DEV PSCYH REVIEWER!!!

socioeconomic status (SES) Combination of economic and

social factors describing an individual or family, including
CHAPTER 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT income, education, and occupation
human development Scientific study of processes of change risk factors Conditions that increase the likelihood of a
and stability throughout the human life span. negative developmental outcome.
life-span development Concept of human development as culture A society’s or group’s total way of life, including
a lifelong process, which can be studied scientifically. customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT products—all learned behavior, passed on from parents to
children.
physical development Growth of body and brain, including
patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and ethnic group A group united by ancestry, race, religion,
health. language, or national origins, which contribute to a sense of
shared identity
cognitive development Pattern of change in mental
abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, ethnic gloss Overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural
thinking, reasoning, and creativity. group that obscures differences within the group.

psychosocial development Pattern of change in emotions, normative Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar
personality, and social relationships. way for most people in a group.

PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN historical generation A group of people strongly influenced
by a major historical event during their formative period.
social construction A concept or practice that may appear
natural and obvious to those who accept it, but that in cohort A group of people born at about the same time.
reality is an invention of a particular culture or society nonnormative Characteristic of an unusual event that
Typical Major Developments in Eight Periods of Human happens to a particular person or a typical event that
Development happens at an unusual time of life.

 Prenatal Period (conception to birth) TIMING OF INFLUENCES: CRITICAL OR SENSITIVE PERIODS

 Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3) imprinting Instinctive form of learning in which, during a
 Early Childhood (ages 3 to 6) critical period in early development, a young animal forms
 Middle Childhood (ages 6 to 11) an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the
 Adolescence (ages 11 to about 20) mother.
 Emerging and Young Adulthood (ages 20 to 40)
 Middle Adulthood (ages 40 to 65) critical period Specific time when a given event or its
 Late Adulthood (age 65 and over) absence has a specific impact on development.

Influences on Development plasticity Range of modifiability of performance.

individual differences Differences in characteristics, sensitive periods Times in development when a person is
influences, or developmental outcomes. particularly open to certain kinds of experiences.

heredity Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the The Life-Span Developmental Approach
biological parents.
1. Development is lifelong.
environment Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, 2. Development is multidimensional.
influences on development. 3. Development is multidirectional.
4. Relative influences of biology and culture shift over
maturation Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and the life span
behavioral changes 5. Development involves changing resource
CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT allocations.
6. Development shows plasticity.
nuclear family Two-generational kinship, economic, and 7. Development is influenced by the historical and
household unit consisting of one or two parents and their cultural context.
biological children, adopted children, or stepchildren.
CHAPTER 2: THEORY AND RESEARCH
extended family Multigenerational kinship network of
parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living Basic Theoretical Issues
together in an ex tended-family household.
theory Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks
to organize, explain, and predict data.
hypotheses Possible explanations for phenomena, used to superego, which develops at about age 5 or 6. The
predict the outcome of research. superego includes the conscience and incorporates socially
approved “shoulds” and “should nots” into the child’s
ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE?
value system.
Psychologists who believe in reactive development
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES (FREUD)
conceptualize the developing child as a hungry sponge that
soaks up experiences and is shaped by this input over time. Oral (birth to 12–18 months). Baby’s chief source
of pleasure involves mouth-oriented activities
Psychologists who believe in active development argue that (sucking and feeding).
people create experiences for themselves and are Anal (12–18 months to 3 years). Child derives
motivated to learn about the world around them. sensual gratification from withholding and
expelling feces.
mechanistic model. In this model, people are like machines
Phallic (3 to 6 years). Child becomes attached to
that react to environmental input.
parent of the other sex and later identifies with
organismic model. This model sees people as active, same-sex parent.
growing organisms that set their own development in Latency (6 years to puberty). Time of relative calm
between more turbulent stages.
motion
Genital (puberty through adulthood).
ISSUE 2: IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage,
OR DISCONTINUOUS? channeled into mature adult sexuality.
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES (ERIKSON)
Is development continuous, that is, gradual and
incremental, or discontinuous, that is, abrupt or uneven? Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson (1902–
1994) modified and extended Freudian theory by
quantitative change Changes in number or amount, such as emphasizing the influence of society on the developing
in height, weight, size of vocabulary, or frequency of personality. Each stage requires balancing a positive and a
communication. negative tendency. The positive quality should dominate,
but some degree of the negative quality is needed as well
qualitative change Discontinuous changes in kind,
for optimal development. The psychoanalyst Erik H. Erikson
structure, or organization.
emphasized societal influences on personality.
Theoretical Perspectives
Basic trust versus mistrust (birth to 12–18
Theories can generally be characterized as either months). Baby develops sense of whether world is
mechanistic or organismic, and as describing change as a good and safe place. Virtue: hope.
either continuous or discontinuous, even if those beliefs are Autonomy versus shame and doubt (12–18
not directly stated months to 3 years). Child develops a balance of
independence and self- sufficiency over shame
Five major perspectives underlie much influential theory and doubt. Virtue: will.
and research on human development: (1) psychoanalytic, Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years). Child
which focuses on unconscious emotions and drives; (2) develops initiative when trying new activities and
learning, which studies observable behavior; (3) cognitive, is not over- whelmed by guilt. Virtue: purpose.
which analyzes thought processes; (4) contextual, which Industry versus inferiority (6 years to puberty).
emphasizes the impact of the historical, social, and cultural Child must learn skills of the culture or face
context; and (5) evolutionary/sociobiological, which feelings of incompetence. Virtue: skill.
Identity versus identity confusion (puberty to
considers evolutionary and biological underpinnings of
young adulthood). Adolescent must determine
behavior.
own sense of self (“Who am I?”) or experience
PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC confusion about roles. Virtue: fidelity.
Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood).
Psychosexual development In Freudian theory, an Person seeks to make commitments to others; if
unvarying sequence of stages of childhood personality unsuccessful, may suffer from isolation and self-
development in which gratification shifts from the mouth to absorption. Virtue: love.
the anus and then to the genitals Generativity versus stagnation (middle
adulthood). Mature adult is concerned with
Newborns are governed by the id, which operates under establishing and guiding the next generation or
the pleasure principle—the drive to seek immediate else feels personal impoverishment. Virtue: care.
satisfaction of their needs and desires. Integrity versus despair (late adulthood). Older
adult achieves acceptance of own life, allowing
The ego, which represents reason, develops gradually acceptance of death, or else despairs over
during the first year or so of life and operates under the inability to relive life. Virtue: wisdom.
reality principle.
 cognitive-stage theory Piaget’s theory that children’s
cognitive development advances in a series of four stages
COGNITIVE STAGES (PIAGET)
involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations.
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years). Infant gradually organization Piaget’s term for the creation of categories or
becomes able to organize activities in relation to
systems of knowledge.
the environment through sensory and motor
activity. schemes Piaget’s term for organized patterns of thought
Preoperational (2 to 7 years). Child develops a and behavior used in particular situations.
representational system and uses symbols to
represent people, places, and events. Language adaptation Piaget’s term for adjustment to new
and imaginative play are important information about the environment, achieved through
manifestations of this stage. Thinking is still not processes of assimilation and accommodation. how
logical. children handle new information in light of what they
Concrete operations (7 to 11 years). Child can already know.
solve problems logically if they are focused on the
here and now but cannot think abstractly. assimilation Piaget’s term for incorporation of new
Formal operations (11 years through adulthood). information into an existing cognitive structure.
Person can think abstractly, deal with
hypothetical situations, and think about accommodation Piaget’s term for changes in a cognitive
possibilities. structure to include new information.
PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING
equilibration Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek
View of human development that holds that changes in a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved
behavior result from experience or from adaptation to the through a balance between assimilation and
environment. accommodation.

behaviorism Learning theory that emphasizes the Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
predictable role of environment in causing observable
sociocultural theory described cognitive growth as a
behavior.
collaborative process. People, said Vygotsky, learn through
classical conditioning Learning based on associating a social interaction.
stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with
zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky’s term for
another stimulus that does elicit the response.
the difference between what a child can do alone and what
operant conditioning Learning based on association of the child can do with help.
behavior with its consequences.
scaffolding Temporary support to help a child master a
reinforcement The process by which a behavior is task.
strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior
information-processing approach Approach to the study of
will be repeated.
cognitive development by observing and analyzing the
punishment The process by which a behavior is weakened, mental processes involved in perceiving and handling
decreasing the likelihood of repetition. information.

social learning theory Theory that behaviors are learned by PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL
observing and imitating models. Also called social cognitive
contextual perspective View of human development that
theory.
sees the individual as inseparable from the social context.
reciprocal determinism Bandura’s term for bidirectional
bioecological theory Bronfenbrenner’s approach to
forces that affect development. the person acts on the
understanding processes and contexts of human
world as the world acts on the person.
development that identifies five levels of environmental
observational learning Learning through watching the influence.
behavior of others.
The microsystem consists of the everyday environment of
PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE home, work, school, or neighborhood.

self-efficacy Sense of one’s capability to master challenges The mesosystem is the interlocking influence of
and achieve goals. microsystems.

Cognitive perspective View that thought processes are The exosystem consists of interactions between a
central to development. microsystem and an outside system or institution.
The macrosystem consists of overarching cultural patterns, independent variable In an experiment, the condition over
such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, and economic and which the experimenter has direct control.
political systems
dependent variable In an experiment, the condition that
the chronosystem represents the dimension of time. may or may not change as a result of changes in the
independent variable.

operational definition A definition stated solely in terms of

the operations used to measure a phenomenon.
PERSPECTIVE 5: EVOLUTIONARY
random assignment Assignment of participants in an
View of human development that focuses on evolutionary experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an
and biological bases of behavior. equal chance of being placed in any group.

ethology Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the
cross-sectional study Study designed to assess age-related
species.
differences, in which people of different ages are assessed
evolutionary psychology Application of Darwinian on one occasion.
principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to
longitudinal study Study designed to assess age changes in
individual behavior
a sample over time.
Research Methods
sequential study Study design that combines cross-
quantitative research Research that deals with objectively sectional and longitudinal techniques.
measurable data.
Ethics of Research
scientific method System of established principles and
beneficence, which is the obligation to maximize potential
processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a
benefits to participants and to minimize potential harm.
problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be
tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, respect for participants’ autonomy and protection of those
forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings. who are unable to exercise their own judgment

qualitative research Research that focuses on third principle is justice, which, in this case, is the inclusion
nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, of diverse groups together with sensitivity to any special
feelings, or beliefs. impact the research may have on them

sample Group of participants chosen to represent the CHAPTER 3: FORMING A NEW LIFE
entire population under study.
fertilization Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote;
random selection Selection of a sample in such a way that also called conception.
each person in a population has an equal and independent
chance of being chosen. zygote One-celled organism resulting from fertilization.

FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION WHAT CAUSES MULTIPLE BIRTHS?

Self-report: diary, visual reports, interview, or dizygotic twins Twins conceived by the union of two
questionnaire different ova (or a single ovum that has split) with two
Naturalistic observation different sperm cells; also called fraternal twins; they are no
Laboratory observation more alike genetically than any other siblings
Behavioral and performance measures
monozygotic twins Twins resulting from the division of a
BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS
single zygote after fertilization; also called identical twins;
Case study - In-depth study of single individual. they are genetically similar.
Ethnographic study In-depth study of a culture or
Mechanisms of Heredity
subculture.
Correlational study Attempt to find positive or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Chemical that carries inherited
negative relationship between variables. instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life.
Experiment Controlled procedure conducted in a
laboratory or the field in which an independent genetic code Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule;
variable is manipulated to determine its effect on governs the formation of proteins that determine the
a dependent variable. structure and functions of living cells.

chromosomes Coils of DNA that consist of genes.

genes Small segments of DNA located in definite positions Over time, and particularly in adulthood where most twins
on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity will follow different life paths, these differences add up. The
accumulated differences result in what has been termed
human genome Complete sequence of genes in the human
“epigenetic drift.”
body.
Epigenetic drift is often associated with adoption of
mutations Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes
differing lifestyles and less shared time together.
that may produce harmful characteristics.
One example of epigenesis is genome, or genetic,
WHAT DETERMINES SEX?
imprinting. Imprinting is the differential expression of
autosomes In humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not certain genetic traits, depending on whether the trait has
related to sexual expression. been inherited from the mother or the father.

sex chromosomes Pair of chromosomes that determines GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
sex: XX in the normal human female, XY in the normal
Hispanic infants have a higher occurrence of neural tube
human male.
and ear defects than do white non-Hispanic infants but
PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION lower rates of hypospadias (when the opening of the penis
is on the underside rather than the tip). African American
alleles Two or more alternative forms of a gene that occupy infants are more likely to have one type of a neural tube
the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the defect known as an encephalocele (in which the skull does
same trait. not close correctly and part of the brain protrudes outside
the head) and trisomy-18 (where an extra chromo some
homozygous Possessing two identical alleles for a trait
results in a condition called Edwards syndrome and severe
heterozygous Possessing differing alleles for a trait. developmental delays), and they are less likely to have cleft
lip or palate, or gastrointestinal abnormalities. Asian
dominant inheritance Pattern of inheritance in which, American infants are at lower risk for a wide range of
when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant disorders and birth defects.
one is expressed.
Dominant or Recessive Inheritance of Defects
recessive inheritance Pattern of inheritance in which a child
receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression Most of the time, “good” genes are dominant over those
of a nondominant trait carrying abnormal traits, but sometimes the gene for an
abnormal trait is dominant.
polygenic inheritance Pattern of inheritance in which
multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a Recessive defects are expressed only if the child is
complex trait homozygous for that gene; in other words, a child must
inherit a copy of the recessive gene from each parent.
Genotypes and Phenotypes: Multifactorial Transmission
incomplete dominance Pattern of inheritance in which a
phenotype Observable characteristics of a person. child receives two different alleles, resulting in partial
genotype Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expression of a trait.
expressed and unexpressed characteristics Sex-Linked Inheritance of Defects
multifactorial transmission Combination of genetic and Pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics
environmental factors to produce certain complex traits carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother
Epigenesis: Environmental Influence on Gene Expression are transmitted differently to her male and female
offspring. Certain recessive disorders affect male and
epigenesis Mechanism that turns genes on or off and female children differently. Sex-linked recessive disorders
determines functions of body cells. are more common in males than in females.
EPIGENETICS: IDENTICAL TWINS THAT AREN’T IDENTICAL Chromosomal Abnormalities
The differences arise as certain genes are turned on or off Chromosomal abnormalities typically occur because of
depending on need and environmental influences. errors in cell division, resulting in an extra or missing
chromosome.
One likely factor is whether twins are monochorionic (share
a placenta) and thus are subject to similar environmental Down syndrome Chromosomal disorder characterized by
influences, or they are dichorionic (have separate moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such
placentas) and are therefore exposed to somewhat physical signs as a downward sloping skin fold at the inner
different placental environments. corners of the eyes. Also called trisomy-21.
The brains of children with Down syndrome appear nearly Thus, it is the interaction of hereditary and environmental
normal at birth but shrink in volume by young adulthood, factors, not just one or the other, that produces certain
particularly in the hippocampal area and prefrontal cortex, outcomes.
resulting in cognitive dysfunction, and in the cerebellum,
Genotype-Environment Correlation Tendency of certain
leading to problems with motor coordination and balance.
genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each
other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Also
called genotype-environment covariance.

Passive correlations: Parents, who provide the genes that

GENETIC COUNSELING AND TESTING
predispose a child toward a trait, also tend to provide an
Genetic counseling can help prospective parents assess environment that encourages the development of that
their risk of bearing children with genetic or chromosomal trait.
defects.
Reactive, or evocative, correlations: Children with differing
karyotype. This chart can show chromosomal abnormalities genetic makeups evoke different reactions from others.
and can indicate whether a person might transmit genetic
Active correlations: As children get older and have more
defects to a child.
freedom to choose their own activities and environments,
Nature and Nurture: Influences of Heredity and they actively selector create experiences consistent with
Environment their genetic tendencies.

STUDYING HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT niche-picking Tendency of a person, especially after early
childhood, to seek out environments compatible with his or
behavioral genetics Quantitative study of relative her genotype.
hereditary and environmental influences on behavior.
What Makes Siblings So Different? The Nonshared
Measuring Heritability Environment
heritability Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity Although two children in the same family may bear a
to individual differences in a specific trait within a given striking physical resemblance, siblings can differ greatly in
population. intellect and especially in personality.
concordant Term describing tendency of twins to share the nonshared environmental effects The unique environment
same trait or disorder. in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive
influences or influences that affect one child differently
how many genes people share, then we can measure how
than another.
similar they are on traits (that is, their concordance rate)
SOME CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCED BY HEREDITY AND
HOW HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT WORK TOGETHER
ENVIRONMENT
Many characteristics vary, within limits, under varying
obesity Extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height,
hereditary or environmental conditions.
and body type as defined by having a body mass index at or
Reaction Range - Potential variability, depending on above the 95th percentile.
environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary
Intelligence Heredity exerts a strong influence on general
trait.
intelligence, as measured by intelligence tests, and a
Heredity can influence whether a reaction range is wide or moderate effect on specific abilities such as memory, verbal
narrow. ability, and spatial ability. Intelligence is best described as
shaped by large numbers of genes working together.
The metaphor of canalization illustrates how heredity
restricts the range of development for some traits. Temperament and Personality

Cognition and personality, however, are NOT highly Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and
canalized. They are more subject to variations in reacting to situations.
experience.
Schizophrenia - Mental disorder marked by loss of contact
genotype-environment interaction The portion of with reality; symptoms include hallucinations and
phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of delusions.
genetically different individuals to similar environmental
Prenatal Development
conditions.
Gestation Period or prenatal development of development
between conception and birth.
Gestational Age Age of an unborn baby, usually dated from healthy women. Regular exercise prevents constipation and
the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle. reduces back pain, and it may reduce the risk of
complications such as gestational diabetes, preeclampsia,
STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
or cesarean delivery.
Both before and after birth, development proceeds
Drug Intake Drugs may cross the placenta, just as oxygen,
according to two fundamental principles:
carbon dioxide, and water do. Vulnerability is greatest in
cephalocaudal principle from Latin, meaning “head to tail,” the first few months of gestation, when development is
The upper parts of the body develop before the lower parts most rapid.
of the trunk.
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Combination of mental,
An embryo’s head, brain, and eyes develop earliest and are motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the
disproportionately large until the other parts catch up. offspring of some women who drink heavily during
pregnancy
According to the proximodistal principle, from Latin,
meaning “near to far,” development proceeds from parts Maternal Illnesses Both prospective parents should try to
near the center of the body to outer ones. prevent all infections— common colds, flu, urinary tract
and vaginal infections, as well as sexually transmitted
Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 Weeks) During diseases.
the germinal stage, from fertilization to about 2
weeks of gestational age, the zygote divides, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) Viral disease
becomes more complex, and is implanted in the that undermines effective functioning of the immune
wall of the uterus. system.
Embryonic Stage (2 to 8 Weeks) During the
embryonic stage, from about 2 to 8 weeks, the Maternal Anxiety, Stress, and Depression Some tension
organs and major body systems—respiratory, and worry during pregnancy are normal and do not
digestive, and nervous—develop rapidly. necessarily increase risks of birth complications, such as low
Fetal Stage (8 Weeks to Birth) The appearance of birth weight
the first bone cells at about 8 weeks signals the
Maternal Age The chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises
beginning of the fetal stage, the final stage of
with maternal age. Women 30 to 35 are more likely to
gestation.
suffer complications due to diabetes, high blood pressure,
Implantation during germinal stage The attachment of the or severe bleeding. There is also higher risk of premature
blastocyst to the uterine wall, occurring at about day 6. delivery, retarded fetal growth, birth defects, and
chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndrome.
spontaneous abortion during embryonic stage Natural
expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive Outside Environmental Hazards Prenatal development can
outside the womb; also called miscarriage. also be affected by air pollution, chemicals, radiation,
extremes of heat and humidity, and other environmental
Brain growth and development begins during the hazards.
embryonic stage and continues after birth and beyond.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: PATERNAL FACTORS
Scientists can observe fetal movement through ultrasound,
the use of high-frequency sound waves to detect the A man’s exposure to lead, marijuana or tobacco smoke,
outline of the fetus. large amounts of alcohol or radiation, DES, pesticides, or
high ozone levels may result in abnormal or poor-quality
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: MATERNAL FACTORS sperm.
teratogen Environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, or Men who smoke have an increased likelihood of
radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal transmitting genetic abnormalities.
development and cause developmental abnormalities.
Older fathers may be a significant source of birth defects
Nutrition and Maternal Weight Pregnant women typically due to damaged or deteriorated sperm.
need 300 to 500 additional calories a day, including extra
protein. CHAPTER 4: Birth and Physical Development during
the First Three Years
Malnutrition is a global problem driven by factors such as
poverty, conflict, and climate change. Some expectant Childbirth and Culture: How Birthing Has Changed
mothers suffer from a calorie deficit. This can result in fetal
growth restriction and low birth weight. The Birth Process

Physical Activity and Work Moderate exercise any time Labor is an apt term for the process of giving birth. What
during pregnancy does not seem to endanger the fetuses of brings on labor is a series of uterine, cervical, and other
changes called parturition. Parturition is the act or process
of giving birth, and it typically begins about 2 weeks before Another technique, developed by the French physician
delivery. Michael Odent, is submersion of the laboring mother in a
soothing pool of water.
STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH
Bradley method, which rejects all obstetrical procedures
Stage 1: Dilation of the Cervix The first stage, dilation of
and other medical interventions.
the cervix, is the longest, typically lasting 12 to 14 hours for
a woman having her first child. Another form of pain relief is regional anesthesia, or an
epidural, which can be injected into a space in the spinal
Stage 2: Descent and Emergence of the Baby The second
cord between the vertebrae in the lumbar (lower) region.
stage, descent and emergence of the baby, typically lasts up
to an hour or two. doula An experienced mentor who furnishes emotional
support and information for a woman during labor.
Stage 3: Expulsion of the Placenta The third stage,
expulsion of the placenta, lasts between 10 minutes and 1 The Newborn Baby
hour. During this stage, the placenta and the remainder of
The neonatal period, the first 4 weeks of life, is a time of
the umbilical cord are expelled from the mother.
transition from the uterus, where a fetus is supported
The Three Stages of Childbirth (a) During the first stage of entirely by the mother, to an independent existence.
labor, a series of increasingly stronger contractions dilates
SIZE AND APPEARANCE
the cervix, the opening to the mother’s womb. (b) During
the second stage, the baby’s head moves down the birth neonate Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old
canal and emerges from the vagina. (c) During the brief
third stage, the placenta and umbilical cord are expelled Newborn infants also have areas on their heads known as
from the womb. fontanels where the bones of the skull do not meet.
Fontanels are covered by a tough membrane that allows
ELECTRONIC FETAL MONITORING for flexibility in shape, which eases the passage of the
neonate through the vaginal canal.
Can be used to track the fetus’s heartbeat during labor and
delivery and to indicate how the fetal heart is responding to During the first few days, some neonates are very hairy
the stress of uterine contractions. because some of the lanugo, a fuzzy prenatal hair, has not
yet fallen off. Almost all new babies are covered with vernix
VAGINAL VERSUS CESAREAN DELIVERY
caseosa (“cheesy varnish”), an oily protection against
cesarean delivery Delivery of a baby by surgical removal infection that dries within the first few days.
from the uterus.
BODY SYSTEMS
A cesarean is commonly performed when labor progresses
Before birth, blood circulation, respiration, nourishment,
too slowly, when the fetus seems to be in trouble, or when
elimination of waste, and temperature regulation are
the mother is bleeding vaginally.
accomplished through the mother’s body. After birth, all of
MEDICATED VERSUS NONMEDICATED DELIVERY the baby’s systems and functions must operate on their
own.
During the twentieth century, several alternative methods
of natural childbirth or prepared childbirth were If a neonate does not begin breathing within about 5
developed. minutes, the baby may suffer permanent brain injury
caused by anoxia, lack of oxygen, or hypoxia, a reduced
natural childbirth Method of childbirth that seeks to
oxygen supply.
prevent pain by eliminating the mother’s fear through
education about the physiology of reproduction and This form of birth trauma can leave permanent brain
training in breathing and relaxation during delivery. damage, causing mental retardation, behavior problems, or
even death.
prepared childbirth Method of childbirth that uses
instruction, breathing exercises, and social support to neonatal jaundice Condition, in many newborn babies,
induce controlled physical responses to uterine caused by immaturity of liver and evidenced by yellowish
contractions and reduce fear and pain. appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated
promptly.
Lamaze method, teaches expectant mothers to work
actively with their bodies through controlled breathing. MEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT

LeBoyer method, a woman gives birth in a quiet room Apgar scale Standard measurement of a newborn’s
under low lights to reduce stress, and the newborn is gently condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity,
massaged to ease crying. and respiration.
appearance (color), pulse (heart rate), grimace (reflex (3) prenatal behavioral and environmental factors
irritability), activity (muscle tone), and respiration (4) medical conditions associated with the pregnancy
(breathing).
Reasons for the greater prevalence of low birth weight,
Assessing Neurological Status: The Brazelton Scale preterm births, and infant mortality among African
American babies include (1) health behaviors and SES; (2)
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
higher levels of stress in African American women; (3)
Neurological and behavioral test to measure neonate’s
greater susceptibility to stress; (4) the impact of racism,
responses to the environment.
which may contribute to or exacerbate stress; and (5)
It assesses motor organization, as shown by such behaviors ethnic differences in stress-related body processes, such as
as activity level and the ability to bring a hand to the blood pressure and immune reactions.
mouth; reflexes; state changes, such as irritability,
Immediate Treatment and Outcomes The most pressing
excitability, and ability to quiet down after being upset;
fear regarding very small babies is that they will die in
attention and interactive capacities, as shown by general
infancy, given the multitude of challenges they face.
alertness and response to visual and auditory stimuli; and
indications of central nervous system instability, such as kangaroo care Method of skin-to-skin contact in which a
tremors and changes in skin color. newborn is laid face down between the mother’s breasts
for an hour or so at a time after birth
Neonatal Screening for Medical Conditions Children who
inherit the enzyme dis order phenylketonuria, or PKU, will POSTMATURITY
develop permanent intellectual disability unless they are
A fetus not yet born as of 2 weeks after the due date or 42
fed a special diet beginning in the first 3 to 6 weeks of life.
weeks after the mother’s last menstrual period.
STATES OF AROUSAL Postmature babies tend to be long and thin because they
have kept growing in the womb but have had an insufficient
We all have internal biological clocks that regulate our
blood supply toward the end of gestation.
states of arousal and activity over the course of a day.
Babies also have an internal clock that regulates their daily shoulder dystocia a condition in which the baby’s shoulders
cycles of eating, sleeping, elimination, and even their become stuck behind the mother’s pelvic bone during
moods. delivery.

state of arousal An infant’s physiological and behavioral stillbirth Death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of
status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of gestation.
wakefulness, sleep, and activity.
Survival and Health
The establishment of “stable and distinct” states of arousal
INFANT MORTALITY
is associated with newborn health and positive outcomes
because they are a marker of neurological organization. infant mortality rate Proportion of babies born alive who
die within the 1st year.
Complications of Childbirth
Birth defects and genetic abnormalities are the leading
low-birth-weight babies Weight of less than 5½ pounds
cause of infant deaths in the United States, followed by
(2,500 grams) at birth because of prematurity or being
disorders related to prematurity or low birth weight,
small-for-date.
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), maternal
preterm (premature) infants Infants born before complications of pregnancy, accidents, and complications of
completing the 37th week of gestation. the placenta, umbilical cord, and membranes.

small-for-date (small-for-gestational age) infants Infants Sudden infant death syn drome (SIDS), sometimes called
whose birth weight is less than that of 90 percent of babies crib death, is the sudden death of an infant under age 1 in
of the same gestational age, as a result of slow fetal which the cause of death remains unexplained.
growth.
Deaths from Injuries Unintentional injuries are the fifth
Birth weight and length of gestation are the two most leading cause of death in infancy in the United States.
important predictors of an infant’s survival and health.

Risk Factors for Low Birth Weight

IMMUNIZATION FOR BETTER HEALTH
Factors increasing the likelihood that a woman will have an
Such once-familiar and sometimes fatal childhood illnesses
underweight baby include
as measles, per tussis (whooping cough), and polio are now
(1) demographic and socioeconomic factors largely preventable, thanks to the development of vaccines
(2) medical factors predating the pregnancy
that mobilize the body’s natural defenses. Unfortunately, lateralization Tendency of each of the brain’s hemi spheres
many children still are not adequately protected. to have specialized functions.

Early Physical Development By birth, the growth spurt of the spinal cord and brain stem
(the part of the brain responsible for such basic bodily
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT As before birth, physical
functions as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, and
growth and development follow the cephalocaudal
the sleep-wake cycle). The cerebellum (the part of the brain
principle and the proximodistal principle.
that maintains balance and motor coordination) grows
GROWTH PATTERNS fastest during the 1st year of life. The cerebrum, the largest
part of the brain, is divided into right and left halves, or
Children grow faster during the first 3 years, especially hemispheres, each with specialized functions. The left
during the first few months, than they ever will again. hemisphere is mainly concerned with language and logical
thinking, the right hemisphere with visual and spatial
The genes an infant inherits have a strong influence on
functions such as map reading and drawing.
whether the child will be tall or short, thin or stocky, or
somewhere in between. Brain Cells The brain is composed of neurons and glial cells.
Neurons, or nerve cells, send and receive information. Glia,
or glial cells, nourish and protect the neurons. They are the
support system for our neurons.

NUTRITION integration Process by which neurons coordinate the

activities of muscle groups.
Proper nutrition is essential to healthy growth. Feeding
needs change rapidly during the first 3 years of life. differentiation Process by which cells acquire specialized
structures and functions.
Breast or Bottle? With regard to nutrition, breast-feeding is
almost always best for infants. It should begin immediately cell death In brain development, normal elimination of
after birth and ideally continue for at least 1 year. excess brain cells to achieve more efficient functioning.

Breast milk can be called the “ultimate health food” myelination Process of coating neural pathways with a fatty
because it offers so many benefits to babies—physical, substance called myelin, which enables faster
cognitive, and emotional. communication between cells.

The only acceptable alternative to breast milk is an iron- Early Reflexes When your pupils contract as you turn
fortified formula that is based on either cow’s milk or soy toward a bright light, they are acting involuntarily. Such an
protein and contains supplemental vitamins and minerals. automatic, innate response to stimulation is called a reflex
behavior. Reflex behaviors are controlled by the lower
Other Nutritional Concerns Healthy babies should brain centers that govern other involuntary processes, such
consume nothing but breast milk or iron-fortified formula as breathing and heart rate.
for the first 6 months.
Brain Plasticity Although the brain’s early development is
THE BRAIN AND REFLEX BEHAVIOR genetically directed, it is continually modified by
central nervous system—the brain and spinal cord (a environmental experience.
bundle of nerves running through the backbone)—and of a plasticity Modifiability, or “molding,” of the brain through
growing peripheral network of nerves extending to every experience.
part of the body. Through this network, sensory messages
travel to the brain, and motor commands travel back. Plasticity enables learning. Individual differences in
intelligence may reflect differences in the brain’s ability to
Brain Development during Gestation Fetal nervous system develop neural connections in response to experience.
development begins at about 3 weeks. At 1 month, major
regions of the brain appear: the forebrain, midbrain, and EARLY SENSORY CAPACITIES
hindbrain. As the brain grows, the front part expands to
The rearward regions of the developing brain, which
form the cerebrum, the seat of conscious brain activity.
control sensory information, grow rapidly during the first
The cerebellum grows most rapidly during the 1st year
few months of life, enabling newborn infants to make fairly
of life.
good sense of what they touch, see, smell, taste, and hear.
Building the Brain The growth of the brain is a lifelong
Motor Development
process fundamental to physical, cognitive, and emotional
development. MILESTONES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Major Parts of the Brain
systems of action Increasingly complex combinations of Normal development, then, need not follow the same
motor skills, which permit a wider or more precise range of timetable to reach the same destination.
movement and more control of the environment.
CHAPTER 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in
Denver Developmental Screening Test Screening test given Early Childhood
to children 1 month to 6 years old to determine whether
they are developing normally.

The test measures gross motor skills (those using large

muscles), such as rolling over and catching a ball, and fine
motor skills (using small muscles), such as grasping a rattle
and copying a circle. It also assesses language development
(for example, knowing the definitions of words) and
personality and social development (such as smiling
spontaneously and dressing without help).

Head Control At birth, most infants can turn their heads

from side to side while lying on their backs.

Hand Control Babies are born with a grasping reflex. If the

palm of an infant’s hand is stroked, the hand closes tightly.

Locomotion After 3 months, the average infant begins to

roll over deliberately.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND PERCEPTION

Motor experience, together with awareness of their

changing bodies, sharpens and modifies their perceptual
understanding of what is likely to happen if they move in a
certain way.

visual guidance Use of the eyes to guide movements of the

hands or other parts of the body.

depth perception Ability to perceive objects and surfaces

three-dimensionally.

haptic perception Ability to acquire information about

properties of objects, such as size, weight, and texture, by
handling them.

ELEANOR AND JAMES GIBSON’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

OF PERCEPTION

visual cliff Apparatus designed to give an illusion of depth

and used to assess depth perception in infants.

ecological theory of perception Theory developed by

Eleanor and James Gibson, which describes developing
motor and perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a
functional system that guides behavior in varying contexts.

HOW MOTOR DEVELOPMENT OCCURS: THELEN’S

DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY

dynamic systems theory (DST) Esther Thelen’s theory,

which holds that motor development is a dynamic pro cess
of active coordination of multiple systems within the infant
in relation to the environment

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Although motor development follows a virtually universal

sequence, its pace does respond to certain cultural factors.