Course Notes: Communication Meaning

The word communication is used in common talk,

usually, to mean speaking or writing or sending a
message to another person. Communication is much
more than that. Communication is a dynamic interactive
process that involves effective transmission of ideas,
thoughts, information and values through verbal and
non-verbal methods and suitable channels. It involves
ensuring that your message has reached the target
audience, (that is, the persons to whom it is sent) and
that the receiver understands and responds as you want
them to. It also involves ensuring that you yourself can
understand, interpret, and respond to messages that you
receive. Communication is an important aspect of
behavior; human communication is affected by all
factors that influence human behavior.

The crucial element is meaning. Communication has as

its central objective the transmission of meaning. The
process of communication is successful only when the
receiver understands an idea as the sender intended it.
Both parties must agree not only on the information
transmitted but also on the meaning of that information.

When we talk about some profession it is called a

technical or professional communication. Technical
communication is about business and industry. It
focuses on the information about products and services
– how to manufacture them, market them, manage
them, deliver them, and use them. The thumb rule of
communication is that one should communicate to
express, and not to impress, to make understand, and
not to confuse. General communication contains
basically casual talks but on the other hand technical
communication contains formal talks where both the
parties aware about the specific topic of conversation.
Technical Communication contains technical words and
technical message. It is mostly formal so far as
organization, presentation, style, medium and language
are concerned. It follows a set pattern. It may be in both
forms of communication; oral and written. It is always
for a specific audience. Thus it is usually scheduled in
advance and has pre-arranged participants and pre-set
agenda like a meeting, an interview, a conference, a
presentation.

In our everyday life, general communication as well as

technical communication mostly depends on language,
whether it is written or spoken. One may talk about
different languages, and different vocabularies but it is
almost only the knowledge of language that can decode
a technocrat’s ideas. Language in everyday contexts is
natural and informal whereas the language of technical
communication is or should be characterized by
formality, high stylization, accuracy, and precision.
Language is the starting and ending point for any
communication. It is impossible to dissociate language
competency from any communication. So language
should be used accurately and in a good style.

Elements of Communication

In order to analyze the activity of communication, we

must know the elements involved in the process of
communication. There are seven elements or factors
which make up the process of communication:
1. Source /Sender, is the one who initiates the action of
communicating
2. Audience/Receiver is the person(s) for whom the
communication is intended
3. Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for
communicating, the desired result of the
communication
4. Message/ Content is the information conveyed
5. Medium /Channel is the means or method used for
conveying the message
6. Feedback is the receiver's response to the
communication as observed by the sender
7. Environment /Context is the background in which
the communication takes place.

Process of Communication
Whether it is an informal social situation or a formal
academic or professional situation, we need to share
information, ideas, and knowledge with others.
However, this process of sharing information is a
symbolic interchange, which is both dynamic and
interactive, and results in an exchange of meaning and
understanding. Let us look more closely at the whole
process of communication.
1. Ideation:
The process of communication begins with ideation,
which refers to the formation of the idea or selection of
a message to be communicated. The sender initiates the
process of communication. The sender has to be clear
about the purpose (or goal or objective) of the
communication and about the target audience (or
receiver) of the communication; that is, the sender
decides why and to whom to send a message. Conscious
or intended communication has a purpose. We
communicate because we want to make someone do
something or take some action, or think or feel in a
certain way, that is, to influence the person.
2. Encoding:
Encoding is the next step in communication. The source
has to decide what information to convey and create the
message (or content) to be conveyed by using words or
other symbols which can be understood by the intended
receiver. The process of putting the idea into symbols is
called encoding; in order to encode, the sender has to
select suitable symbols which can represent the idea,
and can be understood by the receiver. Also he has to
select an appropriate communication form.
3. Transmission - channel or medium:
Transmission refers to the flow of the message over the
chosen channel. The sender also chooses a suitable
channel or medium (like mail, e-mail, telephone, face-
to-face talk,) by which to send the message. The choice
of the medium depends on several factors like urgency
of the message, availability and effectiveness of a
medium, and the relationship between the two
communicants. The medium should be free from all
kinds of barriers.

4. Decoding
The process of translating or converting the message or
symbols into ideas and interpreting the message is
called decoding. The receiver becomes aware that a
message has arrived when he perceives it with his
senses (he may see, hear, feel, etc). The receiver attends
to the message and interprets it. Interpreting is a
complex activity; it involves using knowledge of the
symbols, drawing upon previous knowledge of the
subject matter, ability to understand, attitudes and
values, in order to create meaning. Meaning can not be
transferred from one person to another, the receiver has
to assign meaning to a message in order to understand
it.
5. Feedback or Response:
Response is the last stage in the communication
process. It is the action or reaction of the receiver to the
message. Finally, the sender tries to note the effect of
the message on the receiver; that is, he checks whether
the receiver has got the message, how the receiver has
responded to the message and whether he has taken the
required action; this information about the receiver's
response is called feedback.

Sender's functions make up half the process of

communication. The functions of the sender are:
1. Being clear about the goal/purpose of the
communication
2. Finding out about the understanding and needs of the
target audience
3. Encoding the required information and ideas with
symbols to create the message to suit the receiver/
audience
4. Selecting the medium to send the message
5. Making efforts to get feedback, that is, finding out
the response of the target audience
The receiver also feels a reaction to the message; this
reaction may be conscious or unconscious; it may cause
some change in the receiver's facial expression. It
definitely leads the receiver to think. The receiver may
take some action, if required. He may also reply to the
message. This response or reply is feedback.

Receiver's functions complete one cycle of the process

of communication. The functions of the receiver are:

1 Attending to the received message, that is, listening,

reading or observing
2 Decoding the received message
3 Interpreting and understanding the meaning of the
message
4 Responding to the message
5 Giving feedback to the sender of the message

This is a simplified description of a single cycle in the

process of communication. Communication really takes
place in several cycles and the two persons take turns
and alternately carry out functions of sender and
receiver.

This one-way routine is only a part of the

communication process. For the communication to be
complete, the sender must know whether the receiver
has got the message, understood it in the way it was
intended, and has received it well. The sender can find
out this only on getting a chance to note the reaction
and response of the receiver. The response may be in
words (spoken or written), signs, or behaviour, both
conscious and unconscious. The response or return
message is feedback. When the feedback is got by the
sender, one cycle of communication is complete. This
may be represented roughly by the following diagram.
Communication must be Demographic (know the
need of the reader): Technical communication should
be demographic. Here the term demographic is selective
for the study of the audience/reader concerned. A
technical writer/speaker should know well before
communicating that his/her reader is familiar or
unfamiliar with the subject. The writer has to classify
the reader is an expert or layperson. Then, according to
the sensibility of the reader, the language should be
used. For effective communication, an audience can, be
analyzed as follows;

A = Analyze. Who is/are the recipients of your

message?
U = Understand. What is their knowledge about your
intended message
D = Demographics. What is their age, gender,
education level, and position?
I = Interest. What is their level of interest in your
message (What’s in it for them?)
E = Environment. Is there a shared contextual
understanding? What is their likely attitude to your
message? Have you taken cultural differences into
consideration?
N = Need. What information does your audience need?
C = Customize. How do you adjust your message to
your audience?
E = Expectations. What are your audience’s
expectations?

Types of Communication

Communication takes many forms according to the

occasion and situation, the relationship between the
persons, the medium and the symbols used the style of
expression, and other factors.
1. Based on media:
1.1 Verbal Communication and non-Verbal
Communication
Communication through words and language is called
verbal communication; communication through other
symbols than words and language is called non-verbal
communication.
The term 'verbal' is colloquially used to mean oral but
in communication studies, 'verbal' means by using
words and language. It includes both written and oral.
Most of our communication is done by using language;
we speak and write whenever we have to convey
information and ideas, to discuss, to motivate, to
appreciate, or to warn, reprimand, complain, and so on.
We may do any of these things orally or in writing.
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal methods of communication include all
things, other than words and language, that can convey
meaning. For example, graphics like pictures, maps,
charts, graphs and diagrams in a written document, and
body language and voice qualities in speech, are non-
verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication can be independent of
verbal communication; but verbal communication is
always accompanied by non-verbal communication.
Non verbal methods can be used as a substitute for
words like the red colour at traffic lights to mean stop,
or nodding the head to mean "yes”
Sometimes, our body language or voice, or untidy
typing may convey something opposite of what we
want to convey. This discordant or inconsistent relation
between verbal and non-verbal communication occurs
when the person is not comfortable or is trying to say
something different from what he or she really feels.
Non-verbal communication is mostly involuntary and
unconscious and difficult to control; it may sometimes
reveal the truth which the speaker/writer is hiding
behind the words. It is said, "non-verbal communication
speaks louder than words." Thus, there can be
unintended and unconscious non-verbal
communication. On the other hand, non verbal methods
can be consciously created and used with both written
and oral communication.
Body Language always conveys meaning. It is:
• Omnipresent: it always accompanies spoken
communication
• Emotionally expressive: it expresses mainly the
feelings of the speaker and also of the listener
• Dominates interaction: it is more communicative
than words
• Seems trustable: it is usually felt to be more
truthful than spoken words

Various forms of non-verbal communication:

Kinesics: kinesics refers to communication through the
body language of the parties communicating. When a
boss gestures a thumbs up it could mean liking the idea
or going ahead, pounding the table to express anger or
disagreement, staring at the father that you have done
something inappropriate, nodding delivers a positive
message without words, during an interview shaking
legs shows nervousness.
Paralinguistics:
A term used variously in the study of human
communication to refer to aspects of vocal or bodily
expression that convey meaning. Characteristics of the
voice, apart from the words spoken, which can
communicate something about the speaker’s attitude,
are known as paralanguage. It is the study of spoken
communication throw changes in the rate of speech,
accent, volume, voice modulation, pitch and fluency. It
includes the qualities of the voice, the way we use our
voice, as well as the sounds we make without uttering
words. It is possible to control and use paralanguage
effectively by becoming aware of it and paying
attention to one's voice and speech.
Voice has characteristics like tone, volume, and pitch.
Tone is the quality of the voice. Volume is the loudness
or softness, which can be consciously adjusted to the
number of persons in the audience and the distance
between the speaker and the listeners; speaking too loud
shows lack of self-command or abrasive nature. Pitch is
the high or low note on the scale; a high-pitched voice
is often unpleasant, and suggests immaturity or
emotional disturbance; a frightened person speaks in a
high-pitched voice. It is better to begin softly, in a low
pitch and raise the volume and pitch as required. For
example, a simple sentence like ‘come here’ can be said
authoritatively or endearingly, depending on the tone of
the voice of the sender.
Haptics (Touch):
It is a subcategory of Body Language, and the study
of touching as such, handshakes, holding hands, back
slapping, high fives, brushing up against someone or
patting someone all have meaning. Touching is the
most developed sense at birth and formulates our
initial views of the world. Touching can be used to
sooth, for amusement during play, to flirt, to express
power and maintain bonds between people, such as
with baby and mother.

Proxemics: Proxemics refers to the use of physical

space to communicate. it is the study of the amount of
the space that people feel it necessary to set between
themselves. Some people stand very close to another
person while talking. Some people may be okay with it,
while others may take offence. This aspect of
communication is called proxemics.
This aspect of communication goes as far as to study
the impact of objects around the room where people are
communicating. For example, if during a meeting, a
fountain is kept in the room, people may get distracted.
Not only the objects in a room, the room itself can have
an impact on a conversation. Imagine an interview
taking place in an office cafeteria. How comfortable
would the interviewee be? Compare this situation to
giving an interview in a closed room only in the
presence of the interviewer. Thus, the three main
aspects of proxemics that are used for communication
are territory, things, and personal zones.
Chronemics: Chronemics refers to communication
using time as a factor. Let us understand this with the
help of an example. A boss who comes to office on time
every day, subtly communicates it to his/her employees
that they too are expected to be on time every day.
An understanding of non-verbal methods and aspects of
communication helps a person to improve oral and
written presentation by using the methods and by
gaining control over body language.
There are formats and structures for verbal
communication in different types of situations. For
example, documents used in business have names and
formats; letters, reports, memos, minutes have their own
formats and layout. For oral communication we have
the formats of presentations (or speeches), interviews,
meetings of various types, negotiations and so on. The
effectiveness of verbal communication depends on a
person's skill in the use of language. A rich vocabulary,
command of a variety of sentence structures, clarity in
thinking, and focus on the audience are necessary for
effective verbal communication.
1.2 Spoken and Written Communication
Spoken or oral and written communications are both
forms of verbal communication. Oral communication is
more natural and immediate. It is natural to speak when
the other person is present; we speak to communicate in
natural and informal situations. We also speak in formal
and official situations such as making a presentation or
taking an interview when the target audience is present.
Written communication has to be used when the other
person is not present and is not available on the
telephone. Long and complex messages are best
conveyed in writing. A written message can go beyond
time limitations since it can be preserved and can wait
for the attention of the intended receiver. Written
communication is separated from the sender and has no
support from the sender's personality and voice. This
requires different kinds of skills in both the sender and
the receiver. Oral and written communications have
different qualities which must be taken into account in
choosing which one to use in a particular situation.
We communicate by exchanging symbols to describe
our ideas and experience. Language is a common
symbol system which we use for sharing our experience
with others. Communication through words is called
verbal communication; communication through other
symbols is called non-verbal communication.
Attributes of Spoken and Written Communication
Oral and written communications have different
attributes which have to be taken into account in
choosing which one to use in a particular situation.
Some of the attributes are discussed below.
Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation,
in conveyance and in reception; it takes more time to
draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and read a letter
than it takes to speak, hear and understand an oral
message.
Record: Written communication serves as a record and
can be used for future reference. It is a documentary
proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral
communication may be taped for later reference, but the
authenticity of the voice can be questioned; moreover,
tapes can be edited and the message distorted. Written
records and documents are more reliable and
acceptable.
Precision and accuracy: Written communication is
more precise and accurate than oral. Choice of words is
possible in written communication because the writer
has the time to look for suitable words and phrases, and
to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy is necessary
in written communication because the receiver is not
present to ask for clarification. In oral communication,
it is not always possible to be so precise in the choice of
words. There is also no time to seek and consider words
while speaking; however, the receiver can seek
clarification on the spot. Besides, oral communication
has the support of body language and paralanguage
which enrich the meaning of the words.
Length: A written message is usually shorter than an
oral communication. The situation of oral
communication requires some preliminary and closing
remarks, while for written messages there are standard
formats for opening and closing which can keep the
message short.
Body Language: Oral communication is supported by
the speaker's body language and paralanguage. The
speaker can control the style of delivery, giving
meaning to words and sentences by voice inflexion and
facial expressions and gestures. Written communication
is separated from the writer's bodily presence and is
more in the control of the reader. The reader can give to
the words the sound, inflexion and stress as he chooses;
and this may be affected by the reader's mood and state
of mind at the time of reading.
Features of Spoken Language
Paralinguistic elements: A term used variously in the
study of human communication to refer to aspects of
vocal or bodily expression that convey meaning.
Characteristics of the voice, apart from the words
spoken, which can communicate something about the
speaker’s attitude, are known as paralanguage. It is the
study of spoken communication through changes in the
rate of speech, accent, volume, voice modulation, pitch
and fluency. It includes the qualities of the voice, the
way we use our voice, as well as the sounds we make
without uttering words. It is possible to control and use
paralanguage effectively by becoming aware of it and
paying attention to one's voice and speech. The actual
phonetic realization of language elements is only one
component of face-to-face communication.
Normal non-fluency or voice dynamics: Spoken
discourse is generally characterized by normal non-
fluency or voice dynamics. Normal non-fluency
results from the unprepared nature of speech and refers
to phenomena such as hesitation, unintended repetitions
(e.g. I I ..), false starts, fillers (e.g. um, er), grammatical
blends and unfinished sentences. A blend occurs where
a sentence 'swaps horses' i.e. beginning in one way and
ending in another; for example, in “Would you mind
telling me what's the time?” the sentence begins as an
indirect question, but ends as a direct question. This is
slightly different from a 'false start', where a sentence is
broken off mid-way because of a change of mind; for
example, “You really ought - well do it your own way.”
These phenomena are edited out in written language,
which consequently appears more fluent. We may also
note the apparent fluency of fictional speech that
appears in literature.
Monitoring features: Spoken language is a dialogue,
with a physically present addressee so there are
monitoring features that indicate the speaker’s
awareness of the addressee’s presence and reactions.
In a speech situation there is a constant interchange
between the participants, each playing the role of
speaker in turn. What the speaker says is controlled by
the reactions of the listener expressed either by
linguistic or by paralinguistic means, either by what the
other says, or by the non-linguistic sounds he makes.
The reactions of the listener provide feedback to the
speaker who modifies what he says. In communication
by speech there are always two participants actively
involved, each monitoring the other.

Feedback: Feedback is the receiver’s reply to the

sender either by linguistic or by paralinguistic means.
Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the
listener's face gives some feedback and the speaker can
modify the message on the spot. Clarifications can be
sought and given at once. A conversation can be
brought to a satisfactory conclusion by continuous
exchange of ideas and views. In written communication
the feedback is delayed; the reader's facial expressions
cannot be seen by the writer; the reader's response is
known to the writer only when the reader replies. The
reader may give a cautious and guarded reply without
letting the other see the really felt reaction.
Formality: Spoken language tends to be less formal
than written language. When a language is spoken,
there are abbreviations and dropping of some sounds, as
in can't, won't, don't, I'll, we'll. The vocabulary used in
written English is also more formal than in spoken
English.

2. Based on formality:
Formal or Informal communication
Formal communication means the exchange of ideas
and information which is done under the planned
organizational structure. The difference between
"formal" and "informal" is not the same as the
difference between "grammatical" and
"ungrammatical." The difference is in the "register"
which includes specific way, use and purpose, tone of
voice, vocabulary and syntax. Varieties of language
associated with specific uses and communicative
purposes are called registers. In writing as well as
speaking, we use a variety of registers. We use different
registers for writing an assignment, for writing to a
friend, for writing to a prospective employer, for
conversation with a friend, and for making a
presentation. Writing is usually more formal than
speaking. The register we use in a given situation is
determined by the social code and not the grammatical
code. The relationship between writer/speaker and
audience is a social relation and we maintain it in the
style of writing and speaking.
The formal register follows certain conventions:
Conservative language: In formal style, we are careful
about the noun-pronoun agreement as in "Everyone has
his or her weakness" but in an informal situation we
may say, "Everyone has their weakness."
No contractions: In instruction manuals, ''You don't
want to offend your reader," sounds more comfortable
than the formal ''You do not want to offend your
reader." But in formal prose, contractions can give the
impression that the writer is being casual.
Restrained style: Slang and colloquial terms suggest a
casual rather than a serious approach. They are not used
in formal communication. Gestures and movements are
also restrained in a formal speech.
Formal communication is usually scheduled in advance
and has pre-arranged participants and pre-set agenda
like a meeting, an interview, a conference, a
presentation. The language used is formal.
2.1 Formal Channels: Formal communication is the
process of exchanging information by following the
prescribed or official rules, procedures, systems
formalities, chain of command etc. in the organizational
structure. Formal channels of communication are
closely related with the formal organization structure. In
an organisation, formal communication is a means of
controlling activities through circulation of authoritative
policies and procedures stating what is to be done when,
where, how, and by whom. Formal communication
moves along the established "channels" of
communication within the organisation. It is impersonal
(desk to desk), official, and, in most cases, written.
Formal meetings are documented by writing summaries
and minutes. The purposes of formal communication
are to command, to instruct, and to finalise matters
through the application of regulations. Formal
communication is needed in organisations. Since it is
official, it is binding and more likely to be obeyed. It
establishes responsibility of the sender and receiver.
The formal channels are as follows;

(a) Upward Communication

(b) Downward Communication
(c) Horizontal Communication
2.2 Informal communication is the process of
spontaneous exchange of information among various
people of different statuses in the organizational
structure. Informal communication refers to
communication among people through informal
contacts. Informal communication is known as
Grapevine because it is related to personal rather than
positional matters and is free from all formalities
planned in an organization. It arises due to informal
relations. It is the result of the social interaction of
people. It takes place as an account of the natural desire
of people to communicate with others. The informal
communication system is built around the social
relationship of the members of the organization.
Informal communication may be unscheduled, with
random participants, and no pre-set agenda. It is likely
to be interactive and richer than formal communication.
The style is informal and may be conversational.
Informal communication is personal, unofficial, and
mostly oral. It is based on the realisation that personal
interaction among employees is healthy for an
organisation. The purposes of informal communication
are to educate through information sharing, to motivate
through personal contacts, and to resolve conflicts
through participation and friendship. It maintains
enthusiasm, loyalty, and commitment by involving
employees in organisational matters. The informal
channels are as follows;
(a) Diagonal Communication or Grapevine

Difference between the formal and informal

channels of communication

Formal Informal
Communication Communication
1. Formal 1. Informal
communication is communication is not
based on formal based on formal
organizational organizational
relationships. relationships. It is
free from formalities.
2. Formal 2. Informal
communication is communication is
mostly in written normally the
form. exchange of verbal
talks.
3. Chances of distortion 3. Chances of distortion
of information are of informal are very
very few. high.
4. The subject matter, 4. In informal
chain of command communication news
and authority etc. are passes through
all predetermined. different ways,
because it depends on
nearness of contacts
and not on status of
persons in the
organization.
5. In case of formal 5. In case of informal
communication, communication,
status or position of status or position of
the person is very the person has no
important. relevance.
6. Formal 6. Where there is
communication takes informal relationship
place while carrying between sender and
out their duties and receiver the
responsibilities. communication
happening in between
them is called.
7. The channels of 7. The channels of
communication are communication are
preplanned. not preplanned.
8. Only prescribed and 8. Informal
predetermined communication
informal are consists of rumours
exchanged in this
 communication. and misconceptions.
9. Formal communication 9. Informal
is rigid as deviations are communication is
not allowed. flexible.
10 Organizational 10. Informal
. hierarchy system is communication
followed i.e. upward spreads like wild fire.
to downward.
11 Formal 11. Informal
. communication is communication is
slow as it has to very fast as it is not
follow the path laid supported to follow a
down by the particular path.
management.

3. Based on parties:
3.1 Internal: Communication can also be
categorised on the basis of location. Any
communication done within an organisation or a
department or even a team, is internal
communication. Internal communication can be
both, formal and informal.
Note: Following types of communication are discussed
under the section “Flows of Communication.”
3.1.a Vertical Communication:
3.1.a.1 Upward Communication:
3.1.a.2 Downward Communication
3.1.a.3 Diagonal Communication or Grapevine
3.1.b Horizontal Communication
3.2 External: Any communication done with
people outside an organization is external
communication. External communication is always
formal because, in these types of communications,
a person deals with external parties that may quote
the person later on. On the other hand, internal
communication can be both, formal and informal.
4 Intentional or Unintentional Communication
What we intend to convey is intentional
communication. Unintentional communication is what,
that we do not intend to convey, but the receiver knows
the same through our body language and para language.
We do not always convey exactly what we want to; the
targeted receiver may receive less or more than what we
intended to convey. A casual observer (unintentional
receiver) may receive information or ideas which we do
not intend for him/her. Our non-verbal behaviour
conveys something about us; what we speak or write is
accompanied by non-verbal behaviour. At times we
don’t want to communicate some facts but the very
facts to which we want to hide are communicated by
non-verbal methods.

5 One-way and Two-way

In one-way communication information is always
transferred in only one direction from the source to the
target audience. With one-way communication there is
no direct interaction between the persons involved. The
receiver has no chance to get clarification or to question
the information received. One-way communication
follows the linear Source-Message-Channel-Receiver
(S-M-C-R) model of communication. Since there is no
feedback, the source cannot find out whether the
receiver has understood the message. Examples of one-
way communications systems are radio and television
broadcasts, newspapers, advertisements and other mass
media. Within an organisation, the notice board and
public address system are one-way systems.
Two-way communication is interactive. It involves both
persons fully. In a normal two-way conversation, the
persons constantly alternate between being source and
receiver. The receiver can ask for clarification or
challenge the source or add one's own ideas and views
to the conversation. At the end of such a conversation,
both gain information on the issue talked about as well
as about each other.
Communication is much more complex than the simple
model of source sending a message over a channel to a
receiver. The sender and the receiver both actively play
a role. They function within their respective frames of
reference, their social situations, and their relationship
to one another. What the receiver brings to the
communication situation is as important as (perhaps
even more important than) what the sender brings. It is
a reciprocal process of exchanging signals to inform,
instruct, or persuade. Two-way communication requires
interpersonal skills. It takes more time than one-way
communication, but it is more satisfying and brings
about a better understanding and agreement between the
parties involved.

6. Intrapersonal Communication:
Intrapersonal communication is communication within
oneself. Man uses his senses to understand the
environment around him and to perceive, to judge and
to act accordingly. For example, when it is hot man
seek for shade, when it is rainy man seek for cover,
when it is cold man seek for fire, etc. All these are a
result of communication taking place within the
individual. Intrapersonal communication, thus, forms
the basis of all other forms of communication. Effective
intrapersonal communication is required for effective
functioning of an individual in its environment. The
information received through senses forms the basis of
decision-making in this type of communication system.
For example, when we watch TV, our eyes and ears
receive information and transmit the same to our brain.
If we like what we see or hear, our intrapersonal
communication system makes sure that we attend to it.
On the other hand, if we don’t like it, our brain sends a
message to our muscles that result in a decision to
change station. Thus, we can see that in intrapersonal
communication, our eyes and ears become the senders,
electrochemical impulses become the message, nerve
system become the medium and the brain becomes the
receiver. Also, the additional impulses transmitted by
the brain to the muscles become the feedback which
produces the desires result of changing the station.

7. Interpersonal Communication:
Interpersonal communication is a face-to-face
communication between two persons. It includes most
of the informal and formal exchanges that we engage in
throughout the day.

8. Extra Personal:
Communication between human beings and non-human
entities is extra personal. For example, your pet dog
comes to you wagging its tail as soon as you return
home from work. A parrot responding to your greeting
is another example.
9. Group Communication:
Group communication occurs essentially between three
or more people who see themselves as belonging to, or
being identified with, a group. The size of the group
decides the level of interaction and intimacy within it.
Larger groups provide less time for personal and
intimate exchanges. As a matter of fact, communication
becomes difficult and more of a monologue with the
increase in size of the group.
10. Public Communication:
It generally occurs within a formal and structured
setting and is different from small group
communication in this respect. However, in this type of
communication, one person plays the part of the
speaker and the rest of the persons serve as listeners or
audience. Speaker speaks for the most of the time and
the listeners are not generally allowed to contribute
through verbal messages except for the question-and-
answer session following the speech. However, listeners
contribute through nonverbal messages such as
applauses, laughter, etc. throughout the speech. Still the
balance of message sending is quite uneven with
speaker being dominant. Despite the imbalance, public
communication is effective because of the simple fact
that it occurs face-to-face. Also, we find ourselves
participating in it as either speakers or listeners. Public
communication always takes place in public places
rather than private places. Auditoriums, conference and
seminar rooms, classrooms, etc. are a few examples of
public places.
11. Mass Communication:
It involves transmission of information to a sizable and
diversified audience through the use of appropriate
media. It is much more complex than any other form of
communication. The communicator addresses a large
number of people at a time. This makes it difficult for
him to address and meet individual needs. An approach
that convinces one part of the audience may left another
part of the audience completely uncertain. Thus, the
communicator must find the correct method and
expression to correlate with the largest possible number
of people in the audience.
A communicator must know what to deliver and how to
deliver so that he can create maximum impact. Message
should be well-structured, easy to understand and clear.
The message must be presented in such a way that it
leaves a long-lasting impression. However, this requires
an understanding of audience’s profile. Wright defined
audience of mass communication as ‘relatively large,
heterogeneous and anonymous to the source. The
experience is public and rapid. The source works
through a complex organization rather than in isolation
and the message may represent the efforts of many
different people.’

Flows of Communication
Communication is essential for the internal functioning
of any organization. The interaction between the
different individuals working in a company takes place
through different channels. These channels could be
both informal and informal. According to the flow of
messages towards the hierarchy communication is
described as follows;
Vertical communication: Vertical
communication is the communication where
information or messages flows between or among
the subordinates and superiors of the organization.
(A) Downward Communication: As the main function
of downward communication is providing control, it
refers to communication from the higher level in the
managerial hierarchy to the lower one. A
communication from the general manager of a company
to the branch managers is an example of downward
communication.
(B) Upward Communication: As the main purpose of
communication is to provide feedback on several areas
of organizational functioning, it refers to
communication from subordinates to superiors. A
business report from the branch manager or a company
to the managing director of the company is an example
of upward communication.
Horizontal Communication: Horizontal
communication is communication where information
or messages flows between or among the parallel or
same level or statuses people of the organizational
structure.
The main objectives of horizontal communication are
developing teamwork, and promoting group
coordination within an organization. It takes place
between professional peer groups or people working on
the same level of hierarchy. Horizontal communication
is less formal and structured than both downward
communication and upward communication, and may
be carried out through informal discussion,
management gossip, telephone calls, teleconferencing,
videoconferencing, memos, routine meetings, and so
on.
Diagonal /Grapevine Communication: Diagonal
communication is the produce of modern changes in
information technology and management and is the
result of the growing realization of fraternity and
equality in the corporate channel occurs between people
who do not have to follow rigid norms of
communication protocol, it flows in all directions.
Informal channels transmit official news through
unofficial and informal communicative interactions
known as the grapevine. Such channels are more active
in organisations that are not transparent. As employees
want to know what is going on in their organization. As
tea time gossip, casual gatherings, lunch time meeting.
 Barriers to communication
Communication is not always successful several things
can prevent the message from reaching the intended
recipient or gaining from the desired effect on the
recipient. There may be some faults in the
communication system which prevents the message
from reaching. Some of these defects are in the
mechanical devices used for transmitting, that is, the
medium. Some are in the symbols we use for
communicating, that is, language or other symbols used
for encoding. Some are in the nature of the persons who
are engaged in communication, that is, the sender and
the receiver. In an organisation, these barriers can
become quite complicated and can cause information
gaps leading to problems in its working.
Barriers can be divided into broad groups: Physical
barriers, Semantic and Language barriers, Socio-
psychological barriers and organisational barriers.
Besides, there are Cross-cultural barriers which distort
communication between persons or groups belonging to
a different cultural background.
1. Physical Barriers
Obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the
intended recipient may be outside and beyond the control
of the persons concerned. Some can be controlled by the
management; some cannot be controlled because they are
in the environment.
Defects in the Medium.
Defects in the devices used for transmitting messages
are external, and usually not within the control of the
parties engaged in communication. The telephone, the
postal system, the courier service, or electronic media
may fail. Messages can get delayed, distorted and even
lost while being transmitted.
A partial failure of the mechanical equipment _ is more
harmful than a total failure because a partial failure may
carry an incomplete or distorted message. A fax
message can be wrongly delivered as a wrong number
can get dialled on the telephone. The printout may not
be clear at all. It is advisable to call up and check that
the fax has been received.
Noise in the Environment
Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the
transmission process. In face-to face communication
which is carried by air vibration, the air may be
disturbed by noise such as traffic, factory work, or
people talking. In a factory, oral communication is very
difficult because of the noise of the machines.
Information Overload
When there is too much information, some of it is
blocked in transit and may not reach the intended
audience. Advertising and sales information is an
example of overload; so much communication about
products floats through so many media that a good deal
of it-does not reach the potential buyer.

2. Semantic and Language Barriers

Semantic means pertaining to 'or 'arising from the
different meanings of words or other symbols.
Language is our most important and powerful tool of
communication; and yet it is a tricky tool that needs
skill in handling. First of all, many words have multiple
meanings. The meaning that comes to your mind first
depends on your occupation ("charge" may mean an
electrical charge to an engineering student, but a
fee/rent to a commerce student).
The word ‘current’ has different meanings in different
contexts, such as for an electric engineering student, for
a commerce student, or for a bank manager.
The word ‘housewife’ has different meanings with
different pronunciations.
Housewife /ˈhaʊs.waɪf/ a married woman whose main
occupation is caring for her family.
Housewife /ˈhʌz.ɪf/ a small case for needles and other
sewing items.

Emotional and cultural attitudes towards something

can evoke different responses in people. Sentences can
convey entirely different meanings depending on how
they are spoken due to the Position of focus ie End-
focus and contrastive focus. Consider the sentence, “I
did not tell John you were late.” It means something
different with every shift of emphasis/focus from one
word to another. In oral communication, the speaker can
signify the meaning by emphasising particular words; but
in written communication, the reader is in his own control
and may read with different emphasis.
Placement of Signifying
Emphasis Meaning
I did not tell John Someone else
you were late. told John you
were late.
I did not tell John This did not
you were late. happen.
I did not tell John I may have
you were late. implied it.
I did not tell John But maybe I told
you were late. Sharon and José.
I did not tell John I was talking
you were late. about someone
else.
I did not tell John I told him you
you were late. still are late.
I did not tell John I told him you
you were late. were attending
another meeting.

Technical terms can be a barrier to communication.

Such terms are limited to the group of persons who
work together, or work in the same kind of occupation;
they need to use technical terms in their work. Often,
these words have other meanings in ordinary language,
and are differently understood by people who do not
belong to that occupational group. New words are being
coined almost everyday; everyone does not understand
them and many of them are not in the dictionaries yet.
More importantly, semantic barriers arise because
words mean different things to different persons.
 It is' said, "meaning is in people, not in words." Age,
education, cultural background and many other factors
influence the meaning we give to words.

3. Socio-Psychological Barriers
Any socio-psychological or emotional disturbance can
prove to be a barrier to effective communication
because it leads to lack of interest and concentration.
The emotional disturbance may adversely affect both
encoding and decoding. All people are not skilled
communicators. Skill in communicating has to be
cultivated. Most people have problems which come in
the way of good communication. People have personal
feelings, desires, fears and hopes, likes and dislikes,
attitudes, views and opinions. Some of these are formed
by family background and social environment; some are
formed by the individual's own intelligence, inherited
qualities, education, and personal experiences.
Most of the socio-psychological barriers discussed
below operate at the emotional level.
Self-centred Attitudes: We tend to see and hear
everything in the light of our own interests and needs
and desires.
Group Identification: Our values and opinions are
influenced, by the group to which we belong.
Self-Image: We have a certain idea of ourselves; some
persons even take care to project an image of
themselves
Selective Perception: Sometimes, we fail to get the
complete message which is sent to us.
Defensiveness: If we feel threatened by a message, we
become defensive and respond in such ways that reduce
understanding.
Status Block: A "boss" who is conscious of status finds
it difficult to receive any suggestions from subordinates.
Resistance to Change: This is a serious psychological
barrier. Some people strongly resist new ideas which
are against their established opinions or traditions or
social customs. They may avoid new ideas because they
feel insecure or afraid of changes in methods or
situations.
Closed Mind: Limited intellectual background, limited
reading and narrow interests can cause a person's mind
to be narrow.
Poor Communication Skills: Lack of skill in writing
and in speaking prevents a person from framing the
message properly.
State of Health: Physical conditions can affect
communication efficiency. Pain or fever certainly
makes a person disinclined to engage in
communication; but even if the general state of health is
poor, communicating ability is reduced.

4. Organisational Barriers
In an organisation, the information gaps and barriers
become more complex. The movement of papers and of
information gets held up by the system itself. Editing
and filtering may also create barriers. A great deal of
loss of information occurs as a message moves from
senior management to lower levels. If a message passes
down through many levels of authority, there may be
much distortion in the message. Loss or distortion of
information, as it moves downward, may be caused by
misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of
messages by some of the members of the organisation.
Over-dependence on written communication is one of
the reasons for communication gaps. Circulars,
bulletins, notices and even letters are not always read
carefully. Many employees are unable to read and
understand long messages.

5. Inter-Cultural Barriers
Even in the best of conditions, communication can be
difficult. Cross cultural factors naturally increase the
possible problems of communication. If for historical or
political reasons, the relationships between two countries
are not friendly, there can be even greater problems of
communication. Culture is a shared set of values and
attributes of a group; it is the sum total of the ways of
living built up by a group and transmitted from one
generation to another. Culture is so much a part of an
individual's manner of talking, behaving and thinking,
that communication style and competence are influenced
by it.
The Language of any group directly reflects their
culture. You only have to think of some of the sayings
or proverbs or idiomatic expressions in an Indian
language and in English to see that translation from one
to the other is nearly impossible. Such culture-bound
word as Jalebi, Sherwani certainly can't convey the
same notion with other language equivalents. Many
words cannot be translated exactly. Even among
countries that speak the same language like the British
and the Australians, a word may not have the same
significance.
Non-verbal behaviour is another area of trouble in cross-
cultural communication. Body language is a major factor
that varies between cultures. Not only are gestures
understood differently, but the amount of use of gestures
varies. Indians use much more natural gestures than the
British; the Japanese have many formal gestures for social
interaction but fewer free body movements.
Paralanguage
Cross-cultural confusion arises from the way we use our
voices. People in many countries are put off by loud
Indian voices, and noisy Indian tourists. Some Western
cultures speak in such low voices that we can hardly
hear them and may wonder if they intend to be
secretive. The difference between cultures in the speed
of talking makes the faster-talking people consider the
slow-talking cultures as slow and lax. Some cultures
expect formality and a formal tone at work and are
embarrassed or put off by the informal tone of another
culture. The amount of silence that is considered as
right during a conversation can cause confusion.
Perception is influenced by culture. We perceive some
things and ignore others; we particularly perceive what
is contrary to our own culture and what makes us
uncomfortable. What smells "good" or "bad" is
perceived differently. Rain means something different
for Indians from what it means for the British.
Differences in perception of the world can be amazing.
Our worldviews and attitudes to life affect our
meanings.
6. Gender barriers
Gender barrier is also a type of barrier, such as male
and female work in an organization. Societal
stereotypes assumed gender roles, and interpersonal
differences can contribute to a communication gap
between the gender and there is a rift between people
due to gender.

Overcoming Barriers
The constant organisational effort is needed to
overcome the barriers which are unconsciously built up
by different people in the organisation. Persons in
positions of authority, as well as subordinates, can be
helped to overcome these barriers by training in
effective communication.
The responsibility for overcoming barriers to personal
communication and ensuring the success of every
communication activity falls upon the senior and the
better-trained person. The higher your position, the
greater is your need for effective communication. You
have to cultivate all the communication skills including
getting feedback and non-verbal communication. The
external barriers of defective channels and faulty
organisational systems are the Management's
responsibility within the organisation. The channels
must be kept in good working condition; the intercoms,
noticeboards, and information meetings must be kept
up-to-date.
Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only
by being careful with the use of language, by using
words which have a clear meaning, by using short and
simple sentences, and also by using visual aid whenever
possible. Whenever possible, feedback must be got and
given to ensure that there is a common understanding of
a message.
Personal barriers can be overcome only by making a
conscious effort, and by training for better
communication. Persons in responsible positions are
expected to improve their communication skills and
overcome their particular blocks. Many companies
organize training sessions for their staff for better
communication skills.
Barriers can develop unexpectedly since emotions play
a large part in communication. It is not easy to
overcome all barriers; everyone has to make efforts to
be aware of them and take care to avoid them.
 Basics / Characteristics / Qualities / CS of
Professional Communication
Our everyday life in general communication as well as
in technical communication is (almost) entirely
dependent on language, both written language and
spoken language. One may talk about different
languages and different vocabularies but it is almost
only the knowledge of language that can decode a
technocrat’s ideas. Language in everyday contexts is
natural, informal and constantly evolving whereas the
language of technical writing is or should be
characterized by formality, high stylization, accuracy,
and precision. Language is the starting and ending point
for any writing. It is impossible to dissociate language
competency from any writing. So language should be
used accurately and in a good style.

Style: a style clad in a good uniform of thoughts must

work sooner or later. Style and thought are two cardinal
virtues of writing; these are the sinews of fame, as of
eternity. A single word can earn or mar a user’s
reputation. Words are like gravel for the writing journey
that leads to the palace of wisdom. Technical
communication art is born of the right choice of words.
The ignorance of the choice of words is not innocence
but sin that only ruins one’s writing. Jonathan Swift’s
definition is succinct: “Proper words in proper places
make the true definition of a style.” When proper words
prevail ambiguity flees away so a technocrat has to
endeavour a lot to achieve immaculateness. A technical
writer very nicely must know his art and re-examines it
with a true critic’s skill.
Stylistics is not a stylish word, but it is well-connected.
The true nature of it is elusive and needs a subtler net to
catch the mistakes and ambiguities. Choose a simple
word rather than a difficult one, a concrete word in
preference to an abstract one, and a familiar word
instead of a rare one. Complex, hard-to-understand
sentences are rarely good sentences. Good technical
writing communicates in simple terms, even though the
subject may be complicated. Repeated use of
unnecessary, difficult, and abstract words and phrases
makes the subject hard to understand.

Verbosity should be avoided. It means to say a thing in

a complicated way, with lots of words, usually to make
it sound more important, this is a poor style. Technical
writing should be impersonal and formal at the expense
of readability and clarity. The rhythm and smooth flow
of language is important in technical writing.
Descriptive writing: technical writing should be
descriptive. The term descriptive here does not refer to
the detail and length of a document, but to cover each
aspect of the topic described. Language should be used
to create an image in the reader’s mind so that every
concept should be clear.
Demographic writing or knowing the need of a
reader: Technical writing should be demographic. Here
the term demographic is selective for the study of the
audience/reader concerned. A technical writer should
know well before writing that his/her reader is familiar
or unfamiliar with the subject. The writer has to classify
the reader is an expert or layperson. Then, according to
the sensibility of the reader, the language should be
used.

Technical writing is a process of giving a voice to one’s

thoughts. It is not meant to be showy or entertaining or
to show the writer’s knowledge; its intent is to provide
clear and concise information to the reader. It should
not be written to impress but to make understand and
establish strong goodwill. Both the use of language and
presentation should be of attracting attention. Also, the
presentation should be functional and understandable.
There should occur an image from words on the page
during every illustration. Clear, concise writing gives
the impression of confidence and knowledge, credibility
and authority. Followings are the basic characteristics
of basics of professional communication.
Clarity: it exists in using simple, familiar, concrete,
specific words and expression and clear references.
Tactless Version Tactful Version
You are advised to send Please send us details
us a few important regarding your service
doubtful points as early as charges, methods of
possible. Such as your payment, concession
service charges, methods schemes, and so on.
of payment, concession
schemes, and so on.
Courtesy: the technical writing must reflect courtesy
and consideration, as the reader is under no obligation
to do what the writer write for. Positive and
encouraging phrases should be used and irritating
phrases and expressions should be avoided.
Tactless Version Tactful Version
You must send the refund Please send the refund to
without delay to at the me at the address below.
address below.
Conciseness: technical writing should be concise and
direct so unnecessary words, wordy expressions; empty
words, wordy compounds, repetitions, and redundancies
must be avoided. Indirect expressions, rhetoric, and
exaggeration should be avoided. Conciseness should
not be on the cost of clarity.
Tactless Version Tactful Version
I am very happy to inform Enclosed please find the
you that the report on report on student
student involvement in involvement in academic
academic decision-making decision-making,
that was completed for completed for your
your research department research department.
is being sent to you along
with this letter of mine.
Correct Tone: tone in technical writing refers to the
manner or mood of expression. It helps establish the
relationship that the writer wishes to establish with the
reader. The tone should be formal, tactful, personal, and
positive. A tactless or negative tone can lead to
misunderstanding, resulting in a negative response from
the reader.
Tactless Version Tactful Version
Your project is so To complete the project
complex and your demand report to the best of your
for satisfaction is so satisfaction, please give us
ambitious that it cannot be an extension of 3 days.
completed in the stated
time-span so we need
more time to complete the
project report.
Correct Attitude: attitude in technical writing refers to
the reflection of the opinion of the writer on the reader.
To establish goodwill and a long-term relationship with
the reader, avoid poor and negative language.
Tactless Version Tactful Version
We will not be able to Please send us your
process your order specific and clear business
because your business terms so that we can
terms are too vague and process your order.
unacceptable to us.
Correct language: correct, accurate and simple
language should be used in technical writing. The use of
careless and incorrect use of language not only leaves a
bad impression on the reader about the writer but also it
misleads the meaning.
Tactless Version Tactful Version
You were sold a watch by I sold a watch to you on
me on 10 September 10 September 2022.
2022.

Professional Ethics
The term ethics is referred to morals, beliefs, integrities
and principles. It is the study of moral principles or
values that determine whether actions are right or
wrong and whether outcomes are good or bad. It is a
science that deals with the ideals involved in human
conduct. Ethics are the set of rules that describe
acceptable conduct within society. Ethics serve as a
guide to moral daily living and makes provision of
support and assistance in judging whether the behaviour
of the individuals is justified or not. In fact, ethics are
the rules or standards, governing the conduct of a
person or the conduct of the members of a profession.
When individuals are communicating with each other
within the organizations, they need to take these factors
into consideration. The ethical conduct really acts as the
backbone of an effective communication strategy and a
key virtue of professionalism.

The implementation of ethics in the communication

process can be recognized in various following aspects.

Do’s and don’ts in Professional communication

Do’s
Being a good listener.
Admitting criticism.
Responding to critics honestly and respectfully.
Admitting mistakes.
Using polite language.
Possessing a friendly attitude.
Providing constructive criticism.
Depicting truthfulness and honesty.
Imparting factual information.
Depicting helpfulness and co-operation.
Eliminating fraudulent traits.
Encouraging harmonious behiviour.
Inculcating the traits of thoroughness.
Being resourcefulness and conscientiousness.
Augmenting competencies and abilities.
Communicating accurate information.
Obeying laws and public policies.
Protecting confidential information while acting
within the law.
Supporting the ideals of free speech.
Being sensitive to others cultural values and beliefs.
Giving credit to others for their work.
Abstaining from doing harm to others.
Being accountable and transparent.

Don’t s
Don’t “Reply All” to an email chain.
Don’t have personal conversations at your desk.
Don’t bring your emotions into the office.
Don’t be afraid to ask questions.
Don’t gossip about fellow co-workers…or your boss.
Don’t use emojis or multiple exclamation points (if any)
in official emails.
Don’t talk back to your boss.
Don’t use confidential information for personal
benefit.
Don’t represent conflicting or competing
interests without full disclosure and the written
consent of those involved.
Don’t accept undisclosed gifts or payments for
professional services from anyone other than a client
or employer.
Don’t exaggerating facts.
Don’t guarantee results that are beyond my power to
deliver.

Implementation of these factors would contribute

effectively in enriching ethics in organizational
communication. Within the organization, the members
are in the form of the hierarchy. It is indispensable for
all the members to put into operation these traits to
achieve organizational goals and maintain work place
etiquettes. When the members of the organization put
into operation these factors, they are able to establish
efficacious terms and relationships with others, enhance
the structure of the organization and retain their jobs.
Therefore, it can be stated, these are regarded as
requisite in enriching the lives of the individuals.