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Application Layer Presentation Layer

Logical Structure of Reference Models • The sixth layer of OSI Reference Model is Presentation layer. It is responsible for
• The seventh layer or topmost layer of OSI Reference Model is the defining how information is presented to the user in the interface that they are
Application layer. using.
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
• It provides the interface that a person uses to interact with the application. • It is responsible to present data to the next layer. While sending it receives data
Application from upper layer, then convert it to appropriate format for next layer and while
This interface can be command-line-based or graphics-based.
receiving assemble this data with the help of extensions, codes, formats to a
Presentation Application readable format and sent to application layer.
• Cisco IOS Routers and Switches have a command-line interface (CLI),
Session whereas a web browser uses a graphical interface. • This layer defines how various forms of text, graphics, video or audio information
are presented to the user. For example, text is represented in two different forms:
Transport Host-to-Host
• It is the only layer where the user can directly interact with application or ASCII and EBCDIC. ASCII (the American Standard Code for Information
Internet program. Interchange) uses seven bits to represent characters; it is used by most devices
Network
today. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) developed by
Data Link IBM and it is still used in Mainframe environments to represent characters.
• As we say it is responsible for users and network interaction so it receives
Network Access • Additional Features:
Physical commands from user and gives output as form of result to user.
 Compression and Decompression
• Protocols at Application Layer: DNS, FTP, HTTP, HTTPS, NFS, DHCP,  Encryption and Decryption
SMTP, SNMP, POP3, RDP, TFTP, Telnet etc….  Protocols and Standards at Presentation layer: ASCII, BMP, GIF, JPEG, WAV, AVI,
MPEG etc……..

Session Layer Transport Layer Network Layer

• It is the fourth layer of OSI Reference Model.
• It is the fifth layer of OSI Reference Model. It is the third layer of OSI Reference Model. Network layer provides logical
• It is responsible for the actual mechanics of connection, where it can provide both topology of your network using logical addresses (IP Address). These addresses
reliable and unreliable delivery of data. are used to group machines together.
• It is responsible to initializing the setup and teardown connections.
• For reliable connection, the transport layer provides error detection and error These addresses have two components: a network component and a host
correction, when an error is detected, the transport layer will resend the data, thus component. The network component is used to group devices together.
• The primary function of the session layer is to establish a session providing the correction.
between source and destination before transmission, then maintain a Logical addresses allow devices that are on the same or different media types to
session during transmission and in the end terminate the session • For unreliable connections, the transport layer provides only error detection, and communicate with each other.
error correction is left up to one of the higher layers.
after transmission.
Network layer is responsible to move information (data) from one network to
• Transport layer provides reliable connection with the help of TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) protocol, and with the help of UDP (User Datagram Protocol) another.
• Session layer also keeps separate each session data with others by protocol it provides unreliable connection.
assigning a session ID to each session. Session layer works in all Features: To move information between devices that have different network numbers, a
three modes of communication, such as, Simplex, Half-Duplex and  Provides additional connection below the session layer. Router is used. Routers use information in the logical address to make intelligent
 It provides O/S to O/S or application to application communication. decisions about how to reach a destination.
Full-Duplex.  Manages the flow control of data between parties across the network. Features:
• Protocols at Session layer: NetBIOS  Divides streams of data into segments.  Translates logical network address to their physical address.
 Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery.
 Responsible to transmit information from one network to other network.
 Provides acknowledgement of successful transmissions, and requests retransmission if
• some packets don’t arrive error-free (TCP).  Responsible to search routes for the network layer components.
• NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) is a network service  TCP: Acknowledgement based communication Stream Control Transmission Protocol  Responsible to convert segments into packets.
that enables applications on different computers to communicate with  UDP: Fast communication without error correction.  Responsible for logical Addressing (IP Addressing).
(SCTP) is a transport-layer protocol
 Provides flow control and error-handling.  Protocols at Network layer: IP, IPX, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, RARP, RIP, OSPF etc…
each other across a local area network (LAN).  Provides Port Addressing. that ensures reliable, in-sequence  Devices at Network layer: Router, Brouter, Frame Relay Device, ATM Switch etc…
 Protocols at Transport layer: TCP & UDP, SCTP transport of data.

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Data Link Layer Physical Layer

Data Link layer has two sub-layers:
• It is the second layer of OSI Reference Model. Data link layer is responsible to
define how a networking device accesses the media that it is connected as well as  LLC (Logical Link Control) 802.2
defining the media’s frame type. It is the first layer of OSI Reference Model. All physical tasks to send
 MAC (Media Access Control) 802.3
information between nodes or devices are performs at physical layer.
LLC (Logical Link Control): It is responsible to establish a virtual circuit over the
• This includes the fields and components of the data link layer. This communication
physical line to identify physical addressing, session ID, Dialing and
is only for devices on the same data link layer media type (or same piece of wire). Physical task like Amplification, Filtration, Broadcasting, Signal
Acknowledgement etc…. It provides logical linking over physical wire:
conversion (light to electrical, electrical to wifi, wifi to light). It is the only
• To traverse media types, like Ethernet to Token Ring, typically a router is used. It is layer from where the actually data has been transmitted.
PPP - Dial-up
also responsible for taking bits (binary 0’s and 1’s) from physical layer and
reassemble them into the original data link layer frame. PPPoE - Broadband
PPTP & L2TP - Tunnel (VPN)  Protocols at Physical layer: RS232, V.35, V.32
• The data link layer does error detection and will discard bad frames. It typically HDLC & SDLC - For wired and wireless  Devices at Physical layer: Hub, Repeater, Amplifier, Interface, NIC,
does not perform error correction as TCP/IP’s TCP protocol does; however, some
MAC (Media Access Control): It is responsible to define how to access media, Media, Connector etc…
data link layer protocols do support error correction functions.
like network type; Token Ring, Ethernet, Wifi. How to access media means how
Features:
many devices can use provided media at the same time. Bandwidth, no. of
 Responsible to define the methods used to transmit and receive data on the network and
sessions, collision report performs at MAC layer It is responsible to communicate
define how to access media.
with the adapter card. Network access technologies like Token Ring, Ethernet,
 Responsible to convert packets into frames.
 Responsible to handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers.
Wifi, ATM, Frame Relay, ISDN etc. works at MAC layer. It is also responsible to
perform MAC Addressing.
 Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via the physical layer.
 Responsible to perform Physical Addressing (MAC Addressing).  Protocols at Data Link Layer: PPP, PPTP, L2TP, HDLC, SDLC
 Devices at Data Link Layer: Bridge, Switch, Modem etc…

Data encapsulation TCP/IP

Layers Protocols or Standards Devices
• The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) was
Application HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, DNS, Gateway
DHCP, BOOTP, SMTP, POP, IMAP, created by Department of Defense (DOD) to ensure and preserve data
SNMP, NFS, TELNET, SSH, RDP, integrity as well as maintain communication.
POP, IMAP
Application
Presentation ASCII, BMP, GIF, JPEG, WAV, AVI, Gateway Redirector • TCP/IP is made of interactive modules which provide specific
MPEG functionality.
Presentation Upper layer data
Session NetBIOS, Named Pipes, Mail Slots, Gateway
RPC
Session
Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP Gateway, Advanced Cable TCP/IP Layers Protocol Support
Tester, Brouter
Transport Segments Bit (data) + Port Address Network IP, IPX, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, RARP, Router, Layer 3 Switch, Telnet FTP TFTP DHCP DNS SMTP
RIP, OSPF etc… Brouter, Frame Relay Process Layer
POP NFS SNMP RDP LPD BOOTP
Network Packets Bit (data) + IP Address Device, ATM Switch
Data Link PPP, PPTP, L2TP, HDLC, SDLC Bridge, Switch, NIC, ISDN Host-to-Host TCP UDP
Router Layer Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol
Data Link Frames Bit (data) + MAC Address
Physical RS232, V.35, V.32 Hub, Repeater, Amplifier, IP ICMP
Multiplexer Internet Layer
Physical Bits 10110010 ARP RARP

Network Ethernet Fast Ethernet

Access Layer Token Ring FDDI

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Protocols Types of Protocols on the Application or Process

basis of ownership: Layer Protocols
Protocols are the Rules and Regulations for the network communication.
Each and every communication is based on any of the network rule (Protocol) or
we can say that a rule is defined for each and every communication.
Features:
 Set of Rules
 Carrier to carry data Proprietary Universal
 Carrier between nodes
 Convertor Protocols are designed for special O/S,
Program, Function, Device Free for all
Types of Protocols:
 Routing Protocols: Protocols are responsible to search and select a best Examples for Proprietary Examples for Universal Protocols:
route for the communication. Protocols:
Novell Netware (O/S) - IPX/SPX Department of Defense (DOD) - TCP/IP
Examples: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, BGP etc… Macintosh (O/S) - Apple talk
 Routed Protocols: Protocols are responsible to transmit data from the define Cisco Router (Device) - IGRP,
route. M/S, IBM - EIGRP
NetBEUI
Examples: IP, IPX, ICMP, FTP, UDP etc….

Telnet SSH (Secure Shell) RDP

(Remote Desktop Protocol)
 Telnet is a Protocol or Service which is used to access remote
services.
 SSH is a Protocol or Service which is also used to access the  RDP is a Protocol or Service which is used to access remote
 It allows user on a remote client machine, called the Telnet Client to remote hosts in the network or in the Internet. hosts in the network or in the Internet.
access the resources of another machine, called the Telnet Server.
 It allows user on a remote client machine, called the SSH  Through RDP a user can access the remote host through
 Through Telnet a user can access the remote host through Client to access the resources of another machine, called the Graphical User Interface (GUI), it means through RDP a user
Command line Interface (CLI). SSH Server. can access or manage the remote host graphically.
 The data has been transmitted between Telnet server and Telnet
 Through SSH a user can access the remote host through  RDP works on logical port no. 3389…..
client in the form of plain text during the Telnet session. Command line Interface (CLI).
 An Administrator can configure or manage the Telnet Service
 The main advantage of using SSH is that the data has been
through the Telnet Program or Application.
transmitted between SSH server and SSH client in the
 Telnet works on logical port no. 23... encrypted form during the SSH session, it makes SSH more
secure then Telnet.
 SSH works on logical port no. 22…..

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FTP TFTP HTTP

(File Transfer Protocol) (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

 FTP is a Protocol or Service which is used to transfer files  TFTP is a Protocol or Service which is responsible to  HTTP is a Protocol or Service which is used to transfer web
or directories from one host to another host. transfer files. information over the network or Internet.
 It is used to exchange files between hosts over the network  It is the older or simple form of FTP which is used to  It is service which is used transmit web applications or web
(LAN) or Internetwork or Internet. download or upload files between network hosts or Internet. pages in the network or Internet.
 A user on a client end, called the FTP Client, can download  It uses UDP to transfer files, so it is not responsible for the  HTTP uses TCP to transmit web information. An administrator
or upload the files or directories from the server end, called reliable communication. can configure or manage HTTP Service through Web or
the FTP Server.  Because it uses UDP, so it does not provide HTTP Application or program.
 It uses TCP to transfer data, so it is responsible for the acknowledgement and does not provide security features.  HTTP works on logical port no. 80…..
reliable communication of data with acknowledgement.  TFTP works on logical port no. 69 …...
 It uses TCP, so it provides security features.
 An Administrator can configure or manage the FTP Service
through FTP Program or Application.
 FTP works on logical port no. 21 ….

HTTPS SMTP POP

(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) (Post Office Protocol)
(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
Secure)

 HTTPS is also a Protocol or Service like HTTP which is used  SMTP is a Protocol or Service which is used to transfer  POP is a Protocol or service which is used to retrieve e-mails
to transfer web information over the network or Internet but it from e-mail database server.
is more secure than HTTP.
e- mail messages across the network or Internet. It helps
 Like SMTP which is used to sending e-mails, POP is a
 It is secure because it works on the basis of certificate.
in sending e-mails messages such as text or message service which is used to receive e-mails.
 It is a service which is used transmit web applications or web
with an attachment file.  POP has some versions like POP2, POP3 etc…
pages in the network or Internet.  Through SMTP a user can send mail to the multiple  POP2 works on logical port no. 109….. and POP3 works on
 HTTP uses TCP to transmit web information. An administrator recipients at the same time. logical port no. 110…..
can configure or manage HTTPS Service through Web
 It uses TCP to send e-mail messages, so it provides
Application or program.
 HTTPS works on logical port no. 443…..
reliable delivery of e-mails.
 SMTP works on logical port no. 25……

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IMAP SNMP DNS

(Internet Message Access Protocol) (Simple Network Management Protocol) (Domain Naming Service)
 SNMP is a protocol or service which is responsible for the
 It is also protocol or service which is also used to retrieve management of the network.  DNS is a Protocol or Service which is used to resolve the
emails from E-mail database Server. Internet Domain names of hosts into IP Addresses.
 IMAP is more advanced service than POP to receive mails.  It is responsible to provides means to manage and control  It is a service which is used to resolves FQDN (Fully
network devices, performance and security of the network. Qualified Domain Name) into IP Addresses and IP
 IMAP works on logical port no. 143
Addresses into FQDN.
 It broadcast SNMP agents over the network and these  DNS uses both TCP and UDP .
agents are responsible to give the actual network report to  DNS works on logical port no. 53…
the Network Administrator.

 If the network communication going properly then these

agents are responsible to give the healthy report, and if they
found any error or trouble in the network then these agents
are responsible to provide the Trap report.
 SNMP works on logical port no. 161…

DHCP NFS Transport or Host-to-Host Layer Protocols

(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) (Network File System)

 DHCP is a Protocol or Service which is used to provide  NFS is a Protocol or Service which is used to make
automatic hosts TCP/IP configuration. communication possible between two different operating
 TCP/IP configuration includes IP Address, Subnet Mask, systems based hosts.
Default Gateway and DNS IP Addresses.
 DHCP is used for the IP Addresses distribution over the  It allows hosts on different operating system to share files
network or in the Internet. and disk storage…..
 The server which is responsible to provide IP Addresses in
the network, known as DHCP Server, and the hosts which  NFS works on logical port no. 944…
are taking IP Address from the Server, known as DHCP
Client.
 DHCP uses UDP to provide TCP/IP configuration over the
network.
 DHCP Server works on logical port no. 67….and DHCP Client
works on logical port no. 68…

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TCP UDP SCTP

(Transmission Control Protocol) (User Datagram Protocol) (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)

 TCP is a Protocol which is responsible for the transportation of  UDP is a Protocol which is responsible for the transportation
data.  SCTP is a Protocol which is also used for data transport.
of data.
 TCP is a Connection-Oriented and Reliable Transport Protocol.  It is also Connection-Oriented and reliable transport protocol
 UDP is a Connection-less/stateless and unreliable Transport
Connection-Oriented means a virtual connection must be that offers acknowledgement, error-free and non-duplicated
Protocol.
established between the sender and the receiver before the transmission of multiple streams of data.
actual transmission occurs.  Connectionless means UDP is not responsible to establish a
virtual connection between sender and receiver before  Unlike TCP, SCTP makes sure that multiple streams of data
 It is a Reliable protocol because it gives the actual will be transmitted simultaneously.
acknowledgement of each transmission of data and also transmission.
responsible for the retransmission of data if some packets don’t  It provides unreliable transport protocol because it does not  SCTP can be used to manage connections over wireless
arrive error-free. provide any acknowledgement of the transmission. It just network and transmission of multimedia data.
 It is also responsible for the error checking and error correction. adds port addresses and error control information to the data  It supports new applications such as voice over the Internet.
 Overall, it provides the reliable transport of data. and delivers the data. So it is fast transport protocol
compared to TCP.  It combines the best features of TCP and UDP.
 It divides the data into segments each having a sequence
number. These sequence numbers are useful at the receiving  Unlike TCP, it does not provide error correction but it provides  Protocol Number: 132
end to rearrange the segments into original order. error checking on the data.
 Protocol Number: 6  Protocol Number: 17

Network or Internet Layers IP ICMP

Protocols (Internet Protocol) (Internet Control Message Protocol)

 IP is a transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocol.  ICMP is a protocol which is used by network hosts to send
 IP is a connectionless and unreliable datagram protocol and notification of datagram problems such as query and error
provides no error-checking. reporting messages back to the sending device.

 IP transfers data in the form of packets called datagram.  Its only function is to report problems to the original sender
not to correct them.

 Datagrams can travel through various routes to reach the

destination and may not arrive in the order in which they were  Ping command is an example of ICMP protocol.
sent.  ICMP works on protocol no. 1….

 IP does not reorder the data once they reach the destination.
Also, IP does not keep a track of the routes of the datagram.
 IP works on protocol no. 0…

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IGMP ARP RARP

(Internet Group Message Protocol) (Address Resolution Protocol) (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

 ARP is a Protocol which is used to determine the physical

 IGMP is a Protocol which is used for multicasting. address (MAC Address) of the device only when its IP  RARP is a Protocol which is used to determine the IP
Address is known. Address of the device only when its Physical Address (MAC
 It means to transmit message or information to multiple Address) is known.
 It is also used to translate the IP Address to the Ethernet MAC
recipients at the same time. Address.
 It is useful when the device is connected to the network for
 Each device has a physical address imprinted on the NIC. the first time.
 Class D IP Addresses is used for IGMP.
ARP is used to associate an IP Address with the Physical
 Protocol Number: 2
Address.

 ARP works only in the same network.

 Each network device in the network maintains its own ARP
Table in it.

 To view the arp table of any host : arp -a

List of Application Layer Protocols/Services

List of Protocols with their related Protocol Number List of Protocols with their related Protocol Number
with their related Port Number
Protocol Name Port Number Transmission Protocol
Support Protocol Name Protocol Number Protocol Name Protocol Number
FTP 20, 21 TCP IP 4 IP 4
TFTP 69 UDP ICMP 1 ICMP 1
TELNET 23 TCP IGMP 2 IGMP 2
SSH 22 TCP, UDP TCP 6 TCP 6
RDP 3389 TCP, UDP UDP 17 UDP 17
HTTP 80 TCP EGP 8 EGP 8
HTTPS 443 TCP IGP 9 IGP 9
SMTP 25 TCP IPV6 41 IPV6 41
POP 2 109 TCP IPv6-ICMP 58 IPv6-ICMP 58
POP 3 110 TCP EIGRP 88 EIGRP 88
IMAP 143 TCP OSPF 89 OSPF 89
SNMP 161 UDP L2TP 115 L2TP 115
NFS 944 UDP SCTP 132 SCTP 132
DHCP Server 67 UDP BGP 179
DHCP Client 68 UDP RIP 520
DNS 53 TCP, UDP IGRP 9

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Addressing
MAC Address
For the purpose of communication, or to identify a network device in the
network, a unique address for that particular device is needed. Network Device
like Computer, Router, Switch, Firewall etc.. must need a unique address for its
identification in the network.
Classification of Addressing

Physical Address Logical Address

 IP Address
 MAC Address  IP stands for Internet Protocol
MAC stands for Media  IP Version 4
Access Controller  32-bit Address
 48-bit Address  Dotted-Decimal form
 Hexa-decimal form  IP Version 6
Exist on Network Interface  128-bit Address
Card (NIC) Hexa-Decimal form
Can be assign on
Operating System

IP Address Classification of IP Address Private IP Address

A Device on the network needs an IP (Internet Protocol) Address to

communicate with other devices. There are some features of IP Address:  It is generally used in Local Area Network or Private network. Any of
the organization can use private IP address for its private network. If
the organization does not want to communicate in the WAN or
 IP Address is a address which is used to identify a network device Internet and just want to create local network, then private IP address
in a network or Internet. is the only suitable option for these organizations.
 An IP Address is used to communicate with various networking Version
devices in the network.  IP Version 4
 Organization has to pay no cost for using private IP address to the
 IP Version 6
 IP Address functioning on Network Layer of OSI Model. Internet Service Provider (ISP). Private IP addresses are free all.
Local/Global
 IP Address is same as telephone number which is unique.
 Private Address
 IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) is the organization  A single private IP address is unique in a network. A single private IP
 Public Address Configuration
for the development of IP Addresses. address can be used in multiple local area networks if these networks
 Static are not connected to each other.
 Dynamic

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Public IP Address Unicast IP Address Multicast IP Address

 It is generally used in Wide Area Networks (WAN) or Internet.  Unicast means one to one communication. When a data packet is  Multicast means one to many communication. When a data packet is
 Public IP Address is needed if any of the device in any network wants sent from a host with destination address which represents a single sent from a host to a group of hosts, a multicast communication takes
to communicate in Public network or WAN. Without public IP address host, a unicast communication takes place. place. Multicast addresses belongs to Class D addresses. These
any of the device cannot be communicate in public network or WAN addresses define an address for a group.
or Internet.  Hence, a Unicast IP address which uniquely identifies a host in a
 Organization has to pay cost for each public IP address to the particular network. Each host present on the Internet has at least one  A host on a multicast network can have more than one Class D
Internet Service Provider (ISP). unique unicast IP address. multicast address. If a host have five multicast addresses, then the
 Public IP address is unique in public network, a single public IP host belongs to five different multicast groups.
address cannot be used twice or more in public network or Internet.
 An organization can also use public IP addresses in its private  Multicasting on Internet is of two types, Local level and Global level.
network At local level, hosts on a LAN can form a group and can be assigned
if that network is not connected to the public network. a multicast address. While at global level, hosts on different networks
can form a group and can be assigned a multicast address.

Broadcast IP Address Network IP Address

 Broadcast means one to all communication. A Broadcast address is an IP Version 4
address that allows a data packet to be sent to all machines on a given
network.  The Network IP Address is the network address of any address. Network
 Data packet is broadcast only at local level and not at global level. The IP address is the identification of a network.
broadcast address for a network is the last address of that network. Using  Logical address in TCP/IP enabled network
broadcast IP address, a packet can be sent to the entire subnet using a  To identify a network in an internetwork or in the Internet, a address must
private IP address space. require, then the Network IP address provides the identification to a  32-bit address
network in an internetwork or in the Internet.  Divided into 4 Octets
 For Example, to broadcast a packet to an entire class B subnet using a
private IP address space, the broadcast address would be 172.16.255.255  Each network or subnet has its own and separate Network address.  Each Octet contains 8 bits
for 172.16.x.x network.
 The first IP address of any network is predefined as a Network address  Seen in two formats:
 In some applications, the hosts in a network need to send messages to all of that particular network.  Dotted decimal – used by user and application
the hosts in a network.
 Dotted binary – used by o/s, protocols, n/w
 In an organization, if the administrator wants to implement a same
 For example, transmitting information such as weather report, stock market permission on the entire network, then he can implement that permission
components
changes and live radio programs would work best by broadcasting the data
over the network to all the hosts. on the entire network by simply using the first IP address of the running  Made up of two parts:
IP network.  Network part – ID of network – represented by 1 in binary
 The last IP address of any network is predefined as a Broadcast IP address
of that particular network.  Host part – ID of host (device) – represented by 0 in binary
 The Network IP address cannot be assign on the network computer.
 The Broadcast IP address cannot be assign on the network computer.

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Private and Public IP Ranges

IP Version 4 Classes
Class Range No. of Networks Local/Global
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111111 . 11111111 (Dotted binary) 1.0.0.0 9.255.255.255
A 9 Public

1st Octet 2nd Octet 3rd Octet 4th Octet

Class Range Purpose 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 1 Private
11.0.0.0 126.255.255.255 116 Public
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits A 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255 N.H.H.H
B 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255 N.N.H.H B 128.0.0.0 172.15.255.255 11536 Public
Note: The decimal value of each octet can be of minimum zero (0) C 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255 N.N.N.H 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 16 Private
and maximum two hundred and fifty five (255). The value can only
be between (0 - 255). D 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255 Multicasting 172.32.0.0 191.255.255.255 4832 Public
E 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.255 Research
C 192.0.0.0 192.167.255.255 43008 Public
192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 256 Private
192.169.0.0 223.255.255.255 2053888 Public

Calculation of Networks and Hosts Subnet Mask

Mask

Subnet Mask is a number which is used to identify the number

Class No. of Networks No. of of hosts in a network. It is the number which is used to identify the
Hosts/network number of available IP addresses in a network for the given IP
address.
16777216-2 = 16777214
Default Mask Subnet Mask
A 126 networks
(256*256*256)
Features:
B 16384 networks (64*256) 65536-2 = 65534
 It is responsible to define, which part is host part and which part Class Default Mask (binary) Default Mask (decimal)
(256*256)
is network part in a given IP address.
C 2097152 networks (32*256*256) 256-2 = A 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 255.0.0.0
254  It is responsible to define the no. of usable IP addresses for
B 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.0.0
hosts.
C 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 255.255.255.0
 It is also responsible to define the number 0’s and 1’s bits in a
given address.
Note: The number of 1’s must match the number of network address bits and
the number of 0’s must match the number of host address bits.

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Internetworking Devices/Components
NIC (Network Interface Card)

NIC is a component which provides us port to connect to

network. It is a interface through which data can be send or
Hardware Software receive in the network. There are several components on the
Components Components NIC which are as follows:
 NIC (Network InterfaceCard)
 NOSNetwork (O/S)
 Media (Cables &Connectors)
 Network Adapter Drivers  Internal Connection Bus
 Repeater
 Logical Address (IP/IPX)
 Hub MAC ROM
 Protocols
 Bridge PROM
 Services
 Switch EPROM
 Browsers
 Layer 3 Switch
Buffer
 Router
Transceiver
 Firewall
 Gateway External Port
 Wi-Fi
 IDS/IPS

Repeater Hub Bridge

Features:
Repeater is a device which is used to boost or regenerate the data It is a physical layer device. It is also known as multiport repeater.  Layer 2 device
signals at the time of communication. Repeater is a physical layer device Used to connect two Lan segments, means if u have two hubs in
which is responsible to filter the data signals along with regenerating the the network, then network broadcast can be limit by placing bridge
data signals. It is a update version of Amplifier, amplifier were regenerate Features: between hubs.
data signals but not responsible to filtration.  It is a network device which is used to connect devices together in  Bridging occur at the data link layer. This layer controls data
the handles
flow, transmission errors, provides physical and
 Amplifier = Regenerate network addressing thes
In the Hub created network, when any single communication takes functions by usingtovarious
manage access data linkmedium.
the physical layer protocols.
Bridge provides e
 Repeater = Regenerate + Filtration
place, then hub is responsible to forward the data to all its ports.  Responsible to create Mac table.
Simply, it is not responsible to forward the data up to the actual  Bridge uses a Software program to store Mac table.
host.
 It has less number of ports than other layer 2 devices
 It works on the basis of broadcast.
 Bridge provides its ports speed between 10 to 100
mbps.

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 Perform switching between network devices. Comparison between Bridge

Switches and Switch
 Responsible to forward the data packet up to the correct or actual
host in the network by verifying the mac-address of source and
It is a interconnectivity device which is used to connect devices destination in its mac-table, and not responsible to broadcast the
together in the network like hubs, but it is more advanced than hubs. It is data packet to all its ports like hubs. S.no Bridge Switch
also known as Intelligent Hub.  It has higher number of ports then hub and bridges. 1 Layer 2 device Layer 2 device

Features:
 Layer 2 device Types of Switches: 2 It stores mac-table in a software It stores mac-table in a chip named
program. ASIC.
 It is responsible to filter and forwarddata packets through the  Manageable Switches
network.  Non- manageable Switches
3 Has less number of ports. Has higher number of ports than
 It is a update version of bridge, it includes superior throughput bridges
performance, higher port density and greater flexibility.
 Responsible to forward data frames on the basis of mac-address. Types of Switches on the basis of error handling:
4 Supports port speed between 10 – 100 Supports port speed from 10 to
 Responsible to maintain Mac-table, in which it stores the  Cut-through Switches mbps. 1000
mac addresses of all connected hosts.  Store and Forward Switches mbps and more.

 Because it maintains mac-table, so it also known as intelligent hub.  Straight or Fragment free Switches.
5 Responsible to connect two Lan Responsible switching of data
 It has in-built chip named ASIC (Application specific Integrated packets
segments.
Circuit) to store mac-table. between actual source and
destination.

Routers  It stores the network number information in its routing Router Ports and
table.
Interfaces
 Responsible to perform path selection.
Router is a interconnectivity device which is used to forward the  Never forwards broadcast packets.
data packets between from one network to another network.  Perform Packet Switching (switch packet from one subnet S.no. Port/Interface Description
Features: to 1 Console To configure router locally
another).
 Layer 3 device
 Also responsible for Packet Filteration (Access-Control
 WAN connectivity device. 2 Auxilary To configure router remotely
List)
 Its primary function is to forward the packets by checking its
 Also responsible for Address Translation (NAT).
destination address (IP). 3 Ethernet/Fast Ethernet/Gigabit Used to connect LAN (LAN Interface).
 Responsible to forward the data packets from one IP based network Ethernet
to another.
Types of Routers:
 It is an intelligent device, because it maintains the Routing Table 4 Serial Used to connect with WAN (Router) (WAN
 Modular
for the path selection, through which it can choose the best path for Interface)
the communication.  Non-modular (Fixed)
 It understands IP address, so it forwards the data packets on the 5 Basic Rate Interface Used to connect ISDN
basis of IP address of source and destination.

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Router Memory Components

S.no Components Description

Ethernet 10 mbps/e0,e1
1 ROM Router boot up sequence stores in it.
Fast Ethernet 100 mbps/fa0/0, fa0/1
Gigabit Ethernet 1000 mbps 2 Flash Memory Router IOS (operating system) stores in it.

Serial s0/0, s1/1

3 DRAM Temporary configuration stores in it.
Basic Rate Interface bri0 Note: It stores all configuration in
running-config file.

4 NVRAM Permanent configuration stores in it.

Note: It stores all configuration in
startup-config file.

5 Rommon Memory Router Mini operating system stores in it.

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