Chapter 1

Vector Analysis

Chapter Contents Objectives

Upon learning the material presented in this chapter, you
1-1 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra, 131 should be able to:
1-2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems, 137
1-3 Transformations between Coordinate Systems, 143 1. Use vector algebra in Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical
1-4 Gradient of a Scalar Field, 147 coordinate systems.
1-5 Divergence of a Vector Field, 153 2. Calculate the gradient of a scalar function and the diver-
1-6 Curl of a Vector Field, 157 gence and curl of a vector function in any of the three
primary coordinate systems.
1-7 Laplacian Operator, 162 3. Apply the divergence theorem and Stokes’s theorem.
Chapter 3 Summary, 163
Problems, 164
Overview
A
In our examination of wave propagation on a transmission A = aˆ A
line in Chapter 2, the primary quantities we worked with were
voltage, current, impedance, and power. Each of these is a aˆ
scalar quantity, meaning that it can be completely specified by
1
its magnitude if it is a positive real number or by its magnitude
and phase angle if it is a negative or a complex number (a
Figure 3-1 Vector A = âA has magnitude A = |A| and points
negative number has a positive magnitude and a phase angle
in the direction of unit vector â = A/A.
of π (rad)). This chapter is concerned with vectors. A vector
has a magnitude and a direction. The speed of an object is a
scalar, whereas its velocity is a vector.
Starting in the next chapter and throughout the succeeding z
chapters in this book, the primary electromagnetic quanti-
ties we deal with are the electric and magnetic fields, E 3
and H. These, and many other related quantities, are vec-
tors. Vector analysis provides the mathematical tools nec- 2
essary for expressing and manipulating vector quantities in 1 zˆ
an efficient and convenient manner. To specify a vector in yˆ
y
three-dimensional space, it is necessary to specify its compo- 1 1 2 3
nents along each of the three directions. 2 xˆ
3
x
(a) Base vectors
◮ Several types of coordinate systems are used in the
study of vector quantities, the most common being the z
Cartesian (or rectangular), cylindrical, and spherical sys-
tems. A particular coordinate system is usually chosen to Az
best suit the geometry of the problem under considera-
tion. ◭
A

Vector algebra governs the laws of addition, subtraction, Az

and “multiplication” of vectors. The rules of vector algebra and
vector representation in each of the aforementioned orthogonal Ay
y
coordinate systems (including vector transformation between Ar
Ax
them) are two of the three major topics treated in this chapter.
The third topic is vector calculus, which encompasses the x
laws of differentiation and integration of vectors, the use of (b) Components of A
special vector operators (gradient, divergence, and curl), and
the application of certain theorems that are particularly useful Figure 3-2 Cartesian coordinate system: (a) base vectors x̂, ŷ,
in the study of electromagnetics, most notably the divergence and ẑ and (b) components of vector A.
and Stokes’s theorems.

The unit vector â has a magnitude of one (|â| = 1) and points

3-1 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra from A’s tail or anchor to its head or tip. From Eq. (3.1),

A vector is a mathematical object that resembles an arrow. A A

â = = . (3.2)
Vector A in Fig. 3-1 has magnitude (or length) A = |A| and |A| A
unit vector â:
In the Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinate system shown
A = â|A| = âA. (3.1) in Fig. 3-2(a), the x, y, and z coordinate axes extend along
directions of the three mutually perpendicular unit vectors x̂,
ŷ, and ẑ, which are also called base vectors. The vector A in C A
A C
Fig. 3-2(b) may be decomposed as

A = x̂Ax + ŷAy + ẑAz , (3.3)

B B
where Ax , Ay , and Az are A’s scalar components along the (a) Parallelogram rule (b) Head-to-tail rule
x-, y-, and z axes, respectively. The component Az is equal to
the perpendicular projection of A onto the z axis, and similar Figure 3-3 Vector addition by (a) the parallelogram rule and
definitions apply to Ax and Ay . Application of the Pythagorean (b) the head-to-tail rule.
theorem—first to the right triangle in the x–y plane to express
the hypotenuse Ar in terms of Ax and Ay and then again to the
vertical right triangle with sides Ar and Az and hypotenuse A—
yields the following expression for the magnitude of A: given by
q C = A + B = (x̂Ax + ŷAy + ẑAz ) + (x̂Bx + ŷBy + ẑBz )
A = |A| = + A2x + A2y + A2z . (3.4)
= x̂(Ax + Bx ) + ŷ(Ay + By ) + ẑ(Az + Bz)
Since A is a nonnegative scalar, only the positive root applies. = x̂Cx + ŷCy + ẑCz , (3.7)
From Eq. (3.2), the unit vector â is
with Cx = Ax + Bx , etc.
A x̂Ax + ŷAy + ẑAz
â = = q . (3.5)
A +
A2x + A2y + A2z ◮ Vector addition is commutative:

Occasionally, we use the shorthand notation A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) to C = A + B = B + A. (3.8)

denote a vector with components Ax , Ay , and Az in a Cartesian
coordinate system. Graphically, vector addition can be accomplished by either the
parallelogram or the head-to-tail rule (Fig. 3-3). Vector C is
3-1.1 Equality of Two Vectors the diagonal of the parallelogram with sides A and B. With the
head-to-tail rule, we may either add A to B or B to A. When
Two vectors A and B are equal if they have equal magnitudes A is added to B, it is repositioned so that its tail starts at the
and identical unit vectors. Thus, if tip of B while keeping its length and direction unchanged. The
sum vector C starts at the tail of B and ends at the tip of A.
A = âA = x̂Ax + ŷAy + ẑAz , (3.6a) Subtraction of vector B from vector A is equivalent to the
B = b̂B = x̂Bx + ŷBy + ẑBz , (3.6b) addition of A to negative B. Thus,
D = A − B = A + (−B)
then A = B if and only if A = B and â = b̂, which requires that
Ax = Bx , Ay = By , and Az = Bz . = x̂(Ax − Bx ) + ŷ(Ay − By ) + ẑ(Az − Bz ). (3.9)
Graphically, the same rules used for vector addition are also
applicable to vector subtraction; the only difference is that the
◮ Equality of two vectors does not necessarily imply that
they are identical; in Cartesian coordinates, two displaced arrowhead of (−B) is drawn on the opposite end of the line
parallel vectors of equal magnitude and pointing in the segment representing the vector B (i.e., the tail and head are
same direction are equal, but they are identical only if they interchanged).
lie on top of one another. ◭
3-1.3 Position and Distance Vectors
The position vector of a point P in space is the vector from the
3-1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction origin to P. Assuming points P1 and P2 are at (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
The sum of two vectors A and B is a vector (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in Fig. 3-4, their position vectors are
−→
C = x̂Cx + ŷCy + ẑCz , R1 = OP1 = x̂x1 + ŷy1 + ẑz1 , (3.10a)
 Scalar or Dot Product
z
The scalar (or dot) product of two co-anchored vectors A
and B, denoted A · B and pronounced “A dot B,” is defined
z2 geometrically as the product of the magnitude of A and the
P1 = (x1, y1, z1)
scalar component of B along A, or vice versa. Thus,
z1 R12 P2 = (x2, y2, z2)
A · B = AB cos θAB , (3.14)

R1 R2 where θAB is the angle between A and B (Fig. 3-5) measured

from the tail of A to the tail of B. Angle θAB is assumed to be
y1 y2
O y in the range 0 ≤ θAB ≤ 180◦. The scalar product of A and B
yields a scalar whose magnitude is less than or equal to the
x1 products of their magnitudes (equality holds when θAB = 0)
x2 and whose sign is positive if 0 < θAB < 90◦ and negative if
90◦ < θAB < 180◦. When θAB = 90◦ , A and B are orthogonal,
x and their dot product is zero. The quantity A cos θAB is the
−−→ scalar component of A along B. Similarly, B cos θBA is the
Figure 3-4 Distance vector R12 = P1 P2 = R2 − R1 , where R1 scalar component of B along A.
and R2 are the position vectors of points P1 and P2 , respectively.

The dot product obeys both the commutative and

−→ distributive properties of multiplication:
R2 = OP2 = x̂x2 + ŷy2 + ẑz2 , (3.10b)
where point O is the origin. A · B = B · A, (3.15a)
The distance vector from P1 to P2 is defined as (commutative property)
−−→
R12 = P1 P2 = R2 − R1 A ·(B + C) = A · B + A · C. (3.15b)
= x̂(x2 − x1 ) + ŷ(y2 − y1 ) + ẑ(z2 − z1 ), (3.11)
(distributive property)
and the distance d between P1 and P2 equals the magnitude
of R12 :
The commutative property follows from Eq. (3.14) and the fact
d = |R12 | = [(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 ]1/2 . (3.12) that θAB = θBA . The distributive property expresses the fact that
Note that the first and second subscripts of R12 denote the the scalar component of the sum of two vectors along a third
locations of its tail and head, respectively (Fig. 3-4). one equals the sum of their respective scalar components.
The dot product of a vector with itself gives

3-1.4 Vector Multiplication A · A = |A|2 = A2 , (3.16)

There exist three types of products in vector calculus: the

simple product, the scalar (or dot) product, and the vector (or
A B
cross) product.
θBA θAB
Simple Product θBA
θAB B A
The multiplication of a vector by a scalar is called a simple
(a) (b)
product. The product of the vector A = âA by a scalar k results
in a vector B with magnitude B = kA and direction the same
as A. That is, b̂ = â. In Cartesian coordinates, Figure 3-5 The angle θAB is the angle between A and B,
measured from A to B between vector tails. The dot product
B = kA = âkA = x̂(kAx ) + ŷ(kAy ) + ẑ(kAz ) is positive if 0 ≤ θAB < 90◦ , as in (a), and it is negative if
90◦ < θAB ≤ 180◦ , as in (b).
= x̂ Bx + ŷ By + ẑBz . (3.13)
134 CHAPTER 3 VECTOR ANALYSIS

which implies that

z
√
+
A = |A| = A · A . (3.17) A × B = nˆ AB sin θAB

Also, θAB can be determined from

nˆ B
A·B
 
θAB = cos−1 √ +
√ . (3.18) θAB
A·A + B·B y
Since the base vectors x̂, ŷ, and ẑ are each orthogonal to the
other two, it follows that x A
(a) Cross product
x̂ · x̂ = ŷ · ŷ = ẑ · ẑ = 1, (3.19a)
A×B
x̂ · ŷ = ŷ · ẑ = ẑ · x̂ = 0. (3.19b)

If A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and B = (Bx , By , Bz ), then B

A · B = (x̂Ax + ŷAy + ẑAz ) ·(x̂Bx + ŷBy + ẑBz ). (3.20)

Use of Eqs. (3.19a) and (3.19b) in Eq. (3.20) leads to A

A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz . (3.21) (b) Right-hand rule

Figure 3-6 Cross product A × B points in the direction n̂,

Vector or Cross Product which is perpendicular to the plane containing A and B and
defined by the right-hand rule.
The vector (or cross) product of two vectors A and B, denoted
× B and pronounced “A cross B,” yields a vector defined as
A×

by A and (B + C) equals the sum of those formed by (A and B)

× B = n̂ AB sin θAB ,
A× (3.22) and (A and C):

where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A × (B + C) = A×

A× × B + A×
× C, (3.23b)
and B (Fig. 3-6(a)). The magnitude of the cross product,
(distributive)
AB| sin θAB |, equals the area of the parallelogram defined by the
two vectors. The direction of n̂ is governed by the right-hand
rule (Fig. 3-6(b)): n̂ points in the direction of the right thumb The cross product of a vector with itself vanishes. That is,
when the fingers rotate from A to B through the angle θAB .
× A = 0.
A× (3.24)
Note that, since n̂ is perpendicular to the plane containing A
and B, A× × B is perpendicular to both vectors A and B. From the definition of the cross product given by Eq. (3.22),
it is easy to verify that the base vectors x̂, ŷ, and ẑ of
the Cartesian coordinate system obey the right-hand cyclic
The cross product is anticommutative and distribu- relations:
tive:

× B = −B×
A× ×A (anticommutative). (3.23a) × ŷ = ẑ,
x̂× × ẑ = x̂,
ŷ× × x̂ = ŷ.
ẑ× (3.25)

Note the cyclic order (xyzxyz . . .). Also,

The anticommutative property follows from the application of
the right-hand rule to determine n̂. The distributive property
× ẑ = 0.
x̂ × x̂ = ŷ × ŷ = ẑ× (3.26)
follows from the fact that the area of the parallelogram formed
 p √
If A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and B = (Bx , By , Bz ), then use of Eqs. (3.25) A = |A| = 22 + 32 + 32 = 22 ,
and (3.26) leads to A √
â = = (x̂2 + ŷ3 + ẑ3)/ 22 .
× B = (x̂Ax + ŷAy + ẑAz )×
A× × (x̂Bx + ŷBy + ẑBz ) A
= x̂(Ay Bz − AzBy ) + ŷ(Az Bx − Ax Bz ) (b) The angle β between A and the y axis is obtained from
+ ẑ(Ax By − Ay Bx ). (3.27) A · ŷ = |A||ŷ| cos β = A cos β ,
The cyclical form of the result given by Eq. (3.27) allows us to or
A · ŷ
   
express the cross product in the form of a determinant: −1 −1 3
β = cos = cos √ = 50.2◦.
A 22
x̂ ŷ ẑ (c)
×B =
A× Ax Ay Az . (3.28)
Bx By Bz B = x̂(1 − 2) + ŷ(−2 − 3) + ẑ(2 − 3) = −x̂ − ŷ5 − ẑ.

(d)
A·B
   
−1 −1 (−2 − 15 − 3)
Example 3-1: Vectors and Angles θAB = cos = cos √ √ = 145.1◦.
|A||B| 22 27
(e) The perpendicular distance between the origin and vector B
In Cartesian coordinates, vector A points from the origin to −→
point P1 = (2, 3, 3), and vector B is directed from P1 to point is the distance | OP3 | shown in Fig. 3-7. From right triangle
P2 = (1, −2, 2). Find: OP1 P3 ,
(a) vector A, its magnitude A, and unit vector â, −→
| OP3 | = |A| sin(180◦ − θAB )
(b) the angle between A and the y axis, √
(c) vector B, = 22 sin(180◦ − 145.1◦) = 2.68.
(d) the angle θAB between A and B, and
(e) perpendicular distance from the origin to vector B.
Solution: (a) Vector A is given by the position vector of Example 3-2: Cross Product
P1 = (2, 3, 3) (Fig. 3-7). Thus,
A = x̂2 + ŷ3 + ẑ3, Given vectors A = x̂2 − ŷ + ẑ3 and B = ŷ2 − ẑ3, compute
× B) · A.
× B, (b) ŷ × B, and (c) (ŷ×
(a) A×
Solution: (a) Application of Eq. (3.28) gives
z
θAB x̂ ŷ ẑ
3 ×B =
A× 2 −1 3
P1 = (2, 3, 3) 0 2 −3
P2 = (1, –2, 2) B 2 = x̂((−1) × (−3) − 3 × 2) − ŷ(2 × (−3) − 3 × 0)
P3
A + ẑ(2 × 2 − (−1 × 0))
1
β = −x̂3 + ŷ6 + ẑ4.
–2 O 3
y × B = ŷ×
(b) ŷ× × (ŷ2 − ẑ3) = −x̂3.
1 (c) (ŷ × B) · A = −x̂3 ·(x̂2 − ŷ + ẑ3) = −6.

2
Exercise 3-1: Find the distance vector between
x P1 = (1, 2, 3) and P2 = (−1, −2, 3) in Cartesian coor-
dinates.
Figure 3-7 Geometry of Example 3-1. −−→
Answer: P1 P2 = −x̂2 − ŷ4. (See EM .)
 result is a scalar. A scalar triple product obeys the cyclic order:
Exercise 3-2: Find the angle θAB between vectors A and B
of Example 3-1 from the cross product between them.
Answer: θAB = 145.1◦. (See EM
.) A ·(B × C) = B ·(C×
× A) = C ·(A×
× B). (3.29)

Exercise 3-3: Find the angle between vector B of Exam- The equalities hold as long as the cyclic order (ABCABC . . .) is
ple 3-1 and the z axis. preserved. The scalar triple product of vectors A = (Ax , Ay , Az ),
B = (Bx , By , Bz ), and C = (Cx ,Cy ,Cz ) can be expressed in the
Answer: 101.1◦. (See EM
.) form of a 3 × 3 determinant:

Exercise 3-4: Vectors A and B lie in the y–z plane and Ax Ay Az

both have the same magnitude of 2 (Fig. E3.4). Determine A ·(B×
× C) = Bx By Bz . (3.30)
(a) A · B and (b) A×
× B. Cx Cy Cz

z The validity of Eqs. (3.29) and (3.30) can be verified by

B expanding A, B, and C in component form and carrying out
the multiplications.

2 30◦ Vector Triple Product

A The vector triple product involves the cross product of a vector
y with the cross product of two others, such as
2
× (B × C).
A× (3.31)
x
Since each cross product yields a vector, the result of a vector
Figure E3.4
triple product is also a vector. The vector triple product does
not obey the associative law. That is,
Answer: (a) A · B = −2; (b) A×
× B = x̂ 3.46. (See EM
.)
× (B × C) 6= (A×
A× × B)×
× C, (3.32)
Exercise 3-5: If A · B = A · C, does it follow that B = C?
which means that it is important to specify which cross multi-
Answer: No. (See EM
.) plication is to be performed first. By expanding the vectors A,
B, and C in component form, it can be shown that

3-1.5 Scalar and Vector Triple Products × C) = B(A · C) − C(A · B),

× (B×
A× (3.33)
When three vectors are multiplied, not all combinations of dot
and cross products are meaningful. For example, the product
which is known as the “bac-cab” rule.
× (B · C)
A×

does not make sense because B · C is a scalar, and the cross Example 3-3: Vector Triple Product
product of the vector A with a scalar is not defined under the
rules of vector algebra. Other than the product of the form
A(B · C), the only two meaningful products of three vectors Given A = x̂ − ŷ + ẑ2, B = ŷ + ẑ, and C = −x̂2 + ẑ3, find
are the scalar triple product and the vector triple product. (A×× B)×
× C and compare it with A× × (B × C).
Solution:
Scalar Triple Product
x̂ ŷ ẑ
The dot product of a vector with the cross product of two other ×B =
A× 1 −1 2 = −x̂3 − ŷ + ẑ
vectors is called a scalar triple product, so named because the 0 1 1
and Why do we need more than one coordinate system? Whereas
a point in space has the same location and an object has the
x̂ ŷ ẑ same shape regardless of which coordinate system is used
× B)×
(A× ×C = −3 −1 1 = −x̂3 + ŷ7 − ẑ2. to describe them, the solution of a practical problem can be
−2 0 3 greatly facilitated by the choice of a coordinate system that
best fits the geometry under consideration. The following sub-
A similar procedure gives A × (B × C) = x̂2 + ŷ4 + ẑ. The sections examine the properties of each of the aforementioned
fact that the results of two vector triple products are different orthogonal systems, and Section 3-3 describes how a point or
demonstrates the inequality stated in Eq. (3.32). vector may be transformed from one system to another.

Concept Question 3-1: When are two vectors equal

and when are they identical?
3-2.1 Cartesian Coordinates
Concept Question 3-2: When is the position vector of a The Cartesian coordinate system was introduced in Section 3-1
point identical to the distance vector between two points? to illustrate the laws of vector algebra. Instead of repeating
these laws for the Cartesian system, we summarize them in
Table 3-1. Differential calculus involves the use of differen-
Concept Question 3-3: If A · B = 0, what is θAB ?
tial lengths, areas, and volumes. In Cartesian coordinates, a
differential length vector (Fig. 3-8) is expressed as
Concept Question 3-4: × B = 0, what is θAB ?
If A×
dl = x̂ dlx + ŷ dly + ẑ dlz = x̂ dx + ŷ dy + ẑ dz, (3.34)
Concept Question 3-5: Is A(B · C) a vector triple prod-
uct?
where dlx = dx is a differential length along x̂, and similar
interpretations apply to dly = dy and dlz = dz.
Concept Question 3-6: If A · B = A · C, does it follow A differential area vector ds is a vector with magnitude ds
that B = C? equal to the product of two differential lengths (such as dly
and dlz ) and direction specified by a unit vector along the third

3-2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems

A three-dimensional coordinate system allows us to uniquely
specify locations of points in space and the magnitudes and z dsz = zˆ dx dy
directions of vectors. Coordinate systems may be orthogonal
or nonorthogonal. dy
dx

dsy = yˆ dx dz
◮ An orthogonal coordinate system is one in which
dz
coordinates are measured along locally mutually perpen-
dz
dicular axes. ◭
dl dv = dx dy dz
dsx = xˆ dy dz
Nonorthogonal systems are very specialized and seldom used
in solving practical problems. Many orthogonal coordinate dy
y
systems have been devised, but the most commonly used are
dx
• the Cartesian (also called rectangular), x

• the cylindrical, and Figure 3-8 Differential length, area, and volume in Cartesian
coordinates.
• the spherical coordinate system.
140 CHAPTER 3 VECTOR ANALYSIS

z z

P1 = (0, 0, h)
dz dsz = zˆ r dr dφ
aˆ
r dφ dr
dsφ = ϕˆ dr dz
h
dz dv = r dr dφ dz

dsr = rˆ r dφ dz A
O y
φ0 r0
O y P2 = (r0, φ0, 0)
φ
r x

x Figure 3-11 Geometry of Example 3-4.

dr r dφ

Figure 3-10 Differential areas and volume in cylindrical

coordinates. coordinate system, which is not true. The ambiguity can be
resolved by specifying that A passes through a point whose
φ = φ0 .
The differential volume is the product of the three differential
lengths,
d υ = dlr dlφ dlz = r dr d φ dz. (3.44) Example 3-5: Cylindrical Area
These properties of the cylindrical coordinate system are
summarized in Table 3-1. Find the area of a cylindrical surface described by r = 5,
30◦ ≤ φ ≤ 60◦ , and 0 ≤ z ≤ 3 (Fig. 3-12).
Example 3-4: Distance Vector in
Cylindrical Coordinates
z
Find an expression for the unit vector of vector A shown in
Fig. 3-11 in cylindrical coordinates. z=3
r=5
Solution: In triangle OP1 P2 ,
−→ −→
OP2 = OP1 +A.

Hence,
−→ −→
A = OP2 − OP1 = r̂r0 − ẑh,
y
and 60°
A r̂r0 − ẑh
â = =q . 30°
|A| r02 + h2
x
We note that the expression for A is independent of φ0 . This
implies that all vectors from point P1 to any point on the circle Figure 3-12 Cylindrical surface of Example 3-5.
defined by r = r0 in the x–y plane are equal in the cylindrical
Solution: The prescribed surface is shown in Fig. 3-12. Use
of Eq. (3.43a) for a surface element with constant r gives z
Z 60◦ Z 3 π /3 3 5π
S=r dφ dz = 5φ z = .
φ =30◦ z=0 π /6 0 2

Note that φ had to be converted to radians before evaluating

ˆ
R
the integration limits.
φ̂
P = (R1, θ1, φ1)
Exercise 3-6: A circular cylinder of radius r = 5 cm is R1 θˆ
concentric with the z axis and extends between z = −3 cm θ = θ1
conical θ1
and z = 3 cm. Use Eq. (3.44) to find the cylinder’s volume.
surface
Answer: 471.2 cm3 . (See EM
.) y
φ1
3-2.3 Spherical Coordinates
In the spherical coordinate system, the location of a point ˆ
φ
in space is uniquely specified by the variables R, θ , and φ x
(Fig. 3-13). The range coordinate R, which measures the
distance from the origin to the point, describes a sphere of Figure 3-13 Point P(R1 , θ1 , φ1 ) in spherical coordinates.
radius R centered at the origin. The zenith angle θ is measured
from the positive z axis and it describes a conical surface with
its apex at the origin, and the azimuth angle φ is the same
as in cylindrical coordinates. The ranges of R, θ , and φ are
0 ≤ R < ∞, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , and 0 ≤ φ < 2π . The base vectors R̂, z
θ̂θ, and φ̂φ obey the right-hand cyclic relations:
R sin θ dφ
θ = φ̂φ,
R̂ × θ̂ θ̂θ × φ̂
φ = R̂, φ̂φ × R̂ = θ̂θ. (3.45) dν = R2 sin θ dR dθ dφ

A vector with components AR , Aθ , and Aφ is written as

A = â|A| = R̂AR + θ̂θAθ + φ̂φAφ , (3.46) dR R dθ
and its magnitude is R
√ θ
+
q dθ
|A| = A · A = + A2R + A2θ + A2φ . (3.47)
y
The position vector of point P(R1 , θ1 , φ1 ) is simply φ
−→ dφ
R1 = OP = R̂R1 , (3.48)

Figure 3-14 Differential volume in spherical coordinates.

while keeping in mind that R̂ is implicitly dependent on θ1

and φ1 .
 As shown in Fig. 3-14, the differential lengths along R̂, θ̂θ, Solution: Use of Eq. (3.50b) for the area of an elemental
and φ̂φ are spherical area with constant radius R gives (
Z 60◦ Z 2π
dlR = dR, dlθ = R d θ , dlφ = R sin θ d φ . (3.49)
S = R2 sin θ d θ dφ
θ =30◦ φ =0
Hence, the expressions for the vector differential length dl, the 60◦ 2π
vector differential surface ds, and the differential volume d υ = 9(− cos θ ) φ (cm2 )
are 30◦ 0

= 18π (cos30◦ − cos60◦) = 20.7 cm2 .

dl = R̂ dlR + θ̂θ dlθ + φ̂φ dlφ
= R̂ dR + θ̂θR d θ + φ̂φR sin θ d φ , (3.50a)
Example 3-7: Charge in a Sphere
dsR = R̂ dlθ dlφ = R̂R2 sin θ d θ d φ (3.50b)
(θ –φ spherical surface),
A sphere of radius 2 cm contains a volume charge density ρv
dsθ = θ̂θ dlR dlφ = θ̂θR sin θ dR d φ (3.50c) given by
ρv = 4 cos2 θ (C/m3 ).
(R–φ conical surface),
Find the total charge Q contained in the sphere.
dsφ = φ̂φ dlR dlθ = φ̂φR dR d θ (R–θ plane), (3.50d)
Solution:
d υ = dlR dlθ dlφ = R2 sin θ dR d θ d φ . (3.50e) Z
Q= ρv d υ
υ
Z 2π Z π Z 2×10−2
Example 3-6: Surface Area in Spherical = (4 cos2 θ )R2 sin θ dR d θ d φ
φ =0 θ =0 R=0
Coordinates
Z 2π Z π  3  2×10−2
R
=4 sin θ cos2 θ d θ d φ
The spherical strip shown in Fig. 3-15 is a section of a sphere 0 0 3 0
of radius 3 cm. Find the area of the strip. π
cos3 θ
Z 2π  
32
= × 10−6 − dφ
3 0 3 0
64 2π Z
z
= × 10−6 dφ
9 0
128π
30 o
60 o = × 10−6 = 44.68 (µ C).
9
Note that the limits on R were converted to meters prior to
evaluating the integral on R.
section, we shall establish the relations between the variables
y x, y, z) of the Cartesian system, (r, φ , z) of the cylindrical sys-
3c tem, and (R, θ , φ ) of the spherical system. These relations will
m
then be used to transform expressions for vectors expressed in
any one of the three systems into expressions applicable in the
other two.
x

Figure 3-15 Spherical strip of Example 3-6.

 Example 3-10: Vector Component Concept Question 3-8: Why is it that the base vectors
(x̂, ŷ, ẑ) are independent of the location of a point, but r̂
and φ̂φ are not?
At a given point in space, vectors A and B are given in
cylindrical coordinates by
Concept Question 3-9: What are the cyclic relations
for the base vectors in (a) Cartesian coordinates, (b) cylin-
A = r̂2 + φ̂φ3 − ẑ, drical coordinates, and (c) spherical coordinates?
B = r̂ + ẑ.
Concept Question 3-10: How is the position vector of
Determine (a) the scalar component of B, or projection, in the a point in cylindrical coordinates related to its position
direction of A, (b) the vector component of B in the direction vector in spherical coordinates?
of A, and (c) the vector component of B perpendicular to A.
√
Exercise 3-7: Point P = (2 3, π /3, −2) is given in cylin-
drical coordinates. Express P in spherical coordinates.
B
Answer: P = (4, 2π /3, π /3). (See EM
.)
D
Exercise 3-8: Transform vector
A
C
A = x̂(x + y) + ŷ(y − x) + ẑz
Figure 3-19 Vectors A, B, C, and D of Example 3-10.
from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates.
φr + ẑz. (See
Answer: A = r̂r − φ̂ EM
.)
Solution: (a) Let us denote the scalar component of B in the
direction of A as C, as shown in Fig. 3-19. Thus,

C = B · â = B ·
A (r̂2 + φ̂φ3 − ẑ) 2 − 1
= (r̂ + ẑ) · √ = √ = 0.267.
3-4 Gradient of a Scalar Field
|A| 4+9+1 14
When dealing with a scalar physical quantity whose magnitude
(b) The vector component of B in the direction of A is given depends on a single variable, such as the temperature T as
by the product of the scalar component C and the unit vector â: a function of height z, the rate of change of T with height
can be described by the derivative dT/dz. However, if T is
A (r̂2 + φ̂φ3 − ẑ) also a function of x and y, its spatial rate of change becomes
C = âC = C= √ × 0.267 more difficult to describe because we now have to deal with
|A| 14
three separate variables. The differential change in T along x,
= r̂0.143 + φ̂φ0.214 − ẑ0.071. y, and z can be described in terms of the partial derivatives
of T with respect to the three coordinate variables, but it is
(c) The vector component of B perpendicular to A is equal not immediately obvious as to how we should combine the
to B minus C: three partial derivatives so as to describe the spatial rate of
change of T along a specified direction. Furthermore, many
D = B − C = (r̂ + ẑ) − (r̂0.143 + φ̂φ0.214 − ẑ0.071) of the quantities we deal with in electromagnetics are vectors;
therefore, both their magnitudes and directions may vary with
= r̂0.857 − φ̂φ0.214 + ẑ0.929. spatial position. To this end, we introduce three fundamental
operators to describe the differential spatial variations of
scalars and vectors: the gradient, divergence, and curl oper-
Concept Question 3-7: Why do we use more than one ators. The gradient operator applies to scalar fields and is the
coordinate system? subject of the present section. The other two operators, which
apply to vector fields, are discussed in succeeding sections.
 Equation (3.71) then can be expressed as
z P2 = (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz)
dT = ∇T · dl. (3.73)
dy
dx The symbol ∇ is called the del or gradient operator and is
dz defined as
dl
P1 = (x, y, z) ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (Cartesian). (3.74)
∂x ∂y ∂z
y
x
◮ Whereas the gradient operator itself has no physical
Figure 3-20 Differential distance vector dl between points P1 meaning, it attains a physical meaning once it operates on
and P2 . a scalar quantity, and the result of the operation is a vector
with magnitude equal to the maximum rate of change of
the physical quantity per unit distance and pointing in the
direction of maximum increase. ◭
Suppose that T1 = T (x, y, z) is the temperature at point
P1 = (x, y, z) in some region of space, and
With dl = âl dl, where âl is the unit vector of dl, the directional
T2 = T (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) derivative of T along âl is

is the temperature at a nearby point P2 = (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz)

(Fig. 3-20). The differential distances dx, dy, and dz are the dT
= ∇T · âl . (3.75)
components of the differential distance vector dl. That is, dl

dl = x̂ dx + ŷ dy + ẑ dz. (3.69) We can find the difference (T2 − T1 ), where T1 = T (x1 , y1 , z1 )

and T2 = T (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are the values of T at points
From differential calculus, the temperature difference between
points P1 and P2 , dT = T2 − T1 , is P1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
∂T ∂T ∂T not necessarily infinitesimally close to one another, by inte-
dT = dx + dy + dz. (3.70)
∂x ∂y ∂z grating both sides of Eq. (3.73). Thus,

Because dx = x̂ · dl, dy = ŷ · dl, and dz = ẑ · dl, Eq. (3.70) can

Z P2
be rewritten as T2 − T1 = ∇T · dl. (3.76)
P1

∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = x̂ · dl + ŷ · dl + ẑ · dl
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂T ∂T ∂T
 Example 3-11: Directional Derivative
= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ · dl. (3.71)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Find the directional derivative of T = x2 + y2 z along direction
The vector inside the square brackets in Eq. (3.71) relates the x̂2 + ŷ3 − ẑ2 and evaluate it at (1, −1, 2).
change in temperature dT to a vector change in direction dl.
This vector is called the gradient of T (or grad T for short) Solution: First, we find the gradient of T :
and denoted ∇T : 
∂ ∂ ∂

∇T = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (x2 + y2 z) = x̂2x + ŷ2yz + ẑy2 .
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T = grad T = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ . (3.72)
∂x ∂y ∂z We denote l as the given direction,

l = x̂2 + ŷ3 − ẑ2.

Its unit vector is Hence, the gradient operator in cylindrical coordinates can be
expressed as
l x̂2 + ŷ3 − ẑ2 x̂2 + ŷ3 − ẑ2
âl = =√ = √ .
|l| 2
2 +3 +22 2 17
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
Application of Eq. (3.75) gives ∇ = r̂ + φ̂φ + ẑ , (cylindrical)
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
 
dT 2 x̂2 + ŷ3 − ẑ2
= ∇T · âl = (x̂2x + ŷ2yz + ẑy ) · √ (3.82)
dl 17
4x + 6yz − 2y2 A similar procedure leads to the expression for the gradient in
= √ . spherical coordinates:
17
At (1, −1, 2), ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ = R̂ + θ̂θ + φ̂φ . (3.83)
∂R R ∂θ R sin θ ∂ φ
dT 4 − 12 − 2 −10
= √ =√ . (spherical)
dl (1,−1,2) 17 17

3-4.1 Gradient Operator in Cylindrical and 3-4.2 Properties of the Gradient Operator
Spherical Coordinates
For any two scalar functions U and V , the following relations
Even though Eq. (3.73) was derived using Cartesian coordi- apply:
nates, it should have counterparts in other coordinate systems.
To convert Eq. (3.72) into cylindrical coordinates (r, φ , z), we (1) ∇(U + V ) = ∇U + ∇V , (3.84a)
start by restating the coordinate relations (2) ∇(UV ) = U ∇V + V ∇U, (3.84b)
p y (3) ∇V n = nV n−1 ∇V , for any n. (3.84c)
r = x2 + y2 , tan φ = . (3.77)
x
From differential calculus,
∂T ∂T ∂r ∂T ∂φ ∂T ∂z Example 3-12: Calculating the Gradient
= + + . (3.78)
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂φ ∂x ∂z ∂x
Find the gradient of each of the following scalar functions and
Since z is orthogonal to x and ∂ z/∂ x = 0, the last term in then evaluate it at the given point.
Eq. (3.78) vanishes. From the coordinate relations given by
Eq. (3.77), it follows that (a) V1 = 24V0 cos (π y/3)sin (2π z/3) at (3, 2, 1) in Cartesian
coordinates,
∂r x (b) V2 = V0 e−2r sin 3φ at (1, π /2, 3) in cylindrical coordi-
=p = cos φ , (3.79a) nates,
∂x x + y2
2
(c) V3 = V0 (a/R)cos 2θ at (2a, 0, π ) in spherical coordinates.
∂φ 1
= − sin φ . (3.79b) Solution: (a) Using Eq. (3.72) for ∇,
∂x r
Hence, ∂ V1 ∂ V1 ∂ V1
∇V1 = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂T ∂ T sin φ ∂ T ∂x ∂y ∂z
= cos φ − . (3.80)
∂x ∂r r ∂φ πy 2π z πy 2π z
= −ŷ8π V0 sin sin + ẑ16π V0 cos cos
This expression can be used to replace the coefficient of x̂ in 3 3 3 3
Eq. (3.72), and a similar procedure can be followed to obtain 
πy 2π z πy 2π z

an expression for ∂ T /∂ y in terms of r and φ . If, in addition, we = 8π V0 −ŷ sin sin + ẑ2 cos cos .
3 3 3 3
use the relations x̂ = r̂ cos φ − φ̂φ sin φ and ŷ = r̂ sin φ + φ̂φ cos φ
[from Eqs. (3.57a) and (3.57b)], then Eq. (3.72) becomes At (3, 2, 1),

2π 2π

∂T 1 ∂T ∂T
∇T = r̂ + φ̂φ + ẑ . (3.81) ∇V1 = 8π V0 −ŷ sin2 + ẑ2 cos2 = π V0 [−ŷ6 + ẑ4] .
∂r r ∂φ ∂z 3 3
(b) The function V2 is expressed in terms of cylindrical At (2a, 0, π ), R = 2a and θ = 0, which yields
variables. Hence, we need to use Eq. (3.82) for ∇:
V0
 
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∇V3 = −R̂
∇V2 = r̂ + φ̂φ + ẑ V0 e−2r sin 3φ 4a
.
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
= −r̂2V0 e−2r sin 3φ + φ̂φ(3V0 e−2r cos 3φ )/r At a surface boundary, flux density is defined as the amount
  of outward flux crossing a unit surface ds:
3 cos 3φ
= −r̂2 sin 3φ + φ̂φ V0 e−2r . E · ds E · n̂ ds
r Flux density of E = = = E · n̂, (3.85)
|ds| ds
At (1, π /2, 3), r = 1 and φ = π /2. Hence,
  where n̂ is the normal to ds. The total flux outwardly crossing a
3π 3π
∇V2 = −r̂2 sin + φ̂φ3 cos V0 e−2 = r̂2V0 e−2 = r̂0.27V0. closed surface S, such as the enclosed surface of the imaginary
2 2 sphere outlined in Fig. 3-21, is
(c) As V3 is expressed in spherical coordinates, we apply Z
Eq. (3.83) to V3 : Total flux = E · ds. (3.86)
S
   
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ a Let us now consider the case of a differential rectangular
∇V3 = R̂ + θ̂θ + φ̂φ V0 cos 2θ
∂R R ∂θ R sin θ ∂ φ R parallelepiped, such as a cube, whose edges align with the
V0 a 2V0 a Cartesian axes shown in Fig. 3-22. The edges are of lengths
= −R̂ 2
cos 2θ − θ̂θ 2 sin 2θ ∆x along x, ∆y along y, and ∆z along z. A vector field E(x, y, z)
R R
exists in the region of space containing the parallelepiped, and
V0 a we wish to determine the flux of E through its total surface S.
= −[R̂ cos 2θ + θ̂θ2 sin 2θ ] 2 .
R Since S includes six faces, we need to sum up the fluxes
through all of them, and by definition, the flux through any
3-5 Divergence of a Vector Field face is the outward flux from the volume ∆υ through that face.
From our brief introduction of Coulomb’s law in Chapter 1, we 
∂ Ex ∂ Ey ∂ Ez
Z 
know that an isolated, positive point charge q induces an elec- E · ds = + + ∆x ∆y ∆z = (div E) ∆υ ,
tric field E in the space around it with the direction of E being S ∂x ∂y ∂z
(3.93)
outward away from the charge. Also, the strength (magnitude)
where ∆υ = ∆x ∆y ∆z and div E is a scalar function called the
of E is proportional to q and decreases with distance R from
the charge as 1/R2 . In a graphical presentation, a vector field is divergence of E, specified in Cartesian coordinates as
usually represented by field lines, as shown in Fig. 3-21. The
∂ Ex ∂ Ey ∂ Ez
arrowhead denotes the direction of the field at the point where div E = + + . (3.94)
the field line is drawn, and the length of the line provides a ∂x ∂y ∂z
qualitative depiction of the field’s magnitude. Z
E · ds
S
div E , lim , (3.95)
∆υ →0 ∆υ

where S encloses the elemental volume ∆υ . Instead of denot-

n̂ ing the divergence of E by div E, it is common practice to
denote it as ∇ · E. That is,

+q ∂ Ex ∂ Ey ∂ Ez
∇ · E = div E = + + (3.96)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Imaginary
spherical
surface
E

Figure 3-21 Flux lines of the electric field E due to a positive

charge q.
The divergence is a differential operator, it always operates on (b) From the expression given in Appendix C for the diver-
vectors, and the result of its operation is a scalar. This is in gence of a vector in spherical coordinates, it follows that
contrast with the gradient operator, which always operates on
scalars and results in a vector. Expressions for the divergence
of a vector in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are pro- 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇·E = (R2 ER ) + (Eθ sin θ )
vided in Appendix C. R2 ∂ R R sin θ ∂ θ
The divergence operator is distributive. That is, for any pair 1 ∂ Eφ
of vectors E1 and E2 , +
R sin θ ∂ φ
 3 2 
∇ ·(E1 + E2 ) = ∇ · E1 + ∇ · E2 . (3.97) 1 ∂ 3 1 ∂ a sin θ
= 2 (a cos θ ) + −
R ∂R R sin θ ∂ θ R2
If ∇ · E = 0, the vector field E is called divergenceless. 2a3 cos θ 2a3 cos θ
= 0− = − .
The result given by Eq. (3.93) for a differential volume ∆υ R3 R3
can be extended to relate the volume integral of ∇ · E over any
volume υ to the flux of E through the closed surface S that
bounds υ . That is, At R = a/2 and θ = 0, ∇ · E = −16.
(a/2,0,π )

Z Z
∇ · E dυ = E · ds. (3.98) Exercise 3-13: Given A = e−2y (x̂ sin 2x + ŷ cos 2x), find
υ S
∇ · A.
(divergence theorem)

Answer: ∇ · A = 0. (See EM
.)
This relationship, known as the divergence theorem, is used
extensively in electromagnetics.
φr sin φ + ẑ3z, find
Exercise 3-14: Given A = r̂r cos φ + φ̂
∇ · A at (2, 0, 3).

Example 3-13: Calculating the Divergence Answer: ∇ · A = 6. (See EM

.)

Exercise 3-15: If E = R̂AR in spherical coordinates,

Determine the divergence of each of the following vector fields calculate the flux of E through a spherical surface of
and then evaluate them at the indicated points: radius a, centered at the origin.
Z
(a) E = x̂3x2 + ŷ2z + ẑx2 z at (2, −2, 0); Answer: E · ds = 4π Aa3. (See EM
.)
S
(b) E = R̂(a3 cos θ /R2 ) − θ̂θ(a3 sin θ /R2 ) at (a/2, 0, π ).

Solution: (a) Exercise 3-16: Verify the divergence theorem by calculat-

ing the volume integral of the divergence of the field E of
∂ Ex ∂ Ey ∂ Ez Exercise 3.15 over the volume bounded by the surface of
∇·E = + + radius a.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (3x2 ) + (2z) + (x2 z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 6x + 0 + x2 = x2 + 6x.

At (2, −2, 0), ∇ · E = 16.

(2,−2,0)
 Exercise 3-17: The arrow representation in Fig. E3.17
represents the vector field A = x̂ x − ŷ y. At a given point
in space, A has a positive divergence ∇ · A if the net y
flux flowing outward through the surface of an imaginary a d
infinitesimal volume centered at that point is positive, Contour C
∇ · A is negative if the net flux is into the volume, and
∇·A = 0 if the same amount of flux enters into the volume Δx Δx
as leaves it. Determine ∇ · A everywhere in the x–y plane.
b c

B
x
(a) Uniform field
z

Current I

Figure E3.17
φ̂
Answer: ∇ · A = 0 everywhere. (See EM
.) Contour C

y
φ r
3-6 Curl of a Vector Field
B
So far we have defined and discussed two of the three fun-
damental operators used in vector analysis: the gradient of x
a scalar and the divergence of a vector. Now we introduce
the curl operator. The curl of a vector field B describes its
rotational property, or circulation. The circulation of B is
defined as the line integral of B around a closed contour C;
Z (b) Azimuthal field
Circulation = B · dl. (3.99)
C Figure 3-23 Circulation is zero for the uniform field in (a), but
To gain a physical understanding of this definition, we consider it is not zero for the azimuthal field in (b).
two examples. The first is for a uniform field B = x̂B0 , whose
field lines are as depicted in Fig. 3-23(a). For the rectangular
contour abcd shown in the figure, we have Next, we consider the magnetic flux density B induced by
Z b Z c an infinite wire carrying a dc current I. If the current is in
Circulation = x̂B0 · x̂ dx + x̂B0 · ŷ dy free space and it is oriented along the z direction, then from
a b
Z d Z a Eq. (1.13),
+ x̂B0 · x̂ dx + x̂B0 · ŷ dy µ0 I
c d
B = φ̂φ , (3.101)
2π r
= B0 ∆x − B0 ∆x = 0, (3.100)
where µ0 is the permeability of free space and r is the radial
where ∆x = b − a = c − d and, because x̂ · ŷ = 0, the second distance from the current in the x–y plane. The direction of B
and fourth integrals are zero. According to Eq. (3.100), the is along the azimuth unit vector φ̂φ. The field lines of B are
circulation of a uniform field is zero. concentric circles around the current, as shown in Fig. 3-23(b).
For a circular contour C of radius r centered at the origin in the
x–y plane, the differential length vector dl = φ̂φr d φ , and the ds = n
ˆ ds
circulation of B is nˆ
Z 2π
µ0 I
Z
Circulation = B · dl = φ̂φ · φ̂φr d φ = µ0 I. (3.102) ds
C 0 2π r
In this case, the circulation is not zero. However, had the S
contour C been in the x–z or y–z planes, dl would not have dl
had a φ̂φ component, and the integral would have yielded a contour C
zero circulation. Clearly, the circulation of B depends on the
choice of contour and the direction in which it is traversed. To Figure 3-24 The direction of the unit vector n̂ is along the
describe the circulation of a tornado, for example, we would thumb when the other four fingers of the right hand follow dl.
like to choose our contour such that the circulation of the
wind field is maximum, and we would like the circulation
to have both a magnitude and a direction with the direction
being toward the tornado’s vortex. The curl operator embodies 3-6.1 Vector Identities Involving the Curl
these properties. The curl of a vector field B, denoted curl B or
∇× × B, is defined as For any two vectors A and B and scalar V ,
 Z 
1 × (A + B) = ∇×
(1) ∇× × A + ∇×
× B, (3.106a)
× B = curl B = lim
∇× n̂ B · dl . (3.103)
∆s→0 ∆s C max
(2) ∇ ·(∇×
× A) = 0, (3.106b)
◮ Curl B is the circulation of B per unit area, with the
× (∇V ) = 0.
(3) ∇× (3.106c)
area ∆s of the contour C being oriented such that the
circulation is maximum. ◭

The direction of curl B is n̂, the unit normal of ∆s, defined 3-6.2 Stokes’s Theorem
according to the right-hand rule with the four fingers of the
right hand following the contour direction dl and the thumb
×B
pointing along n̂ (Fig. 3-24). When we use the notation ∇× ◮ Stokes’s theorem converts the surface integral of the
to denote curl B, it should not be interpreted as the cross curl of a vector over an open surface S into a line
product of ∇ and B. integral of the vector along the contour C bounding the
For a vector B specified in Cartesian coordinates as surface S. ◭

B = x̂Bx + ŷBy + ẑBz , (3.104)

it can be shown, through a rather lengthy derivation, that
For the geometry shown in Fig. 3-24, Stokes’s theorem states
Eq. (3.103) leads to

∂ Bz ∂ By
  
∂ Bx ∂ Bz
∇×× B = x̂ − + ŷ − Z Z
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x × B) · ds =
(∇× B · dl. (3.107)
S C

∂ By ∂ Bx

+ ẑ −
∂x ∂y (Stokes’s theorem)
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∂ ∂ ∂
= . (3.105) Its validity follows from the definition of ∇ × B given by
∂x ∂y ∂z
Bx By Bz Eq. (3.103). If ∇×× B = 0, the field B is said to be conservative
or irrotational because its circulation, represented by the right-
Expressions for ∇ × B are given in Appendix C for the three hand side of Eq. (3.107), is zero, irrespective of the contour
orthogonal coordinate systems considered in this chapter. chosen.
 × B over the specified surface S is
The integral of ∇×
Example 3-14: Verification of Stokes’s
Theorem Z 3 Z π /2  
sin φ cos φ
Z
× B) · ds =
(∇× −r̂ + φ̂φ 2 · r̂r d φ dz
S z=0 φ =π /3 r2 r
Z 3 Z π /2
sin φ 3 3
For vector field B = ẑ cos φ /r, verify Stokes’s theorem = − d φ dz = − = − .
for a segment of a cylindrical surface defined by r = 2, 0 π /3 r 2r 4
π /3 ≤ φ ≤ π /2, and 0 ≤ z ≤ 3 (Fig. 3-25).
Right-hand side: The surface S is bounded by contour
C = abcd shown in Fig. 3-25. The direction of C is chosen
so that it is compatible with the surface normal r̂ by the right-
z hand rule. Hence,
Z Z b Z c
B · dl = Bab · dl + Bbc · dl
r=2 C a b
z=3 c Z d Z a
+ Bcd · dl + Bda · dl,
d c d

where Bab , Bbc , Bcd , and Bda are the field B along seg-
nˆ = rˆ ments ab, bc, cd, and da, respectively. Over segment ab,
the dot product of Bab = ẑ (cos φ ) /2 and dl = φ̂φr d φ is
0 zero, and the same is true for segment cd. Over segment bc,
2 b y
π/2 φ = π /2; hence, Bbc = ẑ(cos π /2)/2 = 0. For the last segment,
π/3 Bda = ẑ(cos π /3)/2 = ẑ/4 and dl = ẑ dz. Hence,
a
x Z Z a 
1
Z 0
1 3
B · dl = ẑ · ẑ dz = dz = − ,
C d 4 3 4 4
Figure 3-25 Geometry of Example 3-14.
which is the same as the result obtained by evaluating the
left-hand side of Stokes’s equation.

Solution: Stokes’s theorem states that Exercise 3-18: Find ∇ × A at (2, 0, 3) in cylindrical
Z Z coordinates for the vector field
× B) · ds =
(∇× B · dl.
S C A = r̂10e−2r cos φ + ẑ10 sin φ .

Left-hand side: With B having only a component Bz = cos φ /r,

Answer: (See EM
.)
use of the expression for ∇ × B in cylindrical coordinates in
Appendix C gives 
10 cos φ ẑ 10e−2r

×A =
∇× r̂ + sin φ = r̂5.
r r (2,0,3)
1 ∂ Bz ∂ Bφ
   
∂ Br ∂ Bz
× B = r̂
∇× − + φ̂φ −
r ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂r
  Exercise 3-19: Find ∇ × A at (3, π /6, 0) in spherical
1 ∂ ∂ Br
+ ẑ (rBφ ) − coordinates for the vector field A = θ̂θ12 sin θ .
r ∂r ∂φ
    Answer: (See EM
.)
1 ∂ cos φ ∂ cos φ
= r̂ − φ̂φ
r ∂φ r ∂r r 12 sin θ
× A = φ̂φ
∇× = φ̂φ2.
sin φ cos φ R (3,π /6,0)
= −r̂ 2 + φ̂φ 2 .
r r
3-7 Laplacian Operator That is,

In later chapters, we sometimes deal with problems involving

multiple combinations of operations on scalars and vectors. A ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇2V = ∇ · (∇V ) = + 2 + 2 . (3.110)
frequently encountered combination is the divergence of the ∂ x2 ∂y ∂z
gradient of a scalar. For a scalar function V defined in Cartesian
coordinates, its gradient is As we can see from Eq. (3.110), the Laplacian of a scalar
function is a scalar. Expressions for ∇2V in cylindrical and
∂V ∂V ∂V spherical coordinates are given in Appendix C.
∇V = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ = x̂Ax + ŷAy + ẑAz = A,
∂x ∂y ∂z The Laplacian of a scalar can be used to define the Laplacian
(3.108) of a vector. For a vector E specified in Cartesian coordinates
where we defined a vector A with components Ax = ∂ V /∂ x, as
Ay = ∂ V /∂ y, and Az = ∂ V /∂ z. The divergence of ∇V is E = x̂Ex + ŷEy + ẑEz , (3.111)

∂ Ax ∂ Ay ∂ Az the Laplacian of E is
∇ ·(∇V ) = ∇ · A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
 
2
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∇ E= + + E = x̂ ∇2 Ex + ŷ ∇2 Ey + ẑ∇2 Ez .
= + + . (3.109) ∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2 (3.112)
Thus, in Cartesian coordinates the Laplacian of a vector is
For convenience, ∇ ·(∇V ) is called the Laplacian of V and is a vector whose components are equal to the Laplacians of
denoted by ∇2V (the symbol ∇2 is pronounced “del square”). the vector components. Through direct substitution, it can be
shown that

∇2 E = ∇(∇ · E) − ∇×
× (∇×
× E). (3.113)

Chapter 1 Summary
Concepts
• Vector algebra governs the laws of addition, subtrac- change of the scalar function per unit distance, and its
tion, and multiplication of vectors, and vector calculus direction is along the direction of maximum increase.
encompasses the laws of differentiation and integration • The divergence of a vector field is a measure of the net
of vectors. outward flux per unit volume through a closed surface
• In a right-handed orthogonal coordinate system, the surrounding the unit volume.
three base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each • The divergence theorem transforms the volume integral
other at any point in space, and the cyclic relations of the divergence of a vector field into a surface integral
governing the cross products of the base vectors obey of the field’s flux through a closed surface surrounding
the right-hand rule. the volume.
• The dot product of two vectors produces a scalar, • The curl of a vector field is a measure of the circulation
whereas the cross product of two vectors produces of the vector field per unit area ∆s, with the orientation
another vector. of ∆s chosen such that the circulation is maximum.
• A vector expressed in a given coordinate system can be • Stokes’s theorem transforms the surface integral of the
expressed in another coordinate system through the use curl of a vector field into a line integral of the field over
of transformation relations linking the two coordinate a contour that bounds the surface.
systems. • The Laplacian of a scalar function is defined as the
• The fundamental differential functions in vector calcu- divergence of the gradient of that function.
lus are the gradient, the divergence, and the curl.
• The gradient of a scalar function is a vector whose
magnitude is equal to the maximum rate of increasing
Mathematical and Physical Models
Distance Between Two Points Vector Operators
d = [(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 ]1/2 ∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
1/2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
d = r22 +r12 − 2r1 r2 cos(φ2 −φ1 )+(z2 −z1 )2

∂ Ex ∂ Ey ∂ Ez
d = R22 + R21 − 2R1R2 [cos θ2 cos θ1
 ∇·E = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
1/2
+ sin θ1 sin θ2 cos(φ2 − φ1 )] 
∂ Bz ∂ By
 
∂ Bx ∂ Bz

× B = x̂
∇× − + ŷ −
Coordinate Systems Table 3-1 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x

∂ By ∂ Bx

Coordinate Transformations Table 3-2 + ẑ −
∂x ∂y
Vector Products
A · B = AB cos θAB ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇2V = + 2 + 2
∂ x2 ∂y ∂z
× B = n̂ AB sin θAB
A×
A ·(B × C) = B ·(C×
× A) = C ·(A×
× B) (see Appendix C for cylindrical
× C) = B(A · C) − C(A · B)
× (B×
A× and spherical coordinates)

Divergence Theorem Stokes’s Theorem

Z Z Z Z
∇ · E dυ = E · ds × B) · ds =
(∇× B · dl
υ S S C

Important Terms Provide definitions or explain the meaning of the following terms:
azimuth angle divergence operator radial distance r
base vectors divergence theorem range R
Cartesian coordinate system divergenceless right-hand rule
circulation of a vector dot product scalar product
conservative field field lines scalar quantity
cross product flux density simple product
curl operator flux lines solenoidal field
cylindrical coordinate system gradient operator spherical coordinate system
differential area vector irrotational field Stokes’s theorem
differential length vector Laplacian operator vector product
differential volume magnitude vector quantity
directional derivative orthogonal coordinate system unit vector
distance vector position vector zenith angle
 QUESTIONS

1 If r 5 xax 1 yay 1 zaz, the position vector of point 1 x, y, z 2 and r 5 0 r 0 , which of the
following is incorrect?
­
(a) =r 5 r/r (c) =2 1 r # r 2 5 6
(b) = # r 5 1 (d) = 3 r 5 0
2 Which of the following is mathematically defined?
(a) ?A (c) ( V)
=
3
=
=
=
(b) ? ( ? A) (d) ( ? A)
=
=
=
=
3 Which of the following is zero?
(a) grad div (c) curl grad
(b) div grad (d) curl curl
4 Stokes’s theorem is applicable only when a closed path exists and the vector field and its
derivatives are continuous within the path.
(a) True (c) Not necessarily
(b) False
5 If a vector field Q is solenoidal, which of these is true?
(a) AL Q # d l 5 0 (d) = 3 Q 2 0
(b) AS Q # dS 5 0 (e) =2Q 5 0
(c) = 3 Q 5 0
6 Calculate the gradient of:
(a) V1 5 6xy 2 2xz 1 z 2
(b) V2 5 10r cos f 2 rz (c) V3 5 cos f
r
7 Evaluate the divergence of the following vector fields:
(a) A 5 xyax 1 y2ay 2 xzaz
(b) B 5 rz2ar 1 r sin2 f af 1 2rz sin2 f az
(c) C 5 rar 1 r cos2 u af
8 Evaluate = 3 A and = # 1 = 3 A 2 if: 9 Find 2V for each of the following scalar fields:
(a) A 5 x2yax 1 y2zay 2 2xzaz (a) V1 5 x3 1 y3 1 z3
(b) A 5 r2zar 1 r3af 1 3rz2az (b) V2 5 rz2 sin 2f
sin f cos f (c) V3 5 r2 1 1 1 cos u sin f 2
(c) A 5 2 ar 2 2 au
r r
10 If r 5 xax 1 yay 1 zaz is the position vector of point 1 x, y, z 2 , r 5 0 r 0 , show that:
r
(a) = 1 ln r 2 5
r2
1
(b) =2 1 ln r 2 5 2
r

03_Sadiku_Ch03.indd 99 22/09/17 1:26 PM

 Appendix C
Mathematical Formulas
Gradient, Divergence, Curl, and Laplacian Operators
Cartesian (Rectangular) Coordinates (x, y, z) Cylindrical Coordinates (r, φ , z)
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
∇V = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ ∇V = r̂ + φ̂φ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
∂ Ax ∂ Ay ∂ Az 1 ∂ 1 ∂ Aφ ∂ Az
∇·A = + + ∇·A = (rAr ) + +
∂x ∂y ∂z r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
¯ x̂ ŷ ẑ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ∂ ∂ ∂ ¯ ¯ r̂ φ̂φr ẑ ¯
¯ ¯
×A = ¯
∇× 1 ¯¯ ∂ ∂ ∂ ¯¯
¯ ¯
¯ ∂x ∂y ∂z ¯ ×A = ¯
∇×
¯
¯A A A ¯ r ¯ ∂ r ∂ φ ∂ z ¯¯
x y z ¯ Ar rAφ Az ¯
∂ Az ∂ Ay
µ ¶
= x̂ − 1 ∂ Az ∂ Aφ
µ ¶
∂y ∂z = r̂ −
µ ¶ r ∂φ ∂z
∂ Ax ∂ Az
+ ŷ −
µ ¶
∂ Ar ∂ Az
∂z ∂x + φ̂φ −
∂z ∂r
∂ Ay ∂ Ax
µ ¶
+ ẑ −
· ¸
1 ∂ ∂ Ar
∂x ∂y + ẑ (rAφ ) −
r ∂r ∂φ
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇2V = + 2 + 2 1 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
µ ¶
1 ∂ ∂V
∂ x2 ∂y ∂z ∇2V = r + 2 + 2
r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ2 ∂z
Spherical Coordinates (R, θ , φ )

∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
∇V = R̂ + θ̂θ + φ̂φ
∂R R ∂θ R sin θ ∂ φ
1 ∂
∇·A = (R2 AR )
R2 ∂ R
1 ∂
+ (Aθ sin θ )
R sin θ ∂ θ
1 ∂ Aφ
+
R sin θ ∂ φ
¯ ¯
¯ R̂ θ̂θR φ̂φR sin θ ¯
¯ ¯
1 ¯ ∂ ∂ ∂ 1
·
∂ ∂ Aθ
¸ ·
1 ∂ AR ∂
¸ · ¸
1 1 ∂ ∂ AR
¯
×A = 2
∇× ¯ ¯
= R̂ (Aφ sin θ ) − + θ
θ̂ − (RA ) + φ
φ̂ (RA ) −
R sin θ ¯ ∂ R ∂ θ ∂φ φ θ
R sin θ ∂ θ ∂φ R sin θ ∂ φ ∂R R ∂R ∂θ
¯ ¯
¯
¯ AR RAθ (R sin θ )Aφ ¯

∂ 2V
µ ¶
1 ∂ 2 ∂V
µ ¶
1 ∂ ∂V 1
∇2V = 2
R + 2 sin θ + 2 2
R ∂R ∂R R sin θ ∂ θ ∂θ R sin θ ∂ φ 2

457