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Working Memory
 Working Memory
State of the Science
Edited by
R O B E RT H . L O G I E , VA L É R I E C A M O S , A N D
N E L S O N C OWA N

1
 3
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First Edition published in 2021
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 Foreword

It is hard to believe, but it has been almost a quarter century since we started to work on
our edited volume (Miyake & Shah, 1999a), Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms
of Active Maintenance and Executive Control (MWM hereafter). Around that time,
working memory research had become quite popular, leading to the proliferation of
distinct theoretical models. Our goal was to provide a forum for clarifying points of
agreement and disagreement among these models and promote their theoretical syn-
thesis by asking a common set of important theoretical questions.
We are truly honoured that the editors of this new volume, Working Memory: State
of the Science (WMSS hereafter), adopted the same common-​question approach in ed-
iting this major update of the theoretical scene, more than 20 years after the publication
of the MWM volume. In fact, we find it amazing that working memory is most likely
the only research topic in cognitive psychology (and even in the entire field of psy-
chological science) that comes with three edited volumes implementing this common-​
question approach, with the third one being the Variation in Working Memory volume
with a focus on individual differences (Conway, Jarrold, Kane, Miyake, & Towse, 2007).
When the planning for the 1999 MWM volume began, we were only a brand-​new
assistant professor (Miyake) and a postdoctoral research associate (Shah), but we felt
that our aforementioned goal was timely and important enough to be worth our time
and effort. So we organized and hosted a 4-​day workshop in Colorado in 1997 (with a
lot of help from our colleagues) and did our best to produce a highly integrative volume
that met our initial goal and the field’s need. Although we are really happy that we suc-
cessfully implemented this common-​question approach, what we were most proud of
about our MWM volume was the fact that we were able to offer two substantial syn-
thesis chapters that we think provided thoughtful reflections on the theoretical state
of the field circa 1999, inspired by the contributors’ answers to our common questions
(Kintsch, Healy, Hegarty, Pennington, & Salthouse, 1999; Miyake & Shah, 1999b).
In writing this foreword, in addition to the chapters in this WMSS volume, we also
reread the two aforementioned synthesis chapters from the MWM volume (along with
the answers to our common questions provided by the contributors) to gain some in-
sights into how working memory research and its theoretical landscape have changed
since 1999. When we wrote our own synthesis chapter in MWM (Miyake & Shah,
1999b), we found it really useful and insightful to read Norman’s (1970) edited volume
on memory, entitled Models of Human Memory, and reflect on the field’s progress since.
As we highlighted in the MWM book, we were impressed with the transformation of
our conceptualization and understanding of working memory from 1970 to 1999. Most
of the models described in that 1970 volume conceptualized short-​term memory as a
separate passive storage buffer for the sake of memorization, and, with the publication
vi Foreword
of Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) seminal working memory chapter, the conception
of working memory reflected in the models represented in the 1999 MWM volume
seemed radically different from those represented in the 1970 volume. Moreover, a
surge of interest in examining individual differences in working memory capacity in
North America in the 1980s and 1990s, inspired by the development of complex span
tasks (e.g. Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Turner & Engle, 1989), has led the field to fully
embrace the critical relevance of working memory in complex cognitive activities, such
as reading comprehension and reasoning. We are glad that this WMSS volume provides
a great new opportunity for working memory researchers to reflect on not only the cur-
rent state of the field but also the progress the field has made in the last 20 years or so
(1999–​2021).
Unfortunately, space limitations do not allow us to fully flesh out our own thoughts
on the theoretical development in the field (e.g. what changed, what has not, where to
go from here). However, we were really impressed with various new theoretical ideas
and empirical findings outlined in the individual chapters. At the most global level,
major theoretical progress (and even innovation) made since 1999 in the specification
of key working memory processes and mechanisms was quite evident when we read the
chapters in this volume (e.g. the process of updating, re-​examining of ways in which
items are refreshed and maintained, the nature of working memory limits, and indi-
vidual differences in working memory capacity). And such theoretical advances are
supported by impressive arrays of empirical evidence (e.g. experimental, individual
differences, cognitive neuroscience, and computational modelling), derived from more
sophisticated research and data-​analytic methodology than was the case back in 1999.
At a more specific level, what struck us as the most exciting new trend in the field,
clearly reflected in the current volume throughout, concerns some positive changes
in the way we do science, something we had hoped to see when we edited the MWM
volume. In our 1999 synthesis chapter (Miyake & Shah, 1999b), we suggested that one
important future research direction was more competitive argumentation and further
theoretical synthesis. Specifically, we argued that ‘it is time to move forward and start
rigorously testing competing, mutually incompatible claims through competitive argu-
mentation as well as actively synthesizing mutually compatible ideas within a coherent
framework’ (pp. 472–​473). The current volume (as well as recent publications cited in
the chapters) suggests that the field of working memory research has been moving in
that direction.
Indeed, competitive argumentation is at the forefront of the WMSS volume, with a
new common question dedicated to asking authors to discuss evidence that is incon-
sistent with their theoretical framework (Question 7). Several of the chapters are ad-
mirably direct in their responses to this question. It is also reflected in the ‘adversarial
collaboration’ approach taken by the editors of this volume and their colleagues and dis-
cussed in several of the chapters here (see also Cowan et al., 2020; Doherty et al., 2019).
Attempts for theoretical and empirical synthesis are also featured prominently in
different parts of the WMSS volume. Most noticeably, the question requiring authors
to define working memory (Question 1) was inspired by Cowan’s (2017) attempts to
 Foreword vii
crystallize different conceptions of working memory and his observations about the
importance of clear shared definitions to support synthesis. Similarly, meta-​analytic
synthesis mentioned in some of the chapters (e.g. as applied to the working memory
training literature) is another important recent development that has contributed to
increased efforts for synthesis. Moreover, recent attempts across multiple laboratories
to delineate a set of ‘benchmark’ working memory phenomena that must be explained
by any model (see, for example, Oberauer et al., 2018) are also important in terms of not
only forging consensus but also encouraging further competitive argumentation and
model comparison.
Despite these (and various other) highly visible and impressive advances in working
memory research in the last 22 years, however, we were also struck by the fact that
many of the theoretical ideas and questions discussed in the MWM volume (especially
in the last two synthesis chapters) are still quite relevant, even today. In light of what
we considered radical changes in theoretical conceptualizations of temporary memory
between 1970 and 1999, we were perhaps envisioning equally radical changes in theor-
etical developments between 1999 and 2021 (e.g. in the 1999 volume, we even briefly
speculated about the possibility that an umbrella term like working memory might be
no longer necessary!). Instead, after reading the chapters of the current WMSS volume,
we thought that our 1999 volume was not entirely obsolete and still offers some insights
relevant to the current working memory models, even though major updates to the
volume (of the sort offered by the current WMSS volume) are clearly needed.
For example, in our synthesis chapter in the MWM volume, we identified and pre-
sented six common themes that we thought ran across all ten models covered in the
MWM volume:

1. Working memory is not a structurally separate box or place in the mind or brain.
2. Working memory’s maintenance function is in the service of complex cognition.
3. Executive control is integral to working memory functions.
4. Capacity limits reflect multiple factors and may even be an emergent property of
the cognitive system.
5. Completely unitary, domain-​general view of working memory does not hold.
6. Long-​term knowledge plays an integral role in working memory performance.

Even though some of these themes from the 1999 volume may need some tweaks and
updates (especially Theme 5), they are still generally applicable to the models included
in the WMSS volume. In fact, it might be an interesting and even inspirational exercise
for readers to try to identify such common themes that cut across all the models cov-
ered in the WMSS volume and examine how different those new themes are from those
six themes listed that we identified back in 1999.
We believe that it is important to have an up-​to-​date, state-​of-​the-​art knowledge of
the current research and theoretical ideas and, for that purpose, this WMSS volume will
serve as a terrific tool. So, any serious researchers and students interested in studying
working memory should read this volume.
viii Foreword
At the same time, we invite readers to also take a close look at our 1999 MWM
volume (perhaps a second look for some readers) and engage in some historical re-
flections, asking questions such as: what changed in our theoretical thinking over the
last 20 years or so? Are there any general changes in the way working memory is de-
fined and conceptualized between 1999 and 2021 (i.e. compare the answers provided to
Question 1 in the two volumes)? Which unresolved issues have been compellingly re-
solved since 1999, and what unresolved issues still remain unresolved despite their im-
portance (the decay versus interference debate covered in detail in the MWM volume,
for example, is still highly relevant in this WMSS volume, and we are not sure whether
we are any closer to the resolution of this debate now)? What are the most important
future directions of research and theoretical development?
Typically, readers of an edited book take a look at only some of the chapters and do
not reflect much on the book as a whole, let alone on the historical progress of the field.
Edited volumes such as MWM and WMSS, in contrast, require (and deserve) a much
greater commitment from readers. We hope that readers will use this WMSS volume as
a starting point to engage in such active reflections about the past, present, and future
of working memory research and theories and thereby help continue to move the field
forward.
Akira Miyake, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
Priti Shah, University of Michigan, USA

References
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology
of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–​89). New York,
NY: Academic Press.
Conway, A. R. A., Jarrold, C., Kane, M. J., Miyake, A., & Towse, J. N. (Eds.). (2007). Variation in
working memory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Cowan, N. (2017). The many faces of working memory and short-​term storage. Psychonomic Bulletin
& Review, 24, 1158–​1170.
Cowan, N., Belletier, C., Doherty, J. M., Jaroslawska, A. J., Rhodes, S., Forsberg, A., . . . & Logie, R.
H. (2020). How do scientific views change? Notes from an extended adversarial collaboration.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15, 1011–​1025.
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Memory, 19, 450–​466.
Doherty, J. M., Belletier, C., Rhodes, S., Jaroslawska, A., Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., . . . & Logie, R. H.
(2019). Dual-​task costs in working memory: An adversarial collaboration. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 45, 1529–​1551.
Kintsch, W., Healy, A. F., Hegarty, M., Pennington, B. F., & Salthouse, T. A. (1999). Models of
working memory: Eight questions and some general issues. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models
of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 412–​441).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (Eds.) (1999a). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance
and executive control. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999b). Toward unified theories of working memory: Emerging general con-
sensus, unresolved theoretical issues, and future research directions. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.),
Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 442–​481).
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
 Foreword ix
Norman, A. D. (Ed.). (1970). Models of human memory. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Oberauer, K., Lewandowsky, S., Awh, E., Brown, G. D. A., Conway, A., Cowan, . . . Ward, G. (2018).
Benchmarks for models of short-​term and working memory. Psychological Bulletin, 144, 885–​958.
Smith, E. E., & Jonides, J. (1997). Working memory: A view from neuroimaging. Cognitive Psychology,
33, 5–​42.
Turner, M. L., & Engle, R. W. (1989). Is working memory capacity task dependent? Journal of Memory
and Language, 28, 127–​154.
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 Acknowledgements

The editors acknowledge support for their work on this book from the UK Economic
and Social Research Council (ESRC) within the project ‘Working memory across the
adult lifespan: An adversarial collaboration’ (WoMAAC) ES/​N010728/​1 (for more de-
tails see https://​womaac.psy.ed.ac.uk). Nelson Cowan acknowledges support for his
research from National Institutes of Health (NIH) Grant R01 HD021338. The editors
would like to thank Martin Baum at Oxford University Press for support, encourage-
ment, and patience during the gestation of this volume.
 Contents

Contributors xv

1. The State of the Science of Working Memory: An Introduction 1

Robert H. Logie, Valérie Camos, and Nelson Cowan
2. A Multicomponent Model of Working Memory 10
Alan Baddeley, Graham Hitch, and Richard Allen
3. An Embedded-​Processes Approach to Working Memory: How Is It
Distinct From Other Approaches, and to What Ends? 44
Nelson Cowan, Candice C. Morey, and Moshe Naveh-​Benjamin
4. The Time-​Based Resource-​Sharing Model of Working Memory 85
Pierre Barrouillet and Valérie Camos
5. Towards a Theory of Working Memory: From Metaphors
to Mechanisms 116
Klaus Oberauer
6. Multicomponent Working Memory System with Distributed
Executive Control 150
André Vandierendonck
7. Individual Differences in Attention Control: Implications for the
Relationship Between Working Memory Capacity and Fluid
Intelligence 175
Cody A. Mashburn, Jason S. Tsukahara, and Randall W. Engle
8. Working Memory and Expertise: An Ecological Perspective 212
David Z. Hambrick, Alexander P. Burgoyne, and Duarte Araujo
9. Domain-​Specific Working Memory: Perspectives from Cognitive
Neuropsychology 235
Randi C. Martin, Brenda Rapp, and Jeremy Purcell
10. Remembering Over the Short and Long Term: Empirical
Continuities and Theoretical Implications 282
Patricia A. Reuter-​Lorenz and Alexandru D. Iordan
11. Manifold Visual Working Memory 311
Nicole Hakim, Edward Awh, and Edward K. Vogel
12. Cognitive Neuroscience of Visual Working Memory 333
Bradley R. Postle
xiv Contents
13. A Dynamic Field Theory of Visual Working Memory 358
Sobanawartiny Wijeakumar and John Spencer
14. Integrating Theories of Working Memory 389
Robert H. Logie, Clément Belletier, and Jason M. Doherty

Index 431
 Contributors

Richard Allen, PhD Nelson Cowan, PhD

Associate Professor Curators’ Distinguished Professor
School of Psychology Department of Psychological Sciences
University of Leeds University of Missouri
Leeds, UK Columbia, Missouri, USA
Duarte Araujo, PhD Jason M. Doherty, MA, MScR, PhD
Associate Professor of Sport and Health Postdoctoral Research Assistant
Faculty of Human Kinetics Department of Psychology
University of Lisbon University of Edinburgh
Cruz Quebrada, Lisbon, Portugal Edinburgh, UK
Edward Awh, PhD Randall W. Engle, PhD
Professor Professor
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Chicago Georgia Institute of Technology
Chicago, IL, USA Atlanta, GA, USA
Alan Baddeley, CBE, FRS, FBA, FMedSci Nicole Hakim
Professor PhD Student
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of York University of Chicago
York, UK Chicago, IL, USA
Pierre Barrouillet, PhD David Z. Hambrick, PhD
Full Professor Professor
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences Department of Psychology
Université de Genève Michigan State University
Geneva, Switzerland East Lansing, MI, USA
Clément Belletier, PhD Graham Hitch, MA, MSc, PhD
Assistant Professor Emeritus Professor
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Laboratoire de Psychologie Sociale et Cognitive, University of York
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique York, UK
(CNRS), Université Clermont Auvergne
Alexandru D. Iordan, PhD
Clermont-​Ferrand, France
Postdoctoral Research Fellow
Alexander P. Burgoyne, PhD Department of Psychology
Post-​Doctoral Researcher University of Michigan
School of Psychology Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Georgia Institute of Technology
Robert H. Logie, PhD
Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Professor of Human Cognitive Neuroscience
Valérie Camos, PhD Department of Psychology
Professor in Developmental Psychology University of Edinburgh
Department of Psychology Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
Université de Fribourg
Fribourg, Switzerland
xvi Contributors
Randi C. Martin, PhD Brenda Rapp, PhD
Elma Schneider Professor Professor
Department of Psychological Sciences Department of Cognitive Science
Rice University Johns Hopkins University
Houston, TX, USA Baltimore, MD, USA
Cody A. Mashburn, BS Patricia A. Reuter-​Lorenz, PhD
Graduate Student Department Chair, Michael I. Posner Collegiate
School of Psychology Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience
Georgia Institute of Technology Department of Psychology
Atlanta, GA, USA University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Candice C. Morey, PhD
Senior Lecturer John Spencer, PhD
School of Psychology Professor
Cardiff University School of Psychology
Cardiff, Wales, UK University of East Anglia
Norwich, UK
Moshe Naveh-​Benjamin, PhD
Professor of Psychology Jason S. Tsukahara, MA
Department of Psychological Sciences Graduate Student
University of Missouri School of Psychology
Columbia, Missouri, USA Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA, USA
Klaus Oberauer, Dr
Professor André Vandierendonck, PhD
Department of Psychology Emeritus Professor
University of Zurich Department of Experimental Psychology
Zürich, Switzerland Ghent University
Ghent, Belgium
Bradley R. Postle, PhD
Professor Edward K. Vogel, PhD
Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry Professor
University of Wisconsin–​Madison Department of Psychology
Madison, WI, USA University of Chicago
Chicago, IL, USA
Jeremy Purcell, PhD
Research Scientist Sobanawartiny Wijeakumar, Dr
Maryland Neuroimaging Center Assistant Professor
University of Maryland School of Psychology
College Park, MD, USA University of Nottingham
Nottingham, UK
 1
The State of the Science of Working Memory
An Introduction

Robert H. Logie, Valérie Camos, and Nelson Cowan

Why This Book and Why Now?

Working memory (WM) refers to our ability to keep a small amount of information
readily available for our current activities, and to support decisions, guide actions, make
statements, and keep track of conversations, to navigate and support creative thinking
and problem-​solving, to remember to do things, and to update what is going on around
us throughout the day. In other words, it is an ability that we use every waking moment of
our lives. It is also one of the most popular research topics in psychological sciences and
cognitive neuroscience, and is now widely used in everyday conversation throughout
society. A search for the term on Google Scholar resulted in over two million hits. The
general concept was identified by the philosopher John Locke (1690) who referred to
‘contemplation’ in contrast with the ‘storehouse of ideas’, and a number of related con-
cepts were proposed over the following three centuries (for historical reviews, see Logie,
1996; Logie & Cowan, 2015). The use of the term WM to refer to this human mental
ability was first mentioned briefly by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram (1960), but major
theoretical and empirical developments are widely considered to have been stimulated
by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch (1974), and subsequent work by Baddeley and col-
leagues (e.g. Baddeley, 1986; see chapter by Baddeley, Hitch, & Allen, 2021).
Over the following nearly five decades since that 1974 chapter, a large volume of re-
search has been generated, leading to the development of multiple theoretical frame-
works regarding how WM works, what are its capacity limitations, how it is organized,
how its functions are implemented in brain structure and function, and how it is af-
fected by damage to the brain. Although there are large numbers of journal articles and
books on aspects of WM, for the last 20 years the ‘go to’ definitive collection of theor-
etical and empirical reviews has been a book published in 1999 and edited by Akira
Miyake and Priti Shah. That book was remarkable in bringing together the ideas of the
most high-​profile WM researchers at the time, reflecting a diversity of theoretical per-
spectives, and the book and the chapters within it are still very widely cited.
A lot has happened in research on this topic in the last 20 years, with major theoret-
ical and empirical developments, and it is an increasingly popular topic both with re-
searchers and policymakers, as well as with a range of other stakeholders and the general

Robert H. Logie, Valérie Camos, and Nelson Cowan, The State of the Science of Working Memory In: Working Memory.
Edited by: Robert H. Logie, Valérie Camos, and Nelson Cowan, Oxford University Press (2021). © Oxford University Press.
DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780198842286.003.0001
2 The State of the Science of Working Memory: An Introduction
public. With these developments has come a scientific diaspora, with multiple different
definitions (reviewed in Cowan, 2017), and competing theoretical frameworks fuelled
by new behavioural, cognitive studies of healthy and brain-​damaged individuals across
the lifespan, and by dramatic developments in neuroimaging techniques that were nas-
cent and used by very few research groups at the time of Miyake and Shah’s book. So,
it seems particularly timely for this new book Working Memory: State of the Science
that brings together many of the most productive and well-​known WM researchers in
Europe and the United States to highlight current empirical and theoretical develop-
ments as well as pointing to what has changed since Miyake and Shah’s (1999) book.
One reason for the major success of the Miyake and Shah volume was that the chapter
authors were each asked to answer a common set of questions about their own theor-
etical perspective. This unique feature gave the book a much more integrated character
than most edited texts at the time, and it remains extremely rare in edited texts today.
Our new book follows this excellent idea by asking the authors of each chapter to ad-
dress questions that remain unresolved as well as new questions that have arisen over
the last two decades. However, unlike the previous book, each author also has been
asked to state how they deal with research findings that are not consistent with their
own theoretical assumptions. This highlights contemporary debates, but also encour-
ages authors to step out of their own paradigms and findings and to consider new and
contrasting theoretical arguments rather than focusing only on their own work and
work of their like-​minded colleagues.
The encouragement for chapter authors to consider contrary evidence has arisen
from a long-​term ‘cooperative adversarial collaboration’ within a common research
programme between the three editors (Logie, Camos, and Cowan), four of their
chapter co-​authors (Barrouillet, Naveh-​Benjamin, Belletier, and Doherty), and other
colleagues (see Cowan et al., 2020) whose theoretical perspectives differ, as will be evi-
dent from their chapters. Details of that adversarial collaboration and of resulting pub-
lications and other outputs are available at http://​www.womaac.psy.ed.ac.uk, and some
of the results of the empirical work are summarized in the chapter by Logie, Belletier,
and Doherty (2021). Our book also has been guided by the aim of recruiting, as authors
of the other chapters, leading representatives of approaches to WM that differ widely in
their theoretical approaches, research methods, and domains of application.

The Designated Questions for All Authors

The designated questions for authors addressed seven core issues, plus up to five optional
issues depending on the relevance for their research. At the start of each chapter, authors
were asked to provide a table with a summary of their responses to each question. The in-
tention is that this general structure and the summary table for each chapter will facilitate
comparisons of the differences in theoretical assumptions across authors. The summary
table also provides a theoretical context for each chapter before reading the detailed text.
The instructions to authors and the designated questions are laid out in Table 1.1.
 The Designated Questions for All Authors 3
Table 1.1 The instructions and designated questions given to authors

When writing your chapter, please address the following seven questions plus any of the
optional questions that are relevant for your research. Add a table at the start of your chapter
that summarizes very briefly your answer to each question.

1. Definition of working memory (WM)

Cowan (2017) has delineated a range of different definitions of WM, although there may be other
definitions assumed by researchers in the field. What is the definition of WM within your own
theoretical framework?
2. Describe and explain the methods you use, and their strengths and limitations
What research methods do you use most frequently in your research, and are there any methods
that most uniquely characterize your research? Briefly highlight what you see as the major
advantages and limitations of these methods compared with alternatives. What new developments
in methods might help enhance empirical and theoretical advances in WM research?
3. Unitary versus non-​unitary nature of WM
Does your theoretical framework assume that WM is essentially activated long-​term episodic and
semantic memory, or do you view WM as a separate system that interacts with long-​term memory
(LTM)? Is WM a highly flexible domain-​general system that supports both temporary maintenance
and ongoing processing, or a collection of domain-​specific systems that cooperate in supporting
task performance? What evidence supports your views? Is there evidence that is inconsistent with
your views, and how does your theoretical framework deal with contrary findings?
4. The role of attention and control
A common assumption across cognitive psychology is that there is centralized control of mental
activity, and of which aspects of the environment are perceived and encoded. These aspects
of cognition often are referred to as controlled attention, or ‘top-​down control’ but this raises
questions about the nature of the control system. How does your theoretical framework account
for ‘top-​down control’ of mental activity? What is doing the controlling, and how do you address
the implicit assumption of a homunculus acting as an executive controller? What, if any, theoretical
differences are there between selective attention through the senses to stimuli in the environment
and selective attention to mental events?
5. Storage, maintenance, and loss of information in WM
How is information encoded in WM, and how is the information retained? Is there passive storage
and/​or active maintenance to prevent loss, and what are the mechanisms for loss? How are these
processes affected by strategies?
6. The role of LTM in WM storage and processing
How do episodic, semantic (declarative and procedural) aspects of LTM contribute to WM capacity
and function, and how does WM contribute to LTM? What evidence and theoretical considerations
support your theoretical views about the relationship between WM and LTM? What is the role
of WM in learning, and how does learning affect WM capacity and function? What is the role of
domain-​specific expertise in WM? How does training on WM tasks impact WM function, and how
does your theoretical framework account for the presence or absence of an impact of WM training?
7. Is there evidence that is not consistent with your theoretical framework, and how does your
framework address that inconsistency?
This can be addressed as a separate question, or incorporated in your answers to each of the other
questions.
Additional optional questions—​please also try to consider one or more of the following
questions that are relevant for your research. They may be considered in the context of the
previous core questions, or in addition.

A. Early life development

What are the sources and kinds of change that occur in WM during development from early life to
early adulthood that are incorporated in your theoretical framework? How does your framework
account for these changes, and what are the most important sources of evidence that are consistent
with, and those that present a challenge to your framework?
(Continued )
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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
It was but a short journey to the place where the Lady
Belgé dwelt. The tyrant had shut her out from the cities
of her land, and from all the pleasant spots; she had her
abode in the midst of marshes and fens, and was glad
to find shelter in them from the cruelty of her oppressor.
In such a dismal region did Prince Arthur find her, living
quite alone, for her children had left her, seeking safety
elsewhere. And she herself, when she caught sight of a
man clad in armour, made ready to fly. But then, spying
her own two sons, she took heart, and looked up
joyfully, for she knew that the stranger was come to
give her help. Then she threw her arms round the necks
of the two lads as they knelt before her, crying, “Oh, my
sweet boys, now I seem to live again, so joyful a thing
is it to see you! Surely the sun shines brighter than its
wont, thanks to your coming and to the presence of this
noble knight.” Then turning to Prince Arthur she said:
“Noble sir, who have taken all this trouble to help a
miserable woman, may heaven reward you for your
goodness. Reward have I none to give, for all that is left
to me is bare life, and that life so full of misery that it is
more like to a lingering death!”

The prince was not a little moved at these sorrowful 255

words, and sought to comfort her. “Take heart, dear
lady,” he said, “for help is at hand, and these, your
troubles, will have an end. But now come with me, and
find some spot where you may more conveniently dwell
than in this miserable place.”

“Ah sir,” she answered, “to what place shall I go? The
enemy dwells in my palaces, my cities are sacked, my
towers are levelled with the ground, and what were
abodes of men are fields where the wild flowers grow.
Only these marshes, the abode of efts and frogs, are
left to me.”
“Nay, good lady,” answered the prince, “think better
things than these. We will find some place to harbour
us. And if it yield not itself willingly, then will we compel
it; for all that your adversary may do, we will purchase
it with spear and shield; and if not, then the open field
shall give us welcome; earth has a lodging for all its
creatures.” With such words did the prince encourage
her, so that she made ready to go with him.

They set out therefore and came to a city which once 256
had been the Lady Belgé’s own, but had been taken
from her by her enemy. He had pulled down its stately
towers, closed its harbour, marred the trade of its
merchants, and brought its people to poverty. And he
had built a great fort from which he dominated the
place. For a while the city had resisted his tyranny, but
had now submitted itself to him, so purchasing life, but
losing all else that is worth the having. Many things did
it suffer from his tyranny, but of all that it endured the
worst was this, that it was compelled to offer sacrifices
of human life to a hideous idol which the tyrant had set
up in a chapel which he had built and adorned with
costliest fittings of gold and ivory. In this city he had put
a strong garrison, and in command of this garrison he
had set a seneschal, a very stalwart knight, who had
vanquished hitherto all the knights that had ventured to
come against him. He had vanquished them, and when
he had them in his power he had dealt with them in the
most shameful fashion.
 Prince Arthur slaying the Seneschal.
257
When the Lady Belgé knew the place, she said to the
prince, “Oh, sir, beware what you venture; very many
knights have been undone at this place.” To this warning
he paid no heed, but riding up to the wall of the city,
called to the watchmen, “I challenge to single combat
the seneschal of this fortress.” Nor did the man delay to
come, but donning his armour, rode forth from the city
gate. The two combatants met in full tilt in the open
field, charging each the other with his spear full upon
the shield. But the spear of the seneschal made no way,
of so pure and well-refined a metal was the prince’s
shield. Broken was it into pieces without number. But
the spear of the prince passed through the pagan’s
cuirass, and made a deep wound in his body, so that he
fell from his horse to the ground. There the prince left
him to lie, for he was dead almost before he touched
the ground, and rode straight to the fortress seeking
entrance. But as he rode he spied three knights
advancing towards him at the top speed of their horses.
All three charged him at once, all aiming their spears at
one place in his armour. But the prince did not swerve
from his straight seat in his saddle, no, not by a hair’s-
breadth. Firm as a tower he sat, and with his spear he
smote that one of the three who had the middle place.
Nor was his smiting in vain, for he drove the spear
through the shield and through the side of the man, so
that he fell dead straight-way on his mother-earth.
When his fellows saw how easily he had been
overcome, they fled away as fast as their steeds could
carry them. But the prince followed yet faster, and
overtook them hard by the city gate. There, as they
hasted to enter, one hindered the other, and the prince
slew the hindmost. The third, striving to shut the gate in
his adversary’s face, was hindered by the carcase of his
companion, for it lay in the way. So he fled into the hall
which stood at the entering in of the gate, hoping so to
save himself, but the prince following hard after him,
slew him there. When they that were left of the garrison
saw how it had gone with these three, they were sore
afraid, and fled in great terror, escaping by a postern
door. When the prince found no more to oppose him, he
returned to the Lady Belgé, and brought her into the
city, her two sons being with her. Many thanks did she
render for the good service which he had done her.

When the tidings of what had befallen the seneschal 258

and his knights came to the sultan, he was carried out
of himself with rage. Nevertheless there was something
of fear mingled with his rage, for his conscience smote
him with the thought that the recompense of his evil
deeds was at hand. Nevertheless he comforted himself
with this: “There is but one of them, and he cannot
always prevail.” Therefore he armed himself: also he
took with him all the followers that he had, and
marched to the gate of the city, and there demanded
entrance, saying, “Yield me up this place straightway,
for it is my own.”

To this summons the prince made no answer, but rode

forth through the gate, ready armed for battle. And
being on the farther side he said, “Are you he that has
done all this wrong to the noble Lady Belgé, exiling her
from her own land in such fashion that all the world
cries shame on you?”

The tyrant answered, “I stand on my own right; what I 259

have done, that will I justify!” So saying he ran furiously
at the prince, beating upon his armour with a great
battle-axe as if he would have chopped it in pieces. So
fierce was his onset that the prince was constrained to
give place awhile. So heavy were his strokes, one had
thought they would have riven a rock asunder. Also he
had the advantage of his threefold form. Three pairs of
hands he had, and he could shift his weapon from one
to the other as occasion served. So crafty was he and so
nimble, that an adversary scarce could know where and
when he should defend himself. But the prince was his
match and more. Ever he watched the motion of his
hands, and parried the blow wherever it might fall. And
the tyrant, being thus baffled again and again, roared
for very rage, till, at the last, gathering up all the
strength of the three bodies into one stroke, he thought
to fell his adversary to the ground. What had happened
had the stroke come upon the man none can say, but it
lighted on the horse and brought him to the ground. So
now the prince was constrained to fight on foot, and the
giant laughed aloud to think that he had him at a
disadvantage. But the fortune of the fight went not so.
Now this arm and now that did the prince shear away
with his good sword, and he himself was sheltered safe
under his shield; so faultless was its temper, that no
blow could shatter it. And ever the giant was more and
more carried away by his rage, till, at the last, offering
his whole side to the attack of the prince, he was
brought to the ground a corpse, nay, three corpses, for
all were smitten to death by the one stroke, and lay a
bloody heap upon the plain.

All this while the Lady Belgé watched the fortunes of the 260
fight from the city wall, with her two sons standing on
either hand. And when she saw the issue she hastened
to greet him; the people of the city also, who had
waited to see to whom the victory should fall, hastened
to do him homage. Right glad were they to be rid of the
giant’s tyranny.
When the Lady Belgé had rendered the prince her
thanks, which he received with due modesty—“’Tis not
the strength nor courage of the doer,” said he, “but the
justice of his deed that should be looked to”—she said:
“O noble sir, you have freed me from my chief foe;
nevertheless there remains yet something to be done. I
pray you not to stay your victorious arms till you have
rooted out all that remains of this vile brood, and
established my peace for ever.”

“Tell me, lady,” he answered, “what is this that

remains?”

“Sir,” she answered, “in this temple hard by there is, as

you have heard, a monstrous idol which this tyrant set
up, and to which he offered up sacrifices, taking, alas!
of my dear children, and many children also of this
people. Now in a cavern underneath this idol there lies a
most hideous monster, which is wont to feed upon the
flesh of these sacrifices. No man, they say, has ever
looked upon its shape, so fearful is it, and lived.”

When the prince heard this he was occupied with a 261

great desire to deal with this same monster, and
demanded that the queen should show him the place
where it abode. “It is beneath the altar,” said she; and
he uncovered his shield, for the need was such as to
demand the help. The idol he saw, but not the monster.
Then he took his sword, and with the naked blade he
struck three times, as if in defiance, and at the third
time the monster came from out its hiding-place.
Hideous it was to see, huge of size, as long, it seemed,
as the whole chapel, with the face of a woman and the
body of a dog; its claws were like to lion’s claws; it had
a tail with a deadly sting, and eagle’s wings.
Nevertheless, for all its strength, it was dismayed to see
the knight, and especially the burning brightness of his
shield. It would have fled again to its hiding-place, but
that the prince would not suffer. Seeing, then, that it
had to fight, the monster flew at the prince’s shield, and
caught it with its claws, purposing either to break it, or,
if that might not be, to wrench it out of his hands. Long
did they struggle together, but at the last the prince,
with a stroke of his sword, shore off the monster’s
claws. Exceeding loud was the bellowing which it made,
seeming to make the whole chapel rock to its
foundations. Next it struck at the prince with its great
tail, and well-nigh brought him to the ground; but
before it could strike a second blow, he had severed the
last joint with his sword. Last of all, it raised itself on its
great wings and flew at his head; doubtless it had hurt
him sore but that he held his shield between. While he
so warded off the attack, he struck full at the monster’s
belly, and so did it to death.

Great was the rejoicing in the city when the people 262
knew that the creature which had oppressed them so
long was slain. They crowned the prince with bays, and
led him through the streets with solemn pomp. After
this he tarried awhile in the city, establishing Queen
Belgé on her throne, and setting all things in due order,
till the time came when he had to depart for the
completing of his task.

263
 CHAPTER XXXIV
OF SIR ARTEGALL AND GRANTORTO

While these things were doing, Sir Artegall set forth to

accomplish his task, having Talus with him as before.
After he had journeyed awhile, he overtook an old man
who was travelling alone, and perceived that he was the
same that had attended the Lady Irene when she came
to the court of Queen Gloriana. He had been a famous
knight in his day, but had long since foregone the use of
arms, being stricken with age.

“Hail, Sir Sergis,” he cried, “there lives no truer knight, I

know; but tell me, what is your errand? How fares the
Lady Irene? How comes it that you have left her? Is she
in prison? Does she yet live?”

“She lives,” answered the old knight, “but she is in sore

trouble. Trusting to your promise that you would come
to be her champion, and do battle with him who was
oppressing her, she came at the appointed time, but
found you not. And now Grantorto has thrown her into
prison, and has appointed her a day, saying that if by
that time no champion shall appear to justify her and
prove her clear of the crimes of which she is accused,
she shall suffer death.”
Sir Artegall was sorely troubled to hear these words, 264
knowing that she suffered these things through his
default. “Verily,” he said, “I am to blame for this fair
maiden’s trouble, in that I was not present to maintain
her cause; but, as you know, I was not wholly to blame
for that which hindered me. But tell me, how many days
has the tyrant allowed for the finding of this champion?”

“Ten days he has given,” answered the old knight, “but

he knows that ’tis only a form, for he guards all the
coasts and approaches by which such a champion might
come. Indeed, he counts her to be already dead.”

“Turn again, dear knight,” said Sir Artegall; “surely, if I

live, she shall have the champion whom she needs
within the appointed time!” So they two went on
together.

As they rode they were aware of a great rout of people 265

who seemed to be looking on at some affray. Coming
nearer, they perceived a number of rude fellows setting
on a single knight, and chasing him to and fro as if they
would make him prisoner. And he, on the other hand,
sought to make his way to a lady who might be seen in
another part of the field, holding up her hands and
praying for help. Wheresoever he turned they gave way
before him, yet ever returned and renewed their attack,
and, so great were their numbers, pressed him sorely.
So harassed was he with their assailing, that he threw
away his shield, a most dishonourable thing for any
knight to do, and one that marks him with shame
without end. When Sir Artegall saw in what an evil
plight the man stood, he rode forward to his help, yet
he was himself so rudely assailed that he was
constrained to give place for a while. But when Talus
began to use his iron flail, then the multitude fled for
their lives, being scattered as the wind scatters the
chaff on a threshing-floor. When the knight had given
thanks for his deliverance, Sir Artegall said to him:

“What is the occasion of this uproar? Who are you, and

who are these villains that attacked you so furiously?”

The knight answered: “My name is Burbon; I have won

honour as a knight, and have been in good repute till of
late trouble has overtaken me. This lady is by name
Fleur de Lys; my love she is, though of late she has
scorned me; I know not whether by her own choice or
by constraint of others. It cannot be denied that she
was once betrothed to me of her own free choice; but a
certain tyrant, whom men call Grantorto, won her by
gifts and lying words. This host of villains he sent to
take her away from me by open force.”

Then said Sir Artegall: “I see, Sir Knight, that you have
suffered grievous things, yet not without fault of your
own. But let us first rid you of these villains. That done,
we can make a settlement of other matters.”

This then they did, Talus greatly helping with his flail. 266
But when they came to the lady, who had been left by
them who had taken her prisoner, they were in no little
doubt in what mind she was, for she seemed to be
neither glad nor sorry. One thing was certain, to wit,
that she was wondrous fair and clad in splendid robes.
When Sir Burbon, lighting from his horse, ran to her and
would have clasped her in his arms, she turned from
him in high disdain. “Begone,” she cried, “and touch me
not.” Then said Sir Artegall: “Fair lady, you cast a very
great blemish on your beauty, if you change a plighted
faith. Is there aught on earth so dear and so precious as
faith and honour? Love surely is dearer than life, and
fame is more to be desired than gold; but a plighted
troth is more to be honoured than even love or fame.”
At this rebuke the lady seemed much abashed, and Sir
Burbon, lifting her in his arms, set her on her steed, nor
did she repulse him. So they rode away, but whether
wholly agreed or not, no one can say.

These matters being accomplished, Sir Artegall with Sir 267

Sergis pursued his journey till they came to the
seashore. There by good fortune they found a ship
ready equipped for sailing. This they hired, that it
should take them whither they would, and embarking in
it, found wind and weather serve them so well that in a
single day they came to the land which they sought.
There they saw drawn up on the shore great hosts of
men who should hinder them from landing. But they did
not for this forego their purpose. So soon as they
approached so near to the shore that they could see the
bottom beneath the waves, Talus leapt from the ship
into the sea. The enemy sought to overwhelm him with
stones and darts, but he heeded them not at all.
Wading through the waves he came to the shore, and
once having put his foot upon the land, chased all the
multitude away, even as an eagle chases a flock of
doves. The way being thus made clear, for there was
now no one to hinder them, Sir Artegall and the old
knight landed, and made their way to a city that was
hard by. The tyrant Grantorto, being made aware of
their coming by some of those that had fled from Talus,
gathered a host of men and came against them. But
these also did Talus discomfit with his flail, pursuing
them till Artegall himself bade him hold his hand, for he
would settle the quarrel in more orderly fashion.
Therefore he called a herald and bade him take a
message to King Grantorto to this purport:
“I came not hither to fight against your people, but to
maintain the cause of the Lady Irene against you in
single combat. Do you therefore call your people back
that they may suffer no further damage, but fix a time
and place for us two to fight together in the cause of
the Lady Irene.”

That night he pitched his tent outside the city, and 268
would suffer none to come near him; only Sir Sergis
kept him company, and gave such services as were
needful. Now the Lady Irene had not heard of the
coming of Sir Artegall, and this being the day on which,
lacking a champion who should defend her cause, it was
appointed for her to die, she arrayed herself in squalid
garments, fit for such occasion, and prepared herself for
her doom. But her mood was changed to joy when,
coming to the appointed place, she found Sir Artegall
ready to do battle for her.

And now, the lists having been made ready, Grantorto

came forth prepared for battle. He was clad in armour
of iron, with a steel cap, rusty brown in colour, on his
head, and in his hand he carried a huge pole-axe. He
was of mighty stature, standing up as a giant among
other men, and hideous of aspect. Very expert in arms
was he, and of great strength; no man had ever stood
against him in fight and held his own.

Then the trumpets sounded and the two met. Fast and 269
furiously did Grantorto rain his blows upon his
adversary. This was his manner of fighting, to wit, to
overbear his foe by the fierceness of his attack, giving
him no respite or breathing-time. But of this Sir Artegall
was well aware, and bore himself accordingly. It was as
when a sailor sees a storm approaching and strikes his
sails and loosens his main-sheet. So did Sir Artegall
stoop his head, shunning the great shower of blows.
Small shame it is to stoop if a man shall thereafter raise
his head the higher. For a time, indeed, it might seem
that the tyrant would prevail, so heavy was the shower
of blows that he poured upon him, and so many the
wounds which the great pole-axe made even through
his armour. But ere long the occasion came for which
the knight had waited. When the tyrant raised his arm
high to strike what should be, he hoped, a mortal blow,
Sir Artegall smote under his guard and drove his sword
deep into his flank, so that the blood gushed forth in a
great stream. Meanwhile the blow of the pole-axe had
fallen, and, despite the shield which the knight had
raised to defend his head, had bitten so deep that the
giant could by no means loose it again. Then Sir Artegall
let go his shield, and struck Grantorto on the head with
such strength that he brought him to the ground, and,
as he lay, with yet another stroke severed his head from
his body.

Then all the people, glad to be rid of the tyrant, joyfully

hastened to pay their homage to Queen Irene. So she
was established on her throne. Sir Artegall tarried
awhile to order all things in peace and justice, Talus
helping much in the seeking out and punishment of
offenders.

270
 CHAPTER XXXV
OF SIR CALIDORE AND THE LADY BRIANA

As Sir Artegall was returning from his latest enterprise,

he met a certain Sir Calidore, who was in high repute
among the knights and dames of Fairyland for his
courtesy and honesty. These two had been friends in old
time, and now were right glad to meet.

“Hail, noble sir,” said Sir Calidore, “tell me, I pray you,
how you have prospered in your enterprise.”

And when the other had unfolded the whole matter in

order, what hindrances he had encountered, and what
success he had achieved in the end, “Happy man,” he
said, “that have accomplished so great an enterprise!
You are at the end of your labours, but I am but
beginning mine, nor do I know where to begin; the way
is all untried. I know not what dangers await me, nor
what provision I must make.”

“What, then, is this enterprise of yours?” said Sir

Artegall.

“I pursue,” answered the other, “the Blatant Beast, a 271

monster that, having been nurtured in the regions
below, has now come forth on the earth to be the
plague and bane of men. My task is to follow him, if
need be, all over the world, till I can destroy him.”

“Such a creature I myself saw,” said Sir Artegall, “after

that I left the Savage Island. It seemed to have full a
thousand tongues, and with all of these it bayed and
barked at me; I heeded him not, and this seemed to
move him to still greater rage.”

“Doubtless,” answered Sir Calidore, “that is the monster

which I follow.”

“Go on and prosper,” said Sir Artegall; and so they

parted in all friendship and amity.

After Sir Calidore had travelled a mile or so, he came

upon a squire, a comely youth to behold, whom his
enemies had bound to a tree. The same loudly called on
him for help, which he, without waiting to ask
questions, promptly rendered. When he had loosed his
bonds he said: “Tell me, unhappy man, how you came
into this evil plight; who was it that captured you and
bound you in this fashion?”

“Sir Knight,” said the man, “be assured that it was by

misfortune only, not by fault committed, that I came
into this condition. Not far from this place there is a
very strong castle, where they keep this evil custom. No
man may pass along the road—and the road so lies that
none may pass without leave obtained from them who
hold the castle—without payment of toll. And the toll is
this—from every lady her hair, and from every knight his
beard.”

“As shameful a custom as ever came to my ears!” cried 272

Sir Calidore, “and one speedily to be overthrown! But
tell me how it came about, and what was its
beginning?”

“In this castle,” the squire made reply, “there dwells a

certain lady, Briana by name; there is no one on earth
more proud, and it vexes her sorely that she loves a
certain Sir Crudor, and that he will not deign to return
love for love, until she shall make for him a mantle lined
with the hair of ladies and the beards of knights. And
she to gain this end uses the castle, having for her
minister in the matter a certain Maleffort, who, indeed,
does her will in the most cruel fashion. This very day, as
I journeyed by the road with the lady whom I love, this
Maleffort made an assault upon us. Me first he took
prisoner, for I could not withstand him, so strong was
he. This done, he pursued the damsel, binding me to
this tree until he should come back. But whether he has
found her or not, I know not.”

While he was yet speaking, they heard a loud shriek

from hard by, and looking to the place saw the knave
holding a lady by her garments and about to shear the
tresses from her head. When Sir Calidore saw this he
was greatly moved with wrath; the squire he left, and
turned to pursue the villain. “Hold!” he cried, “leave that
evil doing, and turn to answer me!”

The fellow, trusting in his strength, which, indeed, had 273

never failed him, answered him scornfully. “Who,” said
he, “are you that defy me in this fashion? You take this
maiden’s part; will you then give your beard, though it
be but little, for her locks? Nay, nay, you may not
purchase them so cheaply.” So saying he ran at Sir
Calidore in a mighty rage, and rained upon him a great
shower of blows. The knight, who was well skilled in
arms, held back awhile, standing on his defence, and let
him spend his strength. But when he perceived that he
was failing somewhat, then he began to press him; the
more he gave way the more strongly he assailed him. At
last the fellow lost heart, and turned to fly, hoping to
gain the castle and find shelter. So he fled, Sir Calidore
pursuing; and now he had reached the gate and cried
aloud that they should open to him without delay. This
indeed they who were within, seeing in what extremity
he was, made haste to do, but even as he stood in the
porch Sir Calidore dealt him a mighty blow with his
sword, and cleft his head from the crown to the chin.
He fell down dead where he stood, and when they
would have shut the gate, they could not, for the
carcase blocked the way, and Sir Calidore entering in,
slew the porter where he stood. Then all who were in
the castle set at him, but in vain; he swept them aside
full easily, as an ox, standing in a meadow on a summer
day, sweeps away the flies which trouble him. So he
passed from the porch into the hall, where the Lady
Briana met him, and assailed him with angry words,
calling him villain because he had slain her steward, and
was now come to rob her of her possessions.

“Nay, nay, fair lady,” he made answer, “I deserve not 274

these reproaches. I came to abate an evil custom that
you wot of. Such things do dishonour to the laws of
courtesy. I pray you, therefore, of your own accord, to
do away with this evil. Rather show kindness and
hospitality to all such as pass by this way; so shall you
gain a glory that is better far than earthly love.”

These words did but make her wrath more strong.

“Know, sir,” she cried, “that I disdain all this talk of
kindness and courtesy, and defy you to the death.”
“I hold it no shame,” answered Sir Calidore, “to take
defiance from a lady; but were there one here who
would abide the trial with his sword, gladly would I
prove my words upon him.”

Then the lady in great haste called to her a dwarf who

served her, and taking from her hand a ring of gold,
gave it to him, saying: “Take this with all speed to Sir
Crudor; and tell him that there is a knight here who has
slain my steward and done much damage to my
people;” for it had been agreed between them, that
when urgent need should arise she should send this
ring. So the dwarf departed with the ring, and travelled
all that night. Meanwhile Sir Calidore abode in the
castle, the lady being now scornful, now angry, and he
enduring her moods with all patience and courtesy.

The next day, before the sun rose, came the dwarf, 275
bringing a message from Sir Crudor that he would come
to her help before he had broken his fast, and would
deliver to her the enemy alive or dead; and he sent his
helmet as a true token. Greatly did the Lady Briana
rejoice to have such news, and behaved herself more
scornfully than ever to Sir Calidore. He took no heed of
her ways, rather rejoicing that he should have someone
with whom to settle this quarrel. So he donned his
arms, and waited for the coming of Sir Crudor. Nor did
he wait long. Right soon did he espy a knight riding
across the plain. “This,” said he to himself, “is the Lady
Briana’s champion,” and without staying to ask of
anyone who this new-comer might be, he rode forth to
meet him. The two came together in the middle of the
plain with so strong a shock that both were rolled upon
the ground, each rider with his horse. Sir Calidore rose
lightly from the ground, while his adversary still lay
without sense or speech, but he disdained to do him
any damage; it would ill become a courteous knight to
strike a sleeping foe. But Briana, where she stood upon
the castle walls, thought that her champion was dead,
and loudly bemoaned him, and made as if she would
throw herself from the walls to the earth.

After a while Sir Crudor raised himself from the ground, 276
but in listless fashion, like to one who can scarcely
rouse himself from sleep. But when he saw his
adversary, his spirit returned to him as before, and he
renewed the fight, hoping that he would fare better on
foot than he had fared on horseback. Long did they
fight, dealing each to other fearful blows. Not once, so
fierce were they, did they pause to take rest. At the last,
when, as if by common consent, both lifted their swords
high in the air to deal what might be a final blow, and
so finish the fight, either for this champion or for that,
Sir Calidore, being more nimble and quicker of sight
than his adversary, was beforehand with him, and
struck him with so sharp a blow upon his helmet that he
brought him to his knee. Nor did he fail to follow up his
advantage, but redoubling the fierceness of his strokes,
brought him altogether to the ground. As he lay there
he would have unlaced his helmet, and given him his
death-blow, but the vanquished man begged for mercy.
Then Sir Calidore, mastering his anger, such was his
courtesy, said: “Mercy I grant with all goodwill. Do you
learn not to treat strangers with such rudeness. This ill
befits a knight, for his first duty is to conquer himself.
And now I give you your life on these conditions, that
you help to the best of your power all wandering
knights, and also give aid as you can to all ladies in
need.”

These things the knight, being thus delivered beyond all 277
hope from the fear of death, promised to do, and swore
fealty to Sir Calidore as being his liege lord for all his
life. All this time the Lady Briana was looking in great
dismay and trouble of mind; and now Sir Calidore,
bidding her to approach, told all that had been agreed
between him and Sir Crudor. She was overcome by so
great a courtesy, and thanked him with all her heart, for
indeed it was in her inmost heart that she was moved.
She threw herself at his feet, and declared herself to be
wholly bound to him. After this they all betook
themselves to the castle, where the lady entertained
them in most joyous fashion.

The banquet ended, she said: “Sir Calidore, I do bestow

this castle upon you freely and without price, by way of
token of how great is my debt to you.”

Then answered Sir Calidore: “Lady, I thank you for this

gift; but I am not minded to take any hire or reward for
any good deed that it may be given me to do.” So he
gave the castle to the squire, that he and the damsel
might dwell there. And when he had tarried there
certain days, and was now made whole of his wounds,
he went forth again on his quest.

278
 CHAPTER XXXVI
OF THE VALOUR OF TRISTRAM

As Sir Calidore went on his way he saw a young man of

great stature fighting on foot with a knight on
horseback. Not far from these two stood a lady, clad in
very poor array. Sir Calidore would have inquired of her
the cause of the strife, having it in his mind to part the
two combatants, if this might be done. But before he
could come at the place, the youth had slain the knight,
a thing at which he wondered not a little. This same
youth was very goodly to look at, slender in shape, and
of but seventeen years or so, as it seemed, but tall and
fair of face. He was clad in a woodman’s jacket of
Lincoln green, embroidered with silver, with a
huntsman’s horn hanging by his side. He had a dart in
his right hand, and in his left a boar-spear.

“What means this?” said Sir Calidore. “You, who are no

knight, have slain a knight, a thing plainly contrary to
the law of arms.”

“I would not wish,” answered the youth, “to break the

law of arms; yet would I break it again, sooner than
suffer such wrong as I have of this man, so long as I
have two hands wherewith to defend myself. The
quarrel with him was not of my seeking, as this lady can
testify.”

“Tell me therefore,” said Sir Calidore, “how things fell 279

out.”

“Sir Knight,” answered the lad, “I was hunting in the

wood, as I am wont to do for lack of graver
employment, for which my years are not fit, when I saw
this knight, who lies dead yonder, passing over the
plain, with this lady in his company. He was on
horseback, but she followed on foot, and when she
lagged behind, as she must needs do, so rough was the
ground, then he smote her with the butt of his spear,
taking no heed of her tears and prayers. This sight I
saw with no small indignation, and being moved with
wrath said: ‘Surely, Sir Knight, you should rather takeup
this lady to ride behind you than make her travel so
uneasily.’ To this he answered in angry words, bidding
me hold my peace, nor meddle with things that
concerned me not. ‘Or,’ said he, ‘I will whip you as a
malapert boy should be whipped!’ So after some angry
talk, he struck me twice with his spear, and I threw at
him a dart, fellow of this which you see here in my
hand; nor did I throw it in vain, for it struck him
beneath the heart so hard that presently he died.”

Sir Calidore was not a little pleased with his manner of 280
speech, so bold and honest was it, and he admired also
the sturdiness of the stroke which had broken to such
effect the coat of mail. And when, after question put to
the lady, he found that it was even as the lad had told,
he said: “I do not condemn this youth, but rather hold
him free of blame. ’Tis the duty of knights, and indeed
of all men, to bear themselves kindly and courteously to
women, and he did well to maintain this good custom.
But now I would have you tell me, lady, if you will, how
it came about that the man whom he slew treated you
in so unseemly a fashion?”

“Sir Knight,” answered the lady, “I am loath to bring

accusations against the dead; yet I must needs declare
the truth. This day, as this knight and I were passing on
our way, we came upon a glade in the wood where
there sat two lovers, a comely knight and a fair lady.
The knight my companion being taken with the lady’s
beauty, bade me dismount. And when I was unwilling to
do so, thrust me out of my seat with violence. Which
when he had done, he said to the other: ‘Now, yield me
up that dame!’ And when the other—though, indeed, he
was not prepared for battle—refused, then he wounded
him sorely with his spear. This he did, though the other
had proffered to do battle with him, if only he would
appoint a day when they might try their strength on
equal terms. Meanwhile the lady had fled into the wood,
and had hidden herself to such good purpose, that
when my knight sought to find her, he spent all his
labour in vain. At this baulk he was greatly enraged. He
would not set me on his horse again, but constrained
me to follow on foot, smiting me with his spear if ever I
lagged behind, and taking no heed of my tears and
complaining. So we went on till we fell in with this
young man, and he, being moved with pity at my evil
plight, rebuked the knight. How the matter ended you
have seen for yourself.”

“This boor has received his due,” said Calidore. Then 281
turning to the lad, he said: “Tell me now who you are,
and how you came to be in this place. Never did I see
greater promise in anyone, and I would help you to
bring it to as good fulfilment as may be.”
“Sir Knight,” the youth made answer, “it may be that the
revealing of my name and lineage may be to my hurt,
for of such danger I have been warned; nevertheless,
so courteously have you borne yourself to me, that I will
tell you the whole truth. I am a Briton, Tristram by
name, son of good King Meliogras, who once reigned in
the land of Cornwall. He dying while I was yet of tender
years, his brother took the kingdom. Thereupon my
mother, Queen Emiline, conceiving me to be in danger
from this same uncle, thought it best to send me into
some foreign land, where I should not be within his
reach, if the thought of doing me a mischief should
arise in his heart. So, according to the counsel of a wise
man of whom she inquired in her perplexity, she sent
me from the land of Lyonesse, where I was born, to the
land of Fairy, where, no one knowing who or what I
was, none would seek to do me wrong. I was then ten
years of age, and I have abode in this land ever since,
not wasting my days in vain delights, but perfecting
myself in all the arts of hunting. But now it is time, I
hold, to look to higher things. Therefore, this being such
an occasion as might not again befall, I would entreat of
you that you advance me, unworthy though I be, to a
squire’s degree, so that I may duly learn and practise all
the use of arms. And for this I have this beginning, to
wit, the arms of this knight, whom I slew in fair
encounter.”

Sir Calidore answered, “Fair child, I would not by any 282

means baulk this your honourable desire to follow the
profession of arms; only I could wish that I could set
you to some service that should be worthy of you. Kneel
therefore and swear that you will be faithful to any
knight whom you shall serve as squire, and be true to
all ladies, and never draw back from fear of any deed
that it may be fitting for you to do.” So Tristram knelt
down upon his knees, and took his oath to do according
to these words.

Thereupon Sir Calidore dubbed him a squire, and he

bloomed forth straightway in all joy and gladness, even
as a bud opens into a flower. But when Tristram
besought him that he might go with him on his present
adventure, vowing that he would follow him to the
death, Sir Calidore answered: “I should be right glad,
most courteous squire, to have you with me, so that I
might see the valour which you have show itself in
honourable achievement, but this may not be. I am
bound by vow to my sovereign, who set me this task to
accomplish, that I would not take anyone to aid me. For
this reason I may not grant your request. But now,
seeing that this lady is left desolate, and is in need of
safe convoy, you will do well to succour her in this her
need.”

This service the youth gladly undertook, and Sir 283

Calidore, taking leave of him and the dame in courteous
fashion, set forth again on his quest. He had not
travelled far before he came to the place where the
knight who had been so discourteously treated by him
whom Tristram had slain, lay in a most sorrowful plight.
He was bleeding from many wounds, so that all the
earth about him was red; and the lady sat by him
weeping, and yet doing all that she could with careful
hands to dress his wounds and ease his pain. Sir
Calidore, when he saw this sorry sight, was well-nigh
moved to tears; from which, scarce refraining himself,
he said: “Tell me, sad lady, if your grief will suffer you,
who it was that with cruel hand wrought such mischief
to a knight unarmed, for surely, if I may but come near
him, I will avenge this wrong upon him.”
The lady answered: “Fair sir, this knight whom you see
here and I sat talking in lover’s fashion, and this man
charged him, unarmed as he was, and dealt him these
deadly wounds. And if you would know what manner of
man he was, he was of tall stature, clad in gilded
armour, crossed with a band of blue, and for device on
his shield he had a lady rowed in a summer barge
across rough waves.”

When Sir Calidore heard this, he was assured that this 284
indeed was the knight whom Tristram had slain, and he
said: “Lady, take to yourself this comfort, that he who
so foully wronged your knight lies now in yet more evil
case. I saw him with my own eyes lying dead upon the
earth, a just recompense for the foul wrong that he did
to your fair knight. And now bethink you what we may
best do for this wounded man, how you may best
convey him hence, and to what refuge.”

She thanked him for his courtesy and friendly care, yet
knew not what to say, for being a stranger in that
country she could not think of a fitting place, nor could
she ask him to carry the wounded man. This he did not
fail to perceive, and said: “Fair lady, think not that I
deem it a disgrace to carry this burden; gladly will I help
you.” Taking therefore his shield, and first pouring the
healing balm, which he always carried with him for such
needs, into the knight’s wounds, he put him thereon,
and bare him, the lady helping, to a castle that was
hard by. And it so chanced that the lord of this castle
was father to the wounded knight, a man far advanced
in years, who had been a famous man-at-arms in the
days gone by, and was of most courteous and
hospitable temper. Aldus was his name, and his son’s
name was Aladine. Great was his grief when he saw his
dear son brought home in such a plight.
“Dear boy,” he cried, “and is the pleasure with which I 285
thought to welcome you to this your home turned to
such sorrow!” Nevertheless he put a brave constraint
upon his sorrow, and turned himself to entertain his
guests with all hospitality. To this welcome Sir Calidore
made a courteous return, but the lady, whose name was
Priscilla, could not by any means be cheered. She was
daughter to a noble lord that dwelt hard by, and had
seen and loved this same Aladine, though he was of
meaner birth and smaller estate; and now she was
much troubled, thinking both of her lover’s perilous
state and of how her father would take the matter. So,
while Sir Aldus entertained Sir Calidore, she sat and
tended the wounded man, and at the last, with infinite
pains, brought him out of the swoon in which he lay,
and restored him to himself.

The next day, when Sir Calidore came to see how the
wounded man was faring, he found him not a little
bettered in state of body, but anxious in mind, especially
for his lady’s sake, because of the displeasure which her
father might have concerning her love for him.
Thereupon he told to Sir Calidore the whole story of his
love, and besought his help, which he, much moved by
pity for their sorrowful case, gladly promised that he
would give. This promise he most fully did perform. First
he went to where the carcase of that misbehaved knight
lay upon the ground, and shore the head from the body.
This he took in his hand, and brought the lady to her
father’s house. He, indeed, was greatly troubled to think
what had befallen his child, and was much rejoiced to
see her again safe and sound.

Then said Sir Calidore: “Your daughter was like to suffer

wrong from an evil knight; but he suffered for his evil
intent—lo! here you see his head.”
Then did the noble lord most gladly receive her again to
her home, and Sir Calidore, after a short sojourn,
departed again upon his quest.

286
 CHAPTER XXXVII
SIR CALEPINE AND THE LADY SERENA

As Sir Calidore passed on his way he came upon two

lovers, Sir Calepine and the Lady Serena, as they sat
talking together. They were abashed to see him, and he,
being the very soul of courtesy, made most humble
apology for so disturbing them. Then said Sir Calepine:
“Sit down and rest awhile, and let us talk together;” to
which Sir Calidore courteously assented. While they
talked, the Lady Serena, tempted by the fairness of the
place, and seeking to make a garland of flowers, of
which there was great store, wandered away.

Thereupon the Blatant Beast, the same monster which

Sir Calidore had it in charge to seek, rushed out of a
wood that was hard by, caught her in his mouth, and
carried her away. She cried aloud to the two knights for
help, and they, hearing her voice, started up to succour
her. Sir Calidore, being the more swift of foot of the
two, overtook the beast before it had gone far.
Thereupon it cast down the lady out of its mouth and
fled. Nor did Sir Calidore delay to pursue the beast.
“The lady,” said he to himself, “will be cared for by her
own knight; but as for me, I must not abandon my
quest.” How he fared in the pursuit will be told
hereafter; but we will follow in the meanwhile the
fortunes of the two lovers.

Sir Calepine found the lady in very sad plight, being 287
sorely wounded on both sides by the monster’s teeth,
so that she lay upon the ground in a swoon, as if she
were dead. With much ado he brought her back to life,
and, setting her on his horse, held her up with his arms,
till they could find some place where she might rest and
be healed of her wounds. So they journeyed till they
came to a river, on the other side of which stood a fair
castle, in which he hoped that he might find shelter. But
when he came to the water’s edge he found that the
stream could scarce be forded on foot. While he
doubted what it were best to do, there came a knight to
the river’s side, with a lady riding on a palfrey by his
side. Thereupon Sir Calepine, with all due courtesy,
made a request of the new-comer, that he would take
this wounded lady to the other side.

“Not so,” replied the other; “if you have no horse of

your own you shall have no help of mine. Go on foot,
and let this lady do the same. Or, if you like it better,
carry her on your back, and so prove yourself a man.”

The lady on the palfrey was much displeased at the 288

rudeness of this speech, and, pitying the plight of
Serena, would have helped her with her own palfrey.
For this courtesy Sir Calepine thanked her, but, being
very angry with the knight, would have none of her
help. Stepping down, therefore, into the river, he held
himself up against the stream with his spear in one
hand, and with the other hand stayed the lady on his
horse. All the while the discourteous knight stood on the
bank jeering and laughing.
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