element. Small amounts of Chromium (to increase hardness and wear resistance) and Vanadium (to maintain
a fine grain size and enhance toughness) are added to most of the group W steels. These steels have low
hardenability and usually develop a hard martensitic case over a tough, resilient core. They must be water-
quenched to develop high hardness and are therefore subject to considerable distortion. Steels in the water-
quenching group are considered the most machinable of all tool steels. The group W steels have low resistance
to wear and to softening at elevated temperatures. W1 is the most extensively used steel in this group.

5.2.4 Shock-resisting tool steels (S)

Tool steels in this group are used in applications where toughness and the ability to withstand repeated shock are
paramount. The principal alloying elements in group S steels are Mn, Si, Cr, Mo and W, in various
combinations. Si strengthens the ferrite, while Chromium increases hardenability and contributes slightly to
wear resistance. Tungsten imparts some resistance to softening at elevated temperatures, while Molybdenum
aids in increasing hardenability. The Carbon content is approximately 0.5%C in all group S steels, which
produces a combination of high strength, high toughness and low-to-medium wear resistance. The high Si
content tends to accelerate decarburisation, and suitable precautions should be taken during heat treatment.
Group S steels vary in hardenability from shallow hardening (S2) to deep hardening (S7), and are mostly air-
hardening or oil-hardening. Common applications include chisels, punches, shear knives and rivet sets.
Because group S steels exhibit excellent toughness at high strength levels, they are often considered for non-
tooling or structural applications. S1 and S5 are the most commonly used alloys in this group.
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5.2.5 Oil-hardening cold work tool steels (O)

These steels are relatively inexpensive, have high Carbon contents, and enough other alloying elements
(mostly Mn, Cr and W) that small to moderate sections can attain full hardness when quenched in oil. Group
O steels vary in type of alloy and alloy content. The O-group tool steels have very good deformation
resistance, and are less likely to distort or crack during heat treatment than the water-hardening steels. The most
important service-related property of group O steels is high resistance to wear at normal temperatures, a
result of the high Carbon content. They also display good machinability, toughness and resistance to
decarburisation. On the other hand, these steels have low resistance to softening at high temperatures. Some
Carbon may be present as graphite in steel O6 because of its high Silicon content. The presence of graphite
ensures good machinability (suitable for producing intricate dies) and built-in lubrication (ensures good die
life for deep drawing). Steel O1 is the most popular O group alloy.

Table: Commonly used tool steels. (a Available with different C - contents. b

Contains graphite.
c
Optional).
AISI Identifying elements, %
C Mn Si Cr V W Mo Co Ni
Water-hardening tool steels
W1 0.60-1.40a - - - - - - - -
W2 0.60-1.40a - - - 0.25 - - - -
W5 1.10 - - 0.50 - - - - -
Shock-resisting tool steels
S1 0.50 - - 1.50 - 2.50 - - -
S2 0.50 - 1.00 - - - 0.50 - -
S6 0.45 1.40 2.25 1.50 - - 0.40 - -
S7 0.50 - - 3.25 - - 1.40 - -
Oil-hardening, cold work tool steels
O1 0.90 1.00 - 0.50 - 0.50 - - -
O6b 1.45 0.80 1.00 - - - 0.25 - -
O7 1.20 - - 0.75 - 1.75 - - -
Air-hardening, medium-alloy cold work tool steels
A2 1.00 - - 5.00 - - 1.00 - -
A3 1.25 - - 5.00 1.00 - 1.00 - -
A6 0.70 2.00 - 1.00 - - 1.25 - -
A7 2.25 - - 5.25 4.75 1.00c 1.00 - -
A10b 1.35 1.80 1.25 - - - 1.50 - 1.80
High-carbon, high-chromium cold work steels
D2 1.50 - - 12.00 1.00 - 1.00 - -
D3 2.25 - - 12.00 - - - - -
D5 1.50 - - 12.00 - - 1.00 3.00 -
D7 2.35 - - 12.00 4.00 - 1.00 - -
Low-alloy, special-purpose tool steels
L2 0.50-1.10a - - 1.00 0.20 - - - -
L6 0.70 - - 0.75 - - 0.25c - 1.50
Mould steels
P2 0.07 - - 2.00 - - 0.20 - 0.50
P3 0.10 - - 0.60 - - - - 1.25
P4 0.07 - - 3.00 - - 0.75 - -
P5 0.10 - - 2.25 - - - - -
P6 0.10 - - 1.50 - - - - 3.50
P20 0.35 - 1.70 - - 0.40 - -
P21 0.20 1.20 - - - - - - 4.00
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Chromium hot work tool steels

H10 0.40 - - 3.25 0.40 - 2.50 - -
H11 0.35 - - 5.0 0.40 - 1.50 - -
H12 0.35 - - 5.0 0.40 150 1.50 - -
H13 0.35 - - 5.0. 1.00 - 1.50 - -
H14 0.40 - - 5.0. - 5.00 - - -
H19 0.40 - - 4.25 2.00 4.25 - 4.25 -
Tungsten hot work tool steels
H21 0.35 - - 3.50 - 9.00 - - -
H22 0.35 - - 2.00 - 1.00 - - -
H23 0.30 - - 1.00 - 1.00 - - -
H24 0.45 - - 3.00 - 1.00 - - -
H25 0.25 - - 4.00 - 1.00 - - -
H26 0.50 - - 4.00 1.00 1.00 - - -
Molybdenum hot work tool steels
H42 0.60 - - 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 - -
Tungsten high-speed tool steels
T1 0.75a - - 4.00 1.00 18.00 - - -
T2 0.80 - - 4.00 2.00 18.00 - - -
T4 0.75 - - 4.00 1.00 18.00 - 5.00 -
T5 0.80 - - 4.00 2.00 18.00 - 8.00 -
T6 0.80 - - 4.50 1.50 20.00 - 1.00 -
T8 0.75 - - 4.00 2.00 14.00 - 5.00 -
T15 1.50 - - 4.00 5.00 12.00 - 500 -
Molybdenum high-speed tool steels.
M1 0.80a - - 4.00 1.00 1.50 8.00 - -
M2 0.85-1.00a - - 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 - -
M3 1.20 - - 4.00 3.00 6.00 5.00 - -
M6 0.80 - - 4.00 2.00 4.00 5.00 12.00 -
M7 1.00 - - 4.00 2.00 1.75 8.75 - -
M10 0.85-1.00a - - 4.00 2.00. - 8.00 - -
M33 0.9 - - 4.00 1.15 1.50 9.50 8.00 -
M36 0.8 - - 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 8.00 -
Ultrahard high-speed tool steels
M41 1.10 - - 4.25 2.00 6.75 3.75 5.00 -
M42 1.10 - - 3.75 1.15 1.50 9.50 8.00 -
M43 1.20 - - 3.75 1.60 2.75 8.00 8.25 -
M44 1.15 - - 4.25 2.00 5.25 6.25 1.00 -
M46 1.25 - - 4.00 3.20 2.00 8.25 8.25 -
M47 1.10 - - 3.75 1.25 1.50 9.50 5.00 -

5.2.6 Air-hardening, medium-alloy cold work tool steels (A)

These alloys contain about 1%C and enough alloying elements to achieve full hardness in sections up to 100
mm in diameter on air cooling from the austenitising temperature. Group A alloys exhibit minimum
distortion and a low cracking tendency during hardening. Mn, Cr and Mo are the principal alloying elements
used to provide deep hardening. These steels also display excellent deformation resistance, good wear
resistance, fair resistance to softening at elevated temperatures and resistance to decarburisation. Typical
applications include shear knives, punches, blanking and trimming dies, forming dies and coining dies. Steel
A7 (2.25%C) has the best abrasion resistance in this group and is used for brick moulds, ceramic moulds and
other highly abrasive applications. Steel A10 is similar to steel O6 (graphite is present in the microstructure),
but it has a higher hardenability. Steel A2 is the most commonly used alloy in this group.
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5.2.7 High-carbon, high-chromium cold work tool steels (D)

These steels contain between 1.5 and 2.35% C, and 12%Cr. With the exception of steel D3, they also
contain 1% Mo. All group D steels, except D3, are air hardenable. Group D steels exhibit extremely high
abrasive wear resistance and high resistance to softening at elevated temperatures. Typical applications include
dies for blanking, forming, thread rolling and deep drawing, brick moulds, rolls and shear knives. Steel D2 is
the most widely used steel in this group.

5.2.8 Low-alloy special purpose tool steels (L)

This group of steels is not characterised in the usual groups because they were developed to unique
requirements of certain applications. The group L steels contain small amounts of Cr, V, Ni and Mo.
Because of falling demand only two types L2 and L6 remain. Both alloys are considered oil-hardening, but
large sections of L2 are often quenched in water. Typical applications include machine parts (cams, chucks
and collets) and components requiring good strength and toughness.

5.2.9 Mould steels (P)

Group P steels are relatively low in Carbon, but their alloy content can be as high as 5%. These steels contain
Cr and Ni as principal alloying elements and are used almost exclusively in low-temperature die-casting dies
and in moulds for injection or compression moulding of plastics. Types P2 and P6 are carburising steels
produced to tool steel quality standards. They have low hardness and low resistance to work hardening in the
annealed condition. It is therefore possible to produce a mould impression by cold hubbing (i.e. a process for
making die impressions by drawing a master hub into a cold steel face, often in several steps with intermediate
annealing). The completed mould can then be carburised, hardened and tempered to a surface hardness of about
58 HRC. Steels P4 and P6 are deep hardening. Steels P20 and P21 are usually supplied in a hardened
condition suitable for machining into large, intricate dies and moulds.

5.2.10 Hot work tool steels (H)

Group H steels have been developed to withstand the combinations of heat, pressure and abrasion associated
with metal punching, shearing and forming operations at high temperatures. Generally, group H steels have
medium Carbon contents (0.35 to 0.45%C), and Cr, W, Mo and V contents totalling 6 to 25%. They
are divided into three subgroups:
Chromium hot work tool steels (H10 - H19)
These steels have good resistance to heat softening because of their medium chromium contents (at least
3.25%Cr) and the addition of carbide-forming elements such as Mo, W and V. Low Carbon and total
alloying contents promote toughness, whereas higher W and Mo contents increase hot strength, but slightly
reduce toughness. V is added to increase resistance to high temperature erosive wear. An increase in Si
content improves oxidation resistance at temperatures up to 800C. All steels in this group are extremely deep
hardening, with the capacity to be air-hardened to full hardness in sections up to 300 mm thick. Steels H11,
H12 and H13 are the most widely used alloys. Applications include dies for extruding Al and Mg, die-
casting dies, forging dies, mandrels and hot shears.
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Tungsten hot work tool steels (H21 - H26)

The principal alloying elements in these steels are C, W (9 to 18%), Cr (2 to 12%) and V. Their higher
alloying contents make this group more resistant to high temperature softening and erosive wear than the
Chromium hot work tool steels. They are also more prone to brittleness, making water-cooling in service more
difficult. Although Tungsten hot work tool steels can be air hardened to minimise distortion, they are usually
quenched in oil or salt to prevent scaling. Although these steels are similar to high-speed steels, they exhibit
significantly greater toughness. Applications include mandrels and extrusion dies for high temperature
applications such as extrusion of brass, nickel alloys and steel. Steels H21 and H26 are the most widely used
alloys.

Molybdenum hot work tool steels (H42)

This alloy contains Mo, Cr, V and C, with varying amounts of C. It is similar to tungsten hot work tool
steels, having almost identical characteristics and uses. Its composition resembles those of some Molybdenum
high speed steels, but H42 has a low Carbon content and greater toughness. Its principal advantages over
Tungsten hot work tool steels are lower initial cost and greater resistance to heat cracking. Steel H42 requires
care during heat treatment to prevent decarburisation. It is not readily available.

High speed steels (M and T)

These alloys have been developed primarily for use in high speed cutting-tool applications. There are two main
classifications: Molybdenum high speed steels (M) and Tungsten high speed steels (T). These steels are
equivalent in performance, including hardenability, although group M steels are less expensive initially. High-
speed steels are highly alloyed and normally contain large amounts of Mo or W along with Cr, V and
sometimes Co for resistance to elevated temperature softening. The Carbon content ranges from 0.75 to
1.5%C. Typical applications include cutting tools of all kinds. Some grades are used for cold work
applications, such as cold-header die inserts, thread-rolling dies, punches and blanking dies.

Molybdenum high-speed tool steels (M)

These steels contain Mo (3.5 to 9.5%Mo), W, Cr, V, Co (up to 12%Co) and C as principal alloying
elements. Group M steels have slightly higher toughness than group T steels at the same hardness.
Otherwise, the mechanical properties of both groups are similar. Increasing the C and V contents of group M
steels increases wear resistance; increasing the Co content increases high temperature strength, but lowers
toughness. These steels are deep-hardening, but very sensitive to hardening conditions, particularly
austenitising temperature and atmosphere (they readily decarburise and are easily damaged by overheating).
Group M steels have good wear resistance, fair machinability and fair to poor resistance to decarburisation.
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Tungsten high-speed tool steels (T)

These steels contain W (12 to 18%W), Cr, V, Co and C (0.75 to 1.5%C) as principal alloying elements
and are characterised by excellent high temperature hardness and wear resistance. They are so deep hardening
that sections up to 75 mm in thickness can by hardened to 65 HRC or more by quenching in oil or molten salt.
Large numbers of hard, wear-resistant carbides are produced in the microstructure. The combination of good
wear resistance and high temperature strength makes group T steels suitable for many high-performance
cutting-tool applications. Steels T1 and T15 are the most widely used alloys in this group.
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5.3 The general heat treatment of tool steels

5.3.1 Introduction
Figure 5.2(a) shows typical processing and heat treatment cycles for tool steels as a function of time,
temperature and phase transformation. These individual heat treatments are described below in more detail.

Figure 5.3.1(a): Heat treatment cycles required to produce tool steels. (a) Thermomechanical processing, and (b) hardening
heat treatment. (A: austenite, C: cementite, F: ferrite, L: liquid).

5.3.2 Normalising
Normalising of tool steels requires slow and uniform heating above the transformation range (above the A c3 or
Acm temperature) to dissolve excess constituents, followed by cooling in still air. Normalising breaks up non-
uniform structures, relieves residual stresses and produces greater uniformity in grain size. This counteracts the
undesirable results of unequal reductions for different sections during forging, differences in temperature
between varying section thicknesses, and subsequent irregular cooling rates. Normalising also conditions the
steel for subsequent spherodising, annealing or hardening.

Normalising is not recommended for any tool steel that hardens in air (including all high-speed steels, all
shock-resisting steels, all hot work tool steels, cold work steels of types A and D (except A10 and mould
steel P4). For other types of tool steel, normalising is most commonly applied after forging and before
annealing, or before full annealing for parts being hardened for a second time.

Standard practice consists of heating the steel to the normalising temperature, soaking for a suitable time to
allow the component to reach a uniform temperature, and then cooling in still air. No special equipment is
required, but the work piece should be protected against decarburisation.
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5.3.3 Annealing
Tool steels are usually received from the supplier in the annealed condition, allowing the steel to be easily
machined and heat treated. Any ensuing hot or cold forming process must be followed by a full anneal before
subsequent operations. A full anneal is also necessary when a tool is to be rehardened, especially in the case of
high alloy grades, to prevent irregular grain growth and a mixed grain size (sometimes called fish scale).

 Full annealing: Full annealing involves heating the steel slowly and uniformly to a temperature above
the transformation range (typically 800C to 900C), holding at this temperature for 1 to 4 hours to
allow the steel to completely transform to austenite, and cooling slowly at a controlled rate (8C/h to
22C/h) to a temperature of 540C or lower. This prevents transformation to martensite and yields a
softer microstructure. Below this temperature, the cooling rate is no longer critical, and the work piece
may be cooled in air. Atmosphere furnaces, salt baths, vacuum furnaces or lead pots may be used for
annealing. Decarburisation can be prevented by using controlled atmospheres or neutral salt baths, or
by packing the work pieces in pipes, surrounded by charcoal, mica or cast iron chips.
 Isothermal annealing: Isothermal annealing is an alternative method of cooling that consists of rapidly
cooling the workload in the furnace from the annealing temperature to a temperature just below the
transformation range and holding it at this temperature for one or more hours. The load can then be
safely air-cooled. Isothermal annealing is only applicable to small parts that can be handled in lead or
salt baths, or for light loads in batch furnaces that can be cooled rapidly. The process has the advantage
of large savings in time compared to full annealing.

5.3.4 Stress relieving

Stress relieving reduces or removes residual stresses induced by heavy machining or forming, thereby
decreasing the probability of distortion or cracking during subsequent hardening. It is usually performed at a
temperature below the steel’s transformation range. Steels that have not been hardened can be stress relieved
at temperatures between 510ºC and 590ºC. When a tool is in the hardened condition, it may be stress relieved
by tempering.
The ground surfaces of hardened tools may be highly stressed after grinding. The high stress may cause cracks
to develop immediately after grinding, before use or during use. These tools can be stress relieved immediately
after grinding at temperatures below the tempering temperature in order to maintain the specified tool hardness.
Tools also develop high residual stresses during use. It is sometimes advantageous to relieve these stresses at
each redressing of the tool by retempering at a temperature below the tempering temperature to prevent
softening.
Stress relieving is most commonly performed in air furnaces or salt baths. Heating and cooling rates are not
critical, but cooling should be slow enough to prevent the introduction of new stresses. No protection against
oxidation or decarburisation is required, unless the stress relieving temperature is above 650C. Vacuum
furnaces or inert atmospheres are sometimes used to prevent scaling or discolouration. Stress relief causes some
dimensional change in the component that has to be corrected before hardening.
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5.3.5 Austenitising
Austenitising is the most critical heat treatment performed on tool steels. Excessively high temperatures or
abnormally long holding times may result in excessive distortion, abnormal grain growth, loss of ductility and
low strength. Underheating may result in low hardness and low wear resistance. If the centre of a tool is cooler
than the exterior, spalling or fracturing may result during quenching. All tool surfaces must be free of
decarburisation prior to heat treatment.
During austenitising, the final alloying element partitioning occurs between the austenitic matrix (that
transforms to martensite) and the retained carbides. This partitioning determines the composition, amount and
distribution of the retained carbides. These carbides not only contribute to wear resistance, but also control the
austenite grain size. An excessively high austenitising temperature will cause alloy carbides to coarsen or
dissolve, resulting in undesirable grain growth. Any alloying elements not tied up in carbides will be dissolved
in the austenite matrix, controlling the austenite composition. This in turns determines the hardenability M s
temperature, retained austenite content and secondary hardening potential of the tool steel.
The effect of increasing austenitising temperature on the as-quenched, quenched and subzero cooled, and
tempered hardness of an A2 tool steel is shown below. The highest as-quenched hardness is produced by
austenitising at 950C. In this condition the retained austenite content is finely distributed and at a minimum,
and therefore subzero cooling has little effect on hardness. With increasing austenitising temperature, more
alloying elements go into solution, the Ms temperature drops, and more austenite is retained at room
temperature. As a result, the as-quenched hardness is reduced and subzero cooling has a greater effect.
Tempering will also eventually raise the hardness of as-quenched structures with large amounts of retained
austenite by a combination of retained austenite transformation and secondary hardening.

Figure 5.3.5(a): Hardness as a function of tempering temperature for as-quenched, quenched and subzero cooled to -
80C, and quenched and subzero cooled to -180C A2 tool steels for austenitising temperatures of (a) 950C, (b) 1000C,
(c) 1050C, and (d) 1100C.
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Vacuum furnaces, atmosphere furnaces and salt baths can be used over the entire austenitising temperature
range of 760C to 1300C, whereas leads pots are suitable for the temperature range of about 760C to
930C. Work pieces must be supported to prevent sagging during heat treatment. Continuous control of the
internal furnace environment must be maintained to prevent carburisation or decarburisation.
Preheating of tool steels before austenitising is sound practice, but not always required for small pieces of
simple shape. Preheating is employed as a safeguard against cracking or severe distortion due to thermal shock.
Preheating is especially beneficial for hot work and high-speed steels. Preheating is usually performed in a
separate furnace, but it is possible to preheat and austenitise in the same furnace.

5.3.6 Quenching
Quenching from the austenitising temperature may be performed in water, brine, oil, salt, inert gas, or air
depending on the alloy composition and section thickness. The quenching medium must cool the work piece
rapidly enough to obtain full hardness. A quenching medium with a cooling capacity that exceeds requirements,
however, is not recommended because of the possibility of cracking or distortion.
Air hardening tool steels are frequently hot quenched to the range of 540C to 650C after austenitising.
After hot quenching, the steels are air-cooled or oil quenched to ambient temperature before austenite
decomposition. Hot quenching minimises distortion without adversely affecting hardness, and prevents the hard
scale that forms on most air-hardening steels during air-cooling.
Martempering is often utilised to minimise distortion in oil hardening tool steels or in extremely thin sections of
water hardening tool steels. Components are quenched from the austenitising temperature in an agitated oil or
salt bath at a temperature just above the Ms temperature (usually about 30C above the Ms). After
temperature equalisation throughout the work piece, it is air cooled to room temperature prior to tempering.

5.3.7 Tempering
Tempering modifies the as-quenched properties of hardened tool steels to produce a more desirable combination
of strength, hardness and toughness. The as-tempered structure of tool steel is a heterogeneous mixture of
retained austenite, untempered martensite and carbides. More than one tempering cycle may be necessary to
produce the optimum structure. It is generally desirable to transform all retained austenite to ensure complete
hardness, improve toughness and minimise distortion. Retained austenite is more easily eliminated with short
multiple tempers than one single long temper. In higher-alloy grades, a small amount of untempered martensite
is formed from retained austenite during cooling after the first temper. A double temper will temper any
freshly formed martensite and ensure more complete transformation of retained austenite. Triple or even
quadruple tempering is recommended for highly alloyed grades of tool steel. Manufacturers usually recommend
a tempering time of at least 2 hours.
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The general responses of tool steels to tempering are summarised in Figure 5.2(c) and described below.
 Class 1 tool steels:
Carbon and low alloy tool steels.
Response to tempering similar to that of conventional steels.
 Class 2 tool steels:
Medium to high alloy cold work tool steels.
Softening during tempering is retarded by carbide precipitation.
 Class 3 tool steels:
Highly alloyed high speed steels.
Secondary hardening during tempering.
 Class 4 tool steels:
Medium to high alloy hot work steels.
Low as-quenched hardness due to low carbon content.
Effective secondary hardening.

Figure 5.3.7(a): General responses of tool steels to tempering.

Before tempering, a tool steel part must be cooled in the quench medium or air to a temperature of 50C or
less. Large or intricate parts must be tempered immediately after quenching to prevent cracking. Heating to the
tempering temperature should be slow to prevent cracking or warping. Recirculating air furnaces are
recommended. Cooling should be relatively slow to prevent the development of residual stresses in the steel.
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5.3.8 Carburising, flame hardening, nitriding and cold treating

 Carburising: Carburising of tool steels is generally restricted to special applications. A marked
increase in the surface Carbon content renders most tool steels too brittle for their intended uses.
Mould steels, however, are commonly carburised and then case hardened. Tools made of shock-
resisting steel, hot work steel, and especially lower-carbon types of high-speed steel are sometimes
carburised for use in certain die applications involving severe wear. Case depths are shallower, about
0.05 to 0.25 mm, rather than the 0.75 to 1.5 mm that is common for conventional carburising steels.
Carburising temperatures range from 1040C to 1065C. The carburising treatment, therefore, serves
as an austenitising treatment for the whole tool. A carburised case on high-speed steels has a hardness
of 65 to 70 HRC.

 Flame hardening: Flame hardening is the process of heat treating localised areas of tools or dies using
an oxyfuel gas torch, usually hand held, and cooling with an air or liquid quench. Progressively heating
to the proper austenitising temperature and then quenching at a rate sufficient to form hard martensite
accomplish hardening. This process is used to harden working areas of tools and dies where the entire
component is too large to place in a furnace or when a furnace is not available. It may also be employed
when a hard edge and a soft core are required to best meet the needs of the particular application. Other
methods of localised hardening include induction and laser hardening.

 Nitriding: Surface nitriding successfully increases the life of all types of high-speed steel cutting tools.
Gas nitriding is limited to hot work tool steels (H grades) and tooling for aluminium extrusion dies,
because it produces a case that is too brittle for most applications. Liquid nitriding in cyanide-base salt
baths at 510C to 565C increases tool life by providing a light case, increasing surface hardness and
resistance to adhesion. Case depths of up to 0.05 mm can be achieved. Vacuum gas nitriding and
plasma nitriding can also be performed.

 Cold treating: The main purpose of cold treating tool steels (to -75C or lower) is to transform
retained austenite in the unfinished tool for dimensional stability and maximum wear resistance. When
used, cold treatment should be performed between the first and second tempering operations.
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5.4 Specific heat treatment practices for tool steels

Recommended heat treatment practices for representative tool steels are summarised in the table below.

Table: Typical heat treatment procedures for representative tool steels.

Annealing Austenitising Temper
Type Group Quenching Hardness,
temperature temperature temperature
mediaa HRCb
(C) (C) (C)
W1,W2 Water-hardening 738-788 760-843 B,W 177-343 54-64
S1 Shock-resisting 788-816 899-954 O 204-649 40-58
S5 Shock-resisting 773-801 871-927 O 177-426 50-60
S7 Shock-resisting 816-843 927-954 A,O 204-621c 47-58
O1 Oil-hardening 760-788 788-816 O 177-260 57-62
O6 Oil-hardening 766-788 788-816 O 177-316 58-63
A2 Air-hardening 843-871 927-982 A 177-538c 57-62
A4 Air-hardening 738-760 816-871 A 177-426c 54-62
D2 Air-hardening 871-899 982-1023 A 204-538c 54-61
H12, H13, H19 Hot-work 843-871 996-1037 A 538-649c 38-56
M1 High-speed 816-871 1177-1218 A,O,S 538-593c 60-65
M2 High-speed 871-899 1190-1232 A,O,S 538-593c 60-65
M10 High-speed 816-871 1177-1218 A,O,S 538-593c 60-65
T1, T2, T4 High-speed 871-899 1260-1301 A,O,S 538-593c 60-66
P20 Mould steel 760-788 816-871 O 482-593 28-42
a
A – air cool, B – brine quench, O – oil quench, S – salt-bath quench, W – water quench
b
Hardness after tempering
c
Double temper
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5.5 The heat treatment of Carbon and low alloy steels

5.5.1 Heat treatment of plain-carbon steels

Plain-carbon steels are produced in greater tonnage and have wider application than any other metal because
of their versatility and low cost. These steels usually contain a maximum of about 1%C. The upper limits of
other alloying elements present in Carbon steel plate are 1.7%Mn, 0.05%P, 0.05%S and 0.6%Si. The
heat treatments specified for these steels are mainly determined by the Carbon content.

Plain-carbon steels containing up to 0,25% carbon

Plain-carbon steels containing a maximum of 0.25%C and no more than 1.0%Mn are usually described as
mild steels, whereas steels with Manganese contents between 1.0 and 1.7%Mn are defined as Carbon-
Manganese steels. Three principal types of heat treatments are used for Carbon steels with nominal
Carbon contents below about 0.25%C:
 Case hardening treatments that produce a hard wear resistant surface layer over a tough,
resilient core.
 Conditioning treatments, such as process annealing, spherodising or stress relieving, which
prepare the steel for certain fabricating operations.
 Quenching and tempering treatments to improve machinability. The improvement in
mechanical properties that can be gained by quenching and tempering low-carbon steels is
minimal and does not generally justify the costs involved. A possible exception is the use of
these heat treatments to improve the machinability of low-carbon steels. The poor
machinability of these alloys results primarily from the high proportion of free ferrite to carbide
in the microstructure. Although this situation cannot be changed fundamentally, the
machinability can be improved by putting the carbide in its most voluminous form of pearlite
and dispersing this pearlite evenly throughout the ferrite. Normalising is commonly used, but
the best results are obtained by quenching the steel in oil. No martensite is formed, and most
parts do not require tempering.

Carbon steels containing 0.25 to 0.55%C

These steels are usually defined as medium-carbon steels (maximum Manganese content of 1%Mn) or
medium-carbon manganese steels (between 1% and 1.7%Mn). Because of their higher Carbon content,
these steels are normally used in the hardened and tempered condition. By varying the quenching medium
and the tempering temperature, a wide range of mechanical properties can be produced. This group includes
water-hardening and oil-hardening steels, although oil quenching is usually restricted to light sections or
parts where the mechanical property requirements are not high. The hardenability is very sensitive to
changes in chemical composition (particularly to the C, Mn and Si contents) and the austenite grain size.
These steels should be either normalised or annealed before hardening to obtain optimum properties after
hardening and tempering.
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Carbon steels containing 0,55% to 1,0% carbon

These high-carbon steels are more restricted in application than the 0.25 to 0.55%C steels because of
decreased machinability, poor formability and weldability, which makes them more difficult to fabricate.
They are also less ductile after hardening and tempering. Conventional quenching hardens most parts made
from steels in this group. However, special techniques are necessary at times. Both water and oil quenching
are used, water for heavy sections of the lower carbon grades and for cutting edges, and oil for general
purposes. Austempering and martempering are often applied successfully to reduce distortion, to eliminate
breakages in many instances, and to improve toughness at high hardnesses. Even with all hardenability
factors favourable and the use of a drastic quench, these steels are much shallower hardening than alloy
steels, because Carbon alone, or in combination with Manganese in the amounts specified, does not
promote deep hardening. Therefore, the section thicknesses for which these steels are suited are more
limited. Quench cracking is likely and must be guarded against when such parts are heat treated, especially
parts of non-uniform section.
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5.6 Heat treatment of alloy steels

Alloy steels are usually defined as steels containing a maximum of 0.45%C and a total alloying element
content (excluding Manganese) of more than 1%. These steels are normally not used without appropriate
heat treatment. They are usually quench hardened and tempered to the level of strength required for the
application. The tempered martensite or bainite microstructure obtained in this way combines optimum
strength with toughness and formability. Several elements are commonly used to increase hardenability (in
approximately the following ascending order: Ni, Si, Mn, Cr, Mo, V and B).

The addition of several alloying elements in small amounts is generally more effective in increasing
hardenability than the addition of much larger amounts of one or two. To increase hardenability effectively,
it is essential that the alloying elements be in solution in the austenite. Steels containing carbide-forming
elements, such as Cr, Mo and V, require special consideration. These elements are present predominantly
in the carbide form in annealed steels. Such carbides dissolve at higher temperatures (typically above
950C) and dissolution proceeds more slowly than for iron carbide. Heating procedures should be adjusted
to dissolve an adequate amount of these carbides.
Because the sections treated are often relatively large and because the alloying elements have the general
effect of lowering the temperature range over which martensite is formed, the thermal stresses that develop
during quenching tend to be greater in alloy steel components than in plain carbon steels (necessarily
smaller sections). The greater stresses result in distortion and increase the risk of cracking. Alloying
elements, however, have two functions that tend to offset these disadvantages. First and foremost is that
alloying permits the use of a lower Carbon content for a given application. The decrease in hardenability
associated with a decrease in Carbon content may be readily offset by the hardenability effect of the added
alloying elements, and the lower carbon steel will exhibit a much lower susceptibility to quench cracking.
This is due to the greater plasticity of low Carbon martensite and the generally higher temperature at which
martensite forms in lower carbon materials.
The second function of alloying elements is to permit the use of slower cooling rates for a given section
because of increased hardenability. This reduces the thermal gradient and, in turn, the stresses that develop
during cooling. In general, the use of a less drastic quench suited to the hardenability of the steel will result
in less distortion and greater freedom from cracking. The increased hardenability of these steels may also
permit heat treatment by austempering or martempering, thereby minimising the levels of residual stress
before tempering.
Reheating in order to increase toughness can soften hardened alloy steels. The general effect of alloying is to
retard the tempering rate, so alloy steels require higher tempering temperatures to obtain a given hardness
than Carbon steel of the same Carbon content. However, the individual elements show significant
differences in the magnitude of their retarding effect. Ni, Si, Al and to a large extent Mn, which have little
or no tendency to occur in the carbide phase and remains dissolved in the ferrite, have only a minor influence
on hardness after tempering.
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However, the carbide-forming elements Cr, Mo and V retard tempering, particularly at higher tempering
temperatures. These elements do not merely raise the tempering temperature, but also cause secondary
hardening due to the precipitation of fine alloy carbides. The higher tempering temperatures for a given
hardness in alloy steels also permit greater relaxation of residual stress and thereby improve toughness.
Tempering in the range of 200C to 370C may result in embrittlement, and these temperatures should be
avoided when tempering alloy steels. Alloy steels may also suffer from temper brittleness after slow cooling
from high temper temperatures (575C or higher). The same steel will be tough if quenched from the same
temper temperatures.

5.6.1 Heat treatment of high strength structural and high-strength, low alloy (HSLA) steels
High-strength structural steels were developed primarily to obtain improved strength-to-weight ratios in
transportation equipment, but are now used in a wide range of applications, including construction
machinery, materials-handling equipment, bridges and buildings. The need for structural steels with still
higher strength-to-weight ratios in combination with adequate weldability and fabricability led to the
development of heat treatable grades of high-strength steels.

HSLA steels are not normally considered as alloy steels. They are usually sold on the basis of minimum
mechanical properties. The chemical compositions of many of these steels are considered proprietary, and
the specific alloy content is left to the discretion of the steel producer. Typical chemical compositions of a
number of high-strength structural and HSLA steels are given in the table below. The properties and heat
treatment of the different types of high-strength structural and HSLA steels are briefly considered below.

As-rolled pearlitic structural steels

The as-rolled pearlitic structural steels comprise a group of steels in which enhanced mechanical properties
(and in some cases, resistance to atmospheric corrosion) are obtained by the addition of moderate amounts
of one or more alloying elements other than Carbon. Some of these steels are Carbon-Manganese steels
and differ from ordinary Carbon steels only in having a higher Manganese content. Other pearlitic
structural steels contain small amounts of other alloying elements, which are added to enhance weldability,
formability, toughness or strength. These steels are characterised by as-rolled yield strengths in the range of
290 to 345 MPa and are not intended for quenching and tempering. For certain applications they may be
annealed, normalised or stress relieved.
Microalloyed HSLA steels
These steels use additions of alloying elements such as Nb and V (sometimes also Ti, Zr or rare earths)
to increase the strength of hot rolled steel without increasing the C or Mn contents. Increasing the level of
C and/or Manganese is detrimental to weldability and toughness. Controlled rolling results in benefits to
both strength and toughness for steels having yield strengths of the order of 345 to 550 MPa. Heat
treatment is not required because the properties result from controlled rolling. A brief overview of the
development of HSLA steels is given below.
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History of the development of HSLA steels

i. Early design was based on tensile strength, with little cognisance taken of yield stress, toughness or
weldability (the most common form of joining structural fabrications being riveting). Steels
contained relatively high Carbon contents of the order of 0.3%C. Steels were used in the as-rolled
condition, with little or no control over rolling temperatures.
ii. The advent of the use of welding rather than riveting as a joining method necessitated a lower Carbon
content. Strength was maintained by increasing the manganese content.
iii. Failure by brittle fracture of welded structures resulted in the recognition that impact or fracture
toughness was important, and the need for a low transition temperature became apparent. It was also
recognised that a high yield strength was more important than a high tensile strength. The Carbon
content was therefore lowered, and Manganese was maintained at a high level.
iv. Grain size refinement by grain-refining additions, such as Aluminium-Nitrogen, was introduced
(only in the normalised condition) resulting in an increase in yield stress (225 MPa to 300 MPa)
and a lowering in the DBTT to below 0C.
v. Further yield stress increases were achieved by precipitation hardening, still maintaining low Carbon
and high Manganese levels in fine-grained compositions. Nb, V and Ti were used. Impact
toughness was low because of a coarse as-rolled grain size.
vi. Low finishing temperatures refined the coarse as-rolled grain size and maintained some degree of
precipitation hardening. Yield strengths increased to a range of 450 MPa to 525 MPa with DBTT’s as
low as -80C.
vii. Improvement in the general formability, and in particular the through-thickness ductility and toughness
in plate, by adding Zr, Ce or Ca to modify planar non-metallic inclusions (oxides and sulphides). In
the presence of these elements, the inclusions form rounded globules rather than elongated particles.

Table: Chemical compositions of a number of high-strength structural and high-strength low-alloy

(HSLA) steels (typical values unless otherwise noted).

C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu V Other
As-rolled high-strength structural steels
0.20 1.25 0.25 - - - 0.25 - -
0.22 1.35 0.25 - - - 0.25 - -
0.17 1.10 0.08 - - - 0.30 0.05 -
0.15 0.75 0.25 0.30 0.75 - 0.40 - -
0.10 0.75 0.10 - 0.60 0.13 1.15 - 0.20Al
0.15 0.75 0.25 0.25 0.75 0.30 0.35 - -
0.08 0.65 0.08 - - - 0.15 0.04 -
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Continued
C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu V Other
0.20 1.10 0.25 - - - 0.25 0.04 0.01Ti
0.14 1.05 0.20 - - - 0.25 0.04 -
0.15 0.75 0.65 - - - 0.20 - 0.04Ti; 0.04Zr
0.15 0.70 0.75 0.55 - 0.15. - - 0.04Zr
0.15 0.75 0.10 - 0.75 . 0.65 - -
0.08 0.50 0.25 0..30 0.50 . 0.40 - -
0.11 0.65 0.50 0.21 0.15 0.06 0.28 0.08 0.01Ti
0.10 0.75 0.60 0.75 0.85. - 0.85 - 0.06Zr
0.10 0.35 0.50 0.80 0.5. - 0.50 - -
0.12 0.75 0.25 - 0.5. 0.10 0.55 - -
0.12 0.75 0.25 0.25 0.7. 0.13 0.75 - -
Heat treated high-strength low-alloy steels
0.28 1.50 0.25 - - 0.15 - - -
0.28 0.75 0.75 0.50 - 0.16 - - 0.12Zr
0.12 0.50 0.25 - 1.85 - 1.00 - -
0.18 1.00 0.25 - 1.35 0.25 0.65 - -
0.12 0.75 0.10 - 1.25 0.25 1.15 - -
0.18 0.75 0.10 - 1.50 0.25 1.25 - -
0.15 0.80 0.25 0.60 0.85 0.50 0.35 0.05 0.004B
0.12-0.21 0.45-0.70 0.20-0.35 - - 0.50-0.65 - - 0.001-0.005B
0.12-0.21 0.45-0.70 0.20-0.35 - 1.20-1,50 0.45-0.60 - - 0.001-0.005B
0.12-0.21 0.45-0.70 0.20-0.35 0.85-1.20 1.20-1,50 0.45-0.60 - - 0.001-0.005B
0.10-0.20 0.60-1.00 0.15-0.35 0.40-0.65 0.70-1,00 0.40-0.60 0.15-0.50 0.03-0.08 0.0005-0.006B
0.12-0.21 0.70-1.00 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.65 - 0.15-0.25 - 0.03-0.08 0.01-0.03Ti;
0.0005-0.005B
0.12-0.21 0.95-1.30 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.65. 0,30-0.70 0.20-0.30 - 0.03-0.08 0.0005B
0.21 0.60-1.10 0.40-0.90 0.40-0.9. - 0.2. - - 0.05Zr;
0.0025B max
0.18 0.10-0.40 0.15-0.35 1.00-1.0 2.00-3.25 0.0-0.60 - - -
0.20 0.10-0.40 0.15-0.35 1.00-1.80 2.20-3.50 0.20-0.60 - - -
0.12 0.60-0.90 0.15-0.35 0.40-0.70 4.75-5.25 0.30-0.65 - 0.05-0.10 -
0.16 0.60-0.90 0.15-0.35 0.40-0.70 4.75-5.25 0.30-0.65 - 0.05-0.10 -
Micoralloyed high-strength low-alloy steel.
0.09 0.35 0.01 - - - - <0.01 0.05Al;
0.005N;
0.015Nb
0.09 1.25 0.30 - - - - 0.09 0.05Al;
0.005N;
0.09Nb
0.14 1.25 0.30 - - - - 0.02 0.01Nb
0.16 1.40 0.30 - - - - 0.02 0.01Nb
0.18 1.50 0.30 - - - - 0.02 0.01Nb
0.18 1.60 0.60 - - - - 0.05 -
0.06 0.45 0.10 - - - - -. 0,02Nb
0.06 0.75 0.10 - - - - - 0,04Nb
0.06 0.95 0.10 - - - - - 0,10Nb
0.10 0.40 - - - - - - 0.05Ti; 0.01Al
0.10 0.40 - - - - - - 0.05Ti; 0.01Al
0.10 0.40 - - - - - - 0.05Ti; 0.01Al
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5.6.2 High-strength structural carbon steels

These steels are basically Carbon-Manganese-Silicon steels, with some grades containing small additions of
other alloying elements. Such alloys are either normalised or quenched and tempered to produce
minimum yield strengths of 290 MPa to 690 MPa. Normalised grades are available in minimum yield
strengths up to 415 MPa, with minimum Charpy V-notch impact strengths as high as 27J at -68C.
Quenching and tempering can provide a tempered martensitic or bainitic structure that results in better
combinations of strength and toughness. These grades have minimum yield strengths of 345 MPa to 690
MPa.

5.6.3 Heat treated structural low-alloy grades:

These steels have better hardenability than the Carbon grades and can provide both high strength and
toughness in thicker sections. Their alloy content provides improved heat and corrosion resistance.
However, these steels are more difficult to weld and generally more expensive than the carbon or HSLA
grades. The properties required of these steels are produced by heating to at least 900C, quenching in water
or oil, and tempering at not less than 600C to provide microstructures consisting of tempered martensite
or tempered martensite plus bainite, depending on the section thickness. Thick plates are sometimes double
tempered to improve toughness. Quenched and tempered structural HSLA grades provide minimum yield
strengths of 550 to 760 MPa.
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5.7 The classification and specification of steels

5.7.1 The classification of steels:

Alloy classification is defined as the systematic organisation of steels (or other alloys) in groups based on
equivalent properties and/or chemical compositions. Steel classification systems have been developed by many
sources and serve as a basis for purchasing steels and subsequently determining their acceptability according to
certain standards. Steel can be classified according to type, class or grade.
Type
Classification by type is related to the method used to produce the steel. In South Africa the following methods
are most frequently used:
a. Basic oxygen furnace: Used for producing structural steels and low alloy steels.
Typical route: Blast furnace or direct reduction process  basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
b. Electric arc furnace: Mainly used for special alloy steels.
Typical route: Scrap metal/pig iron  electric arc furnace  vacuum degassing
Class
Steel can also be classified according to its typical application and/or method of production. Examples include:
 Boiler steel: Low Carbon, low alloy steel.
 Case hardening steel: Low Carbon steel that can be case hardened (carburised or nitrided) to form a
hard, wear resistant surface (case hardening), while maintaining a tough, ductile core.
 Corrosion and heat resistant steels: Usually high alloy steels, with Cr and Ni for corrosion resistance,
and Mo, V, Cr and W for heat resistance (effective secondary hardening).
 Deep drawing steel: Low carbon steel that has been annealed after cold rolling for maximum ductility.
 Free machining steel: Usually a low carbon steel with a high Sulphur content to improve machinability.
Plain Carbon steel generally has poor machinability due to its high ductility (the metal smears and tends
to tear from the surface, resulting in a poor surface finish).
 Spring steel: Medium to high Carbon steel containing Mn and Cr, or Mn and Si, as major alloying
elements. Good hardenability, high yield strength and temper properties are important.
 Structural steel: Low Carbon steel with good welding properties.
 Tool steels.
Grade
The steel is classified according to its chemical composition (or mechanical properties). For the convenience of
the producer or design engineer, a number of standard specifications exist for steel classification according to
grade.
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5.7.2 Specification:
This involves the identification of a steel using a particular number, letter, symbol or combination of these. The
chemical composition of the steel is used in the majority of cases as the basis for identification. Unfortunately
no unified system for steel classification exists today. In South Africa the American (AISI or SAE), German
(DIN) and British (BS) specification systems are widely used.
American system of identification (AISI or SAE)
The systems developed by the “American Iron and Steel Institute” (AISI) and the “Society for Automotive
Engineers” (SAE) are the most widely used in the US. Although the two systems are independent, the same
method of identification is used. The major difference between the two systems is that SAE and AISI use
different criteria for “acknowledging” a steel. The AISI uses tonnage produced as criterion for
acknowledgement, whereas the SAE acknowledges a steel if it is used by two or more end users in significant
quantities.
The system uses four digits for classification: XXXX. The first digit refers to the steel type, as shown below.
The second digit refers to a modification of the original type, whereas the last two digits refer to the Carbon
content (in wt%) of the steel.
First digit:
1 Plain Carbon steel
2 Ni-steel
3 Ni - Cr steel
4 Mo-steel
5 Cr steel
6 Cr - V steel
7 W - Cr steel
8 Ni - Cr-Mo steel
9 Si - Mn steel
Examples: 10XX – plain carbon steel
11XX – free machining steel
50XX - low Cr steel (0,3-0,6%)
51XX - medium Cr steel (0,8-1,0%)
1020 – plain carbon steel with 0,2% C
4340 - 1,8%Ni - 0,5%Cr - 0,25%Mo - 0,37-0,42%C
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) also has a classification system for steels. For
example: ASTM A302 Grade B is a pressure vessel steel containing a maximum of 0.2% C, between 1.15
and 1.5%Mn and 0.45 to 0.6%Mo.
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British system of classification

During the Second World War, the British developed the EN numbering system (Emergency Number). This
system is still widely used.
 EN2 to EN15: Mainly plain carbon steels.
Example: EN8 contains 0.35 to 0.45%C – 0.6 to 1,0%Mn – 0.05 to 0.35%Si – 0.06%P(max) 
0.06%S(max)

 EN16 to EN340: Different low alloy and alloy steels.

The new British BS 970 series replaced the EN series. In this specification system, a steel is identified using
three numbers, followed by a letter and two more numbers: XXXZXX. The first three numbers refer to the
steel type (see below), Z refers to the condition the steel is supplied in and the last two numbers refer to the
average Carbon content.
First three numbers:
0-299 Non-alloy steels
300-499 Stainless steels
500-999 Alloy steels
Letter:
A chemical composition
H hardenability
M mechanical properties
S stainless

5.7.3 Specification of steel:

A specification is a written declaration of the required properties of a material, both technical and commercial.
In many instances, the chemical composition of a steel is used as basis for specification. A specification can
contain the following:
a) Production process, e.g. cold rolled.
b) Chemical composition and/or hardenability.
c) Quality, e.g. vacuum degassed or special surface finish.
d) Mechanical properties, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength, % elongation, impact toughness at a certain
temperature.
e) Others, e.g. special tolerances, finish, etc.
Several standard specifications exist that stipulate the requirements of a product. In most cases the supplier and
the user agree on a standard specification according to which the product will be manufactured. The supplier
then binds himself to the requirements set out in the specification.
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