Course Objectives:

• The concept of magnetism and magnetic circuits

• The concept of electromagnetism and
electromagnetic induction
• The concept of inductance and its applications
• The Fundamentals of A.C. Theory

By Mr Elijah Emmanuel Ameh

Course Modules
1.0 The concept of magnetism and magnetic circuits
1.1 Define magnetic flux, magnetic flux density magnetic motive force,
magnetic field strength, reluctance, permeability of free space (magnetic
constants), relative permeability.
1.2 State the symbols, units and relationships of terms in 1.1
1.3 Draw the electrical equivalent of a magnetic circuit, with or without air-
gap.
1.4 State analogies between electrical and magnetic circuits.
1.5 Solve simple magnetic circuit problems
1.6 Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic materials.
2.0 The concept of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction
2.1 Explain the magnetic affect of electric current
2.2 Draw magnetic fields around straight conductors, adjacent parallel
conductors and solenoids.
2.3 Explain the force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
2.4 State the direction of the force in 2.4
2.5 Derive the expression for the magnitude of the force in 2.4 (i.e. F =
BIL Newton)
2.6 Explain the concept of electromagnetic induction
2.7 State Faraday's Laws of electromagnetic induction
2.8 State Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction
2.9 Derive the expressions for magnitude of e.m.f induced in a conductor or a
coil.
2.10 Solve problems involving 2.6 to 2.10 above.
2.11 State the applications of electromagnetic induction.
3.0 The concept of inductance and its applications
3.1 Define self and mutual inductance
3.2 State the symbols and units of the terms in 3.1 above
3.3 State the expression for the equivalent inductance of inductances
connected in series and in parallel
3.4 State the expression for the induced voltage across an inductor
3.5 State the expression for inductance in coupled coils connected in series
aiding or opposing.
3.6 Derive an expression for energy stored in an inductor
3.7 Solve problem involving 3.3 to 3.6
3.8 Describe using suitable diagram, the operation of the induction coiled
in a car ignition system

4.0 The fundamentals of A.C. theory

4.1 Describe the production of an alternating e.m.f. by a rotating coil in a
magnetic field.
4.2 Sketch a.c. waveforms both to scale and not to scale.
4.3 Define r.m.s, instantaneous, average, and peak values, period, and
frequency of an a.c. waveform.
4.4 State relationship between instantaneous, and peak valves of a
sinusoidal wave.
4.5 Solve problems involving 4.2. to 4.4
4.6 Solve problems graphically on a.c. circuits with different combinations
of resistance, inductance and capacitance.
4.7 Differentiate between series and parallel resonance.
4.8 Explain phase lag or phase lead as applied to a.c. circuits.
4.9 Explain the difference between singlephase and three-phase supply.
4.10 State advantages and disadvantages of three phase supply over single
phase supply.
 THE CONCEPT OF MAGNETISM AND
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
1.1 Definitions:
Magnetic Flux (Φ): Magnetic flux is the measure of the quantity of
magnetic field passing through a surface. It is defined as the product
of the magnetic field (B) and the area (A) perpendicular to the field.
Magnetic Flux Density (B): Magnetic flux density, also known as
magnetic induction, is the amount of magnetic flux passing through
a unit area perpendicular to the field. It's measured in Tesla (T).
Magnetic Motive Force (F): Magnetic motive force is the driving
force that creates a magnetic field in a magnetic circuit. It is
analogous to electromotive force (voltage) in an electrical circuit.
Magnetic Field Strength (H): Magnetic field strength represents
the intensity of the magnetic field created by a current-carrying
conductor or a magnet. It's measured in Ampere per meter (A/m).
Reluctance (R): Reluctance is the opposition offered by a
magnetic circuit to the establishment of magnetic flux. It's
analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit and is
measured in Ampere-turns per Weber (A-turn/Wb).
Permeability of Free Space (μ₀): This is a fundamental
constant of nature representing the ability of a material to
conduct magnetic flux. It's approximately 4π x 10⁻⁷ N/A²
(Tesla meter) and is used to calculate magnetic fields in
vacuum or air.
Relative Permeability (μᵣ): Relative permeability is the
ratio of the permeability of a material to the permeability of
free space. It indicates how much a material can amplify or
attenuate a magnetic field. It's a dimensionless quantity.
1.2 Symbols, Units, and Relationships:
 Magnetic Flux (Φ): Symbol Φ, Unit Weber (Wb), Φ = B * A
 Magnetic Flux Density (B): Symbol B, Unit Tesla (T), B = Φ / A
 Magnetic Motive Force (F): Symbol F, Unit Ampere (A)
 Magnetic Field Strength (H): Symbol H, Unit Ampere per
meter (A/m)
 Reluctance (R): Symbol R, Unit Ampere-turn per Weber (A-
turn/Wb), R = 1 / μᵣμ₀A
 Permeability of Free Space (μ₀): Symbol μ₀, Unit Tesla meter
per Ampere (T m/A)
 Relative Permeability (μᵣ): Symbol μᵣ, Dimensionless
1.3 Electrical Equivalent of a Magnetic Circuit:
The electrical equivalent of a magnetic circuit consists of
components analogous to electrical circuit components. It
includes a magnetic motive force (analogous to electromotive
force), magnetic field strength (analogous to current), and
reluctance (analogous to resistance). In the case of an air-gap, it
adds reluctance to the magnetic circuit.

Fig 1: Magnetic Circuit Fig. 2: Electric Circuit

1.4 Analogies between Electrical and Magnetic Circuits:
There are several analogies between electrical and magnetic circuits:
S/n Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
A Similarities
1 EMF, Volt MMF, Ampere Turn
2 Current, Ampere Flux, Weber
3 Resistance, Ohm Reluctance, A/Wb
4 Current density, A/m2 Flux density, T or Wb/m2
5 Conductivity Permittivity
6 Resistivity Reluctivity
7 Conductance Permeance
B Differences
1 Current actually flow Flux is created but does not flow
2 Circuit may be open or closed Circuit is always closed
3 Voltage (V) Magnetic Motive Force (F)
4 Current (I) Magnetic Field Strength (H)
5 Resistance (R) Reluctance (R)
6 Ohm's Law (V = I * R) Magnetic Ohm's Law (F = H * R)
1.5 Solving Magnetic Circuit Problems:
Example 1: For a magnetic Circuit with Air-Gap, if the cross-
sectional area (A) is 100cm², the length of the magnetic path (l) is
0.2m, the permeability of the core material (μᵣ) is 1000, and the
applied magnetic field (H) is 1000A/m; Calculate: (i) Magnetic flux
(Φ) in the core (ii) Reluctance (R) of the magnetic circuit (iii)
Magnetic field density (B) in the core and (iv) Magnetic field density
(B) in the air-gap. Given that The permeability of free space (μ₀) is 4π
x 10⁻⁷Tm/A and the Air-gap length (d) is 0.01m.
Solution:
i. Magnetic flux (Φ) in the core:
Φ=BxA
B = μ₀μᵣ x H
Φ=BxA
Φ = (4π x 10⁻⁷ T m/A * 1000 * 1000 A/m) * 100 cm² / 10,000 cm²/m²

Φ = 1.2566 x 10⁻² Wb
ii. Reluctance (R) of the magnetic circuit:
𝑙 𝑑
R= +
μ₀μᵣ x A μ₀ x A

R = 0.2 m / (4π x 10⁻⁷ T m/A x 1000 x 100 cm² / 10,000 cm²/m²) + 0.01 m
/ (4π x 10⁻⁷ T m/A x 100 cm² / 10,000 cm²/m²)

R = 5 x 10⁻² A-turn/Wb + 7.9577 x 10⁻² A-turn/Wb

R = 0.1296 A-turn/Wb

iii. Magnetic field density (B) in the core:

B = μ₀μᵣH

B = (4π x 10⁻⁷ T m/A x 1000) x 1000 A/m

B = 1.2566 T
iv. Magnetic field density (B) in the air-gap:
B in the air gap = μ₀H
B in the air gap = 4π x 10⁻⁷ T m/A * 1000 A/m
B in the air gap = 1.2566 x 10⁻³ T

Example 2: If a series magnetic circuit composed of a core

material and an air-gap, the core material has a length of 0.1m, a
cross-sectional area of 50cm², and a relative permeability (μᵣ) of
500. The air-gap has a length of 0.02m. If an applied magnetic
field (H) of 800A/m is present. Calculate the reluctance of the
core and air-gap, adding them to find the total reluctance, and
then calculating the required magnetic motive force using the
total reluctance and magnetic flux. Given that the magnetic flux
(Φ) is 50Wb
Solution:
Calculate reluctance (R) of the core and air-gap:
R_core = l / (μ₀μᵣ x A)
= 0.1 m / (4π x 10⁻⁷ T m/A * 500 * 50 cm² / 10,000 cm²/m²)
= 0.127 A-turn/Wb

R_airgap = d/(μ₀ x A)
= 0.02 m / (4π x 10⁻⁷ T m/A * 50 cm² / 10,000 cm²/m²)
= 7.9577 x 10⁻² A-turn/Wb

Calculate total reluctance (R_total) of the circuit:

R_total = R_core + R_airgap
= 0.127 A-turn/Wb + 7.9577 x 10⁻² A-turn/Wb
= 0.208 A-turn/Wb
Calculate required magnetic motive force (F):
F = R_total x Φ
F = 0.208 A-turn/Wb x 50Wb
= 0.208 x 50
= 10.4 A-turn
1.6 Distinguishing Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials
Property Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials
Coercivity (Hc) High Low
Remanence (Br) High Low
Retentivity High Low
Remains after removal of Quickly responds to changes in
Magnetization external field external field

Permanent magnets, data storage Transformers, inductors,

Applications devices, magnetic separators magnetic shielding
Requires high external field for
Demagnetization demagnetization Easily demagnetized
Wide and pronounced hysteresis Narrow and less pronounced
Hysteresis Loop loop hysteresis loop
Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB)
magnets, Samarium Cobalt
(SmCo) magnets, Alnico Iron, Nickel-Iron alloys
Examples magnets (MuMetal), Ferrites
Requires significant external Easily magnetized with low
Magnetization Process field external field
Exercise 1
1. What is magnetic flux? How is it related to the magnetic field and the area
it passes through?
2. Define magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field strength (H). How are
these two quantities related?
3. Explain magnetic motive force (MMF) and how it relates to the current
flowing through a coil.
4. Provide the symbols, units, and mathematical relationships for magnetic
flux (ΦΦ), magnetic flux density (B), and magnetic field strength (H).
5. What is the unit of magnetic motive force (MMF)? Explain the relationship
between MMF and the number of turns in a coil.
6. Define reluctance (R) and state its symbol, unit, and the relationship
between reluctance, magnetic flux, and magnetic field strength.
7. Draw the electrical equivalent circuit of a magnetic circuit that includes an
air-gap. Label all the components and their equivalents.
8. Describe how the presence of an air-gap in a magnetic circuit affects the
overall magnetic reluctance.
9. Explain the concept of magnetic circuit analysis and how it is analogous to
electrical circuit analysis.
10. Draw a comparison between the behavior of current in an electrical circuit and
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
11. What is the magnetic equivalent of Ohm's law in an electrical circuit, and how
is it represented in a magnetic circuit?
12. Discuss the similarities between series and parallel configurations in electrical
and magnetic circuits.
13. Given a magnetic circuit with various components and dimensions, calculate
the magnetic flux, magnetic field strength, and reluctance of the circuit.
14. Solve a problem where you have to determine the required number of turns in a
coil to achieve a specific magnetic flux density.
15. Calculate the MMF needed to establish a certain magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit composed of multiple materials.
16. Define soft magnetic materials and provide examples of their applications.
17. Explain what hard magnetic materials are and how they differ from soft
magnetic materials.
18. Compare and contrast the hysteresis loops of soft and hard magnetic materials,
highlighting their coercivity and remanence characteristics
 THE CONCEPT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
2.1 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current: When electric current
flows through a conductor, it generates a magnetic field around
the conductor. This phenomenon is known as the magnetic effect
of electric current. The strength and direction of the magnetic
field depend on the magnitude and direction of the current
flowing through the conductor.
2.2 Magnetic Fields around Different Configurations:
 Straight Conductor: The magnetic field around a straight
current-carrying conductor forms concentric circles with the
conductor at the center. The direction of the field can be
determined using the right-hand rule, where the thumb points
in the direction of the current and the fingers curl in the
direction of the magnetic field lines.
 Fig. 4: Current Flows in Opposite Direction

Fig. 3: Straight Conductor Carrying Current

 Adjacent Parallel Conductors:
When two parallel current-carrying
conductors are placed close to each
other, their magnetic fields interact. Fig. 5: Current Flows in the Same Direction
If the currents are in the same  Solenoid: A solenoid is a tightly
direction, the magnetic fields will wound coil of wire. It generates a
reinforce, and if they are in opposite strong and uniform magnetic field
directions, the fields will oppose inside it when current flows
each other. through the coil.
The magnetic field lines run magnetic field, a force is
parallel to the axis of the exerted on the conductor. This
solenoid. force is perpendicular to both
the direction of the current and
the direction of the magnetic
field.
2.4 Direction of the Force:
The direction of the force can
be determined using the
Fleming's left-hand rule,
Fig. 6: Solenoid which states that if the
2.3 Force on a Current- forefinger points in the
Carrying Conductor in a direction of the magnetic field,
Magnetic Field: the thumb points in the
When a current-carrying direction of the current, then
conductor is placed in a the middle finger will point in
the direction of the force.
2.5 Expression for the field of flux density 0.15T. What is
Magnitude of the Force (F = the force on the wire if it is placed?
BIL): i. At right angle to the field
The magnitude of the force on a ii. At 48o to the field
current-carrying conductor in a iii. Along the field
magnetic field can be calculated
using the formula: Sol.
F=BIL Where: i. F = BIl
F is the force on the conductor (in = 0.15 x 10 x 2
Newton), = 3N
B is the magnetic field strength (in
Tesla),
I is the current flowing through the
ii. F = BIlsin𝜃
conductor (in Amperes), = 0.15 x 10 x 2 x Sin48o
L is the length of the conductor in the = 2.3N
magnetic field (in meters).
iii. F=0
Example 1
A conductor carrying current of
10A and 2m in length is placed in a
2.6 Electromagnetic Induction:
Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an electromotive
force (emf) or voltage in a conductor when it is exposed to a changing
magnetic field. This phenomenon is the basis for generating electricity
in generators.

2.7 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

 Faraday's First Law: A change in magnetic field through a loop of
wire induces an electromotive force (emf ) in the wire.
 Faraday's Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop.
𝑑∅
E∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ɸ
E= -k
𝑑𝑡
2.8 Lenz's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:
Lenz's law states that the direction of the induced emf is such that it
opposes the change in magnetic flux that caused it. In other words, the
induced current creates a magnetic field that counteracts the change in
the original magnetic field.
2.9 Expression for Induced EMF in a flux density of 2 x 10-2T, which is
a Conductor or Coil: then reduced steadily to zero in 10s.
The magnitude of the induced emf (ε) Calculate the induced e.m.f.
in a conductor or coil can be Sol.
calculated using the formula: The flux linkage change, Nd ɸ =
ε = -𝑁
𝑑ɸ Number of turn, N x change in flux
𝑑𝑡 density, 𝛽 x area
Where:
Ndɸ =N 𝛽A
 ε is the induced emf (in Volts),
= 60 x (2 x 10-2) x (5 x 10-4m2)
 N is the number of turns in the coil,
= 6 x 10-4Wb
 𝑑ɸ is the change in magnetic flux
The change occur in time dt = 10s
through the coil,
𝑑ɸ
 dt is the change in time. ∴ E = -N
𝑑𝑡
2.10 Problem Solving: = -6 x 10-4Wb
Example 10s
Suppose a 60 turns coil of cross- = - 6 x 10-5V
sectional area 5cm2 is at right angle to
 If the coil had 5000 turns, the Exercise 2A
flux linkage would be 5000  1. A coil of 500 turns and area
times as great. 10cm2 is placed with its plane
i.e Ndɸ = 5 x 10-2Wb perpendicular to the
and E = -5 x 10-3V magnetic field of 2 x 10-3T. If
the field be uniformly
reduced to zero in 10-2s, what
 If the normal to the plane of
will be the emf induced in
this coil made an angle of 60o the coil? If the resistance of
instead of 90o with the field, the coil is 50Ω, calculate the
then value of the current and the
Ndɸ = 5 x 10-2Sin60o charge induced in the coil.
= 4.3 x 10-2Wb
And E = -4.3 x 10-3V
2. Find the magnitude of the induced e.m.f in a 200 turn coil with
cross sectional area of 0.16m2 if the magnetic field through the
coil changes from 0.10T to 0.50T at a uniform rate over a period of
0.02s.
3. (a) under what circumstances is an e.m.f. induced in a
conductor? What factor governs the magnitude and direction of
the induced e.m.f? (b) A straight wire of length 50cm and
resistance of 10Ω moves sideway with a velocity of 15ms-1 at right
angle to the uniform magnetic field of flux density 2 x 10-3T. what
current will flow if it ends were connected by lead of negligible
resistance?
4a. A narrow coil of 10 turns and area 4 x 10-2m2 is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density B of 10-2T so that the flux
links to the turns normally. Calculate the average induced e.m.f in
the coil if it is removed completely from the field in 0.5s.
b. if the same coil is rotated about an axes through it middle so
that it turn through 60o in 0.2s in the field 𝛽, calculate the average
induced e.m.f.
2.11 Applications of Electromagnetic Induction: Some
applications of electromagnetic induction include:
i. Electrical generators for producing electricity.
ii. Transformers for voltage transformation in power
distribution.
iii. Induction cooktops for heating.
iv. Inductive sensors and detectors.
v. Magnetic induction-based wireless charging.
vi. It is used in magnetic Flow Meter
vii. Hard drives utilize magnetic induction to read/write
information.
viii. Other applications of magnetic induction can be found in
graphics tablets, electric and hybrid vehicles, and in
transracial magnetic stimulation.
 Exercise 2
1. What is the relationship between electric current and magnetic
fields?
2. How does the direction of the magnetic field around a current-
carrying conductor depend on the direction of the current?
3. Explain how the right-hand rule is used to determine the direction
of the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.
4. Draw and label the magnetic field lines around a straight current-
carrying conductor.
5. Illustrate the magnetic field pattern between two adjacent parallel
current-carrying conductors with currents flowing in the same
direction.
6. Create a diagram showing the magnetic field inside and outside of a
solenoid (cylindrical coil) with current flowing through it.
7. Describe the factors that determine the magnitude of the force
experienced by a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
8. How does the angle between the direction of the current and the
magnetic field affect the force on the conductor?
9. Explain how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field is related to Fleming's left-hand rule.
 Continuation…
10. Starting from the basic principles of magnetic forces on a current-
carrying conductor, walk through the derivation of the expression
for the magnitude of force (F) experienced by a conductor of length
(L) carrying current (I) in a magnetic field (B).
11. How does the orientation of the conductor relative to the magnetic
field influence the force acting on it? Provide a step-by-step
explanation.
12. If you were to double both the current (I) flowing through a
conductor and the strength of the magnetic field (B), how would the
force experienced by the conductor change? Explain using the
derived formula.
13. Describe the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction in simple
terms and explain how a changing magnetic field is related to the
induction of an electromotive force (emf ) in a conductor.
14. How is Faraday's experiment with a coil and a magnet related to the
concept of electromagnetic induction? Explain the observations and
the underlying principle.
 Continuation…
15. State Lenz's Law and provide an intuitive explanation of its
meaning.
16. How does Lenz's Law ensure the conservation of energy in
electromagnetic induction processes?
17. If a magnet is moved towards a coil, in which direction will the
induced current flow in the coil according to Lenz's Law?
Explain your answer.
18. Walk through the derivation of the expression for the
magnitude of electromotive force (emf) induced in a straight
conductor moving through a magnetic field.
19. Explain how the number of turns in a coil affects the induced
emf when the magnetic flux through the coil changes. Provide
the relevant formula and an example.
20.Discuss how electromagnetic induction plays a role in wireless
charging technology for devices like smartphones.
 Continuation…
21. How can you modify the formula for induced emf in a coil to
account for a changing magnetic field with respect to time?
22.A coil with 200 turns is exposed to a magnetic field that
decreases from 0.5 T to 0.2 T in 0.1 seconds. Calculate the
magnitude of the induced emf in the coil.
23.A metal rod of length 0.5 meters moves at a speed of 4 m/s
perpendicular to a magnetic field of 0.3 T. Determine the emf
induced across the ends of the rod.
24.If a circular coil is rotated at a frequency of 50 Hz in a magnetic
field with a flux change rate of 0.02 Wb/s, what is the
magnitude of the induced emf?
25.Name and explain an application of electromagnetic induction
in everyday technology.
26.How is electromagnetic induction used in the functioning of
generators? Describe the process briefly.
 THE CONCEPT OF INDUCTANCE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
3.1 Self and Mutual Inductance:
i. Self Inductance: Self-inductance is the property of a
coil or circuit element to oppose any change in the
current flowing through it by inducing an electromotive
force (EMF) within itself.
ii. Mutual Inductance: Mutual inductance refers to the
ability of one coil or circuit element to induce an EMF in
another coil or circuit element when the current in the
first coil changes.
3.2 Symbols and Units:
 Self Inductance (L): Unit: Henry (H), Symbol: H
 Mutual Inductance (M): Unit: Henry (H), Symbol: M
3.3 Equivalent Inductance:

 When inductances are connected in series, the equivalent

inductance (Leq) is the sum of individual inductances:

 When inductances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of

the equivalent inductance (Leq) is the sum of the reciprocals of
individual inductances:
..
Example 1: Calculate the equivalent inductance of 60Henry, 30Henry
and 20Henry inductors connected (a) in series (b) in parallel
Sol:
a. Leqv = L1 + L2 + L3
Leqv= 60 + 30 + 20 = 110H

b. 1/Leqv = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3

1/Leqv = 1/60 + 1/30 + 1/20
=(1+2+3)/60
Leqv= 60/5 = 12H
3.4 Induced Voltage across an Inductor:
 The induced voltage v(t) across an inductor is given by Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction:

 where L is the inductance and i(t) is the current flowing through the
inductor at time t.
Example 2
If the current going through the inductor is 70sin(1000t) and its
inductance is 50μH, what is the voltage across the inductor?
Sol.
V = - Ldi/dt
= 50μH x d70sin(1000t)/dt
= 50μH x 70 x 1000Cos1000t
= 3.5Cos1000t V

3.5 Inductance in Coupled Coils:

When two coils are coupled, their total inductance depends on
whether they are aiding or opposing each other. The expressions
are:

.
 i. Series Aiding ii. Series Opposing

Example 3:
If two coils of inductance 70mH and 30mH are connected in series, find the total series
aiding inductance of the series connected inductors. Given that the mutual inductance
of the combination of the two coils is 40mH.
Sol:
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
LT = 70 + 30 + 2 (40)
= 100 + 80
=180mH
Example 4: with inductance L and carrying
If two coils of inductance 70mH and current I is given by:
30mH are connected in series, then
find the total series opposing where
inductance of the series connected E = energy stored (joules, J)
inductors given that the mutual L = inductance (henrys, H)
inductance of the combination of the
I = current (amps, A)
two coils is 40mH.

Example 5:
Sol:
Calculate the energy stored in an
LT = L1 + L2 – 2M
inductor with inductance of 10H and
LT = 70 + 30 – 2 (40) current of 5A.
= 100 – 80 Sol.
= 20 mH W = 1/2 (10 ) (5 )2
= 125 J
3.6 Expression for Energy Stored in
an Inductor:
The energy (W) stored in an inductor
3.8 Operation of Induction Coil in Car Ignition System: In a
car ignition system, an induction coil (also known as an ignition
coil) is used to transform the low voltage from the car's battery
into a high voltage that is required to create a spark across the
spark plugs. Below is the diagram of an ignition system
The Operation
 The battery voltage is applied to the primary winding (low turns) of the coil.

 The primary winding is interrupted by a switching circuit (interrupter), causing the

current through the primary winding to rise and collapse rapidly.

 This rapid change in current induces a high voltage in the secondary winding (high
turns) through mutual inductance.

 The high voltage from the secondary winding is directed to the spark plugs, where it
creates a spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture in the engine.

 The interruption of the primary current is typically achieved through a breaker

points system (older technology) or an electronic ignition control module (modern
technology). This high-voltage spark is necessary to ignite the fuel mixture in the
internal combustion engine of a car.
 Exercise 3
1. Define self-inductance and provide an explanation of how it relates
to a changing current in a single coil.
2. What is mutual inductance, and how does it involve the interaction
between two separate coils or circuits?
3. Explain how self-inductance and mutual inductance differ in terms
of their effects and applications.
4. State the symbol used to represent self-inductance and provide its SI
unit.
5. What symbol is used to represent mutual inductance, and what is its
unit of measurement?
6. Compare the units of self-inductance and mutual inductance. How
do their units reflect their physical characteristics?
7. State the formula for calculating the equivalent inductance of
inductors connected in series.
8. Provide the expression for calculating the equivalent inductance of
inductors connected in parallel.
9. Discuss the implications of connecting inductors in series and in
parallel on the resulting equivalent inductance value.
 Continuation…
10. State the formula for the induced voltage (emf ) across an inductor
in terms of the rate of change of current with respect to time.
11. How does the sign of the induced voltage across an inductor relate
to the direction of the change in current?
12. Explain why an inductor opposes sudden changes in current flow
by inducing a voltage.
13. State the formula for calculating the equivalent inductance of two
coupled coils connected in series aiding each other's magnetic
fields.
14. Provide the expression for calculating the equivalent inductance of
two coupled coils connected in series opposing each other's
magnetic fields.
15. Explain the concept of aiding and opposing connections in terms of
the relative directions of the currents in the coils.
16. Walk through the derivation of the expression for the energy stored
in an inductor in terms of its inductance and current.
 Continuation…
17. How does the energy stored in an inductor change when the
current passing through it is doubled?
18. Explain the significance of the energy stored in an inductor and its
role in circuits.
19. Given two inductors with values 4 H and 6 H connected in series,
calculate the equivalent inductance.
20. An inductor with 8 mH of inductance carries a current that
changes at a rate of 20 A/s. Calculate the induced emf across the
inductor.
21. Two coils with inductances of 10 mH and 15 mH are connected in
parallel. Calculate the equivalent inductance.
22. Create a labeled diagram showing the components and connections
of the induction coil in a car ignition system.
23. Explain the step-by-step process of how the induction coil works to
generate high voltage for spark plug ignition.
24. Discuss the role of the primary and secondary coils, as well as the
interruption of the primary current, in the operation of the
induction coil in a car ignition system.
 THE FUNDAMENTALS OF A.C. THEORY
4.1 Production of Alternating e.m.f. by a Rotating Coil: When a coil of wire
rotates within a magnetic field, it cuts across the lines of magnetic flux,
inducing an electromotive force (e.m.f.) or voltage across its terminals. This
process generates an alternating e.m.f., where the direction of the induced
voltage changes periodically as the coil rotates. This principle is the basis for
the operation of alternators and generators.
4.2 Sketching A.C. Waveforms:
 To Scale: In this representation, the vertical and horizontal
scales accurately reflect the magnitude and time, respectively.
 Not to Scale: In this representation, the waveform's shape is
preserved, but the vertical and horizontal scales might not be
proportional.

4.3 Definitions of A.C. Waveform Parameters:

 RMS (Root Mean Square) Value: The equivalent steady DC
value that produces the same average power in a resistive load as
the AC waveform.
 Instantaneous Value: The value of the waveform at a particular
instant.
 Average Value: The arithmetic mean of the instantaneous values
over one complete cycle.
 Peak Value: The maximum positive value of the waveform.
 Period (T): The time taken for one complete cycle.
 Frequency (f): The number of cycles per unit time.
4.4 Relationship between Instantaneous and Peak Values:
For a sinusoidal waveform, the peak value (A) is related to the instantaneous
value (V) by:
V=A×Sin(ωt)
where ω is the angular frequency.
4.5 Solving Problems Involving A.C. Waveforms:
 HH
4.6 Example 6
4.7 Differentiate between series and parallel resonance: Series
Resonance: In a series resonance circuit, the inductor (L) and capacitor
(C) are connected in series with a load. At the resonant frequency, the
impedance of the circuit is minimum, and the current is maximum. The
voltage across the load is also maximum at resonance.
Parallel Resonance: In a parallel resonance circuit, the inductor (L) and
capacitor (C) are connected in parallel with a load. At the resonant
frequency, the impedance of the circuit is maximum, and the current is
minimum. The voltage across the load is also minimum at resonance.
4.8 Explain phase lag or phase lead as applied to a.c. circuits:
Phase Lag: In an a.c. circuit, if the current waveform lags behind the
voltage waveform in time, it is said to have a phase lag. This is typical in
inductive circuits where the current lags behind the voltage due to the
reactive nature of inductors.
Phase Lead: Conversely, if the current waveform leads the voltage
waveform in time, it is said to have a phase lead. This can occur in
capacitive circuits where the current leads the voltage due to the
reactive nature of capacitors.
4.9 Explain the difference between single-phase and three-
phase supply:
Single-Phase Supply: In a single-phase supply, the voltage and
current vary sinusoidally with time, but there is only one
alternating waveform. It's commonly used in residential settings
for smaller loads.
Three-Phase Supply: In a three-phase supply, there are three
alternating waveforms, each with a phase difference of 120 degrees
from the others. It provides more efficient power transmission
and distribution for larger loads, as it provides a constant power
transfer and reduces the need for large neutral conductors.
4.10 State advantages and disadvantages of three-phase
supply over single-phase supply:
Advantages of Three-Phase Supply:
 Higher Power Transmission Efficiency: Three-phase systems
deliver more power with less current, reducing transmission
losses.
 Smoother Power Delivery: The overlapping nature of three-
phase waves provides more constant power delivery.
 Lower Equipment Size: Three-phase motors and generators are
more compact and efficient.
 Balanced Loads: Three-phase systems are inherently balanced,
reducing strain on generators and transformers.
Disadvantages of Three-Phase Supply:
 Complex Installation: Setting up and maintaining three-phase
systems can be more complicated.
 Higher Initial Costs: Three-phase equipment tends to be more
expensive.
 Not Suitable for Small Loads: Three-phase systems are less
practical for residential and small-scale applications where
single-phase is sufficient.
 Exercise 4
1. Explain how the rotation of a coil in a magnetic field leads to the
generation of an alternating electromotive force (e.m.f ). Include
details about the process, direction of induced e.m.f., and the effect
of increasing rotation speed.
2. How does the number of turns in the coil influence the amplitude
and frequency of the generated alternating e.m.f.?
3. Provide a comparison between the alternating e.m.f. generated by a
rotating coil and the direct current (d.c.) produced by a stationary
coil in a magnetic field.
4. Draw a sinusoidal waveform to scale, labeling its key parameters
such as amplitude, period, frequency, and phase.
5. Sketch a square waveform, indicating its amplitude and the
duration of each high and low state, both to scale and not to scale.
6. Illustrate a triangular waveform, ensuring that you label its peak
and zero crossings, as well as the overall shape characteristics.
7. Define the root mean square (r.m.s) value of an alternating current
or voltage waveform. How is it related to the peak value of the
waveform?
 Continuation…
8. Explain what is meant by the instantaneous value of an alternating
waveform and how it varies over time.
9. Differentiate between average value and r.m.s. value of an a.c.
waveform. How are these values calculated for different types of
waveforms?
10. State the mathematical relationship between the instantaneous
value and the peak value of a sinusoidal waveform.
11. Express the peak value of a sinusoidal waveform in terms of its
r.m.s. value.
12. If the instantaneous value of a sinusoidal waveform is given as 50 V,
what is its peak value?
13. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal waveform with a peak
voltage of 120 V.
14. Given an a.c. waveform with an average value of 5 A, find its peak
current and r.m.s. current.
15. A square waveform with an amplitude of 8 V has a peak value of 4
ms. Calculate its r.m.s. value.
 Continuation…
16. Consider an a.c. circuit consisting of a resistor and an inductor in
series. Sketch the current waveform and the voltage waveform
across each component.
17. Illustrate the behavior of an a.c. circuit containing a resistor, an
inductor, and a capacitor in parallel. Show how the currents through
each component interact over time.
18. Solve a problem involving an a.c. circuit with a resistor, an inductor,
and a capacitor in series, determining the phase relationships
between currents and voltages.
19. Explain the concept of resonance in an a.c. circuit. How does series
resonance differ from parallel resonance in terms of impedance and
current amplitude?
20. When an inductor and a capacitor are connected in series, how does
the impedance at resonance compare to the impedance at
frequencies below and above resonance?
21. Describe the behavior of an a.c. circuit with a resistor, an inductor,
and a capacitor in parallel at its resonant frequency.
22. Define phase lag and phase lead in the context of alternating
current waveforms.
 Continuation…
23. How does phase lag relate to the time delay between current and
voltage waveforms in an inductive circuit?
24. Provide an example of an a.c. circuit where phase lead occurs, and
explain its significance.
25. Describe what is meant by single-phase and three-phase electrical
supply systems.
26. Compare the characteristics of single-phase and three-phase
systems in terms of power delivery, voltage stability, and types of
loads they can support.
27. Explain the advantages of using a three-phase supply over a single-
phase supply in industrial applications.
28. List the advantages of using a three-phase supply over a single-
phase supply for power distribution.
29. Discuss the potential disadvantages or challenges associated with
implementing a three-phase supply system.
30. Provide an example of an application where a single-phase supply is
sufficient and advantageous.