A copy of my IGCSE Geography student’s active worksheet that I

made for our one on one tuition.

Dispersed and Nucleated Patterns of Settlement

Description

Dispersed:
-​ Isolated houses are set in fields or along roads instead of concentrated in an area
-​ Mostly found in sparsely populated areas / rural areas

Nucleated:
-​ Settlements are tightly packed together around a central feature
-​ There are less buildings further out from the nucleated area (usually known as hamlets
or villages)

Factors

Dispersed:
-​ Availability of arable land - if people are able to make a living
-​ Fertile soils for people to grow their crops on
-​ Can be due to privacy and how some people move away from nucleated areas
(sometimes after retirement) to live away from the busy cities

Nucleated:
-​ The availability of water supply (for transport, drinking, irrigation, washing, etc)
-​ The land around the nucleated settlement - if the land allows for people to grow crops
and use the land, it can encourage more people to settle closer together
-​ The available resources in an area - areas with resources such as minerals can attract
more people to live around those areas
-​ Trading can cause areas to be nucleated - when there is more people in areas which
are nucleated, the people are able to trade with each other for resources that they
need

Function

Dispersed:
-​ Fishing
-​ Privacy
-​ Land for farming
-​ Tourism - preserve culture
-​ Mining

Nucleated:
-​ Efficient land use
-​ Sharing of resources amongst people living in those areas
-​ Market center - main area for people to gather
Comparing Rural and Urban Settlements
Rural Urban

Population Density -​ Lower population -​ High population

density density
-​ Generally less than -​ Generally over 1000
500 people per km^2 people per km^2
-​ -​

Economic Activities -​ Tourism: natural -​ Technological

landscapes & culture services
to attract tourists -​ Financial services
-​ Agriculture -​ Manufacturing &
-​ Mining industry
-​ Industrialization -​ Business

Infrastructure -​ Isolated homes -​ Towns

-​ Hamlets -​ Cities
-​ Villages -​ Conurbation
-​ Megacities

Environmental -​ Air quality is generally -​ Air quality is usually

better worse
Characteristics -​ More land space (less -​ Land space less
people living in rural (more crowded)
areas) -​ Generally lower
-​ Higher levels of biodiversity
biodiversity -​ Natural landscapes
-​ More natural are damaged
landscapes

Rural

Rural area refers to an area with lower population density. Economic activities leaning more
towards the primary sector. It also features infrastructure like hamlets, villages, and low-rise
housing and is better in quality in terms of environmental factors.

Urban

Urban area refers to an area with higher population density. With more advanced services that
are more towards the secondary and tertiary sectors. With infrastructure ranging from towns,
cities, conurbation, to megacities as well as generally worse environmental factors compared
to rural areas.

Skills: Dispersed / Nucleated

Image Location & relative location Dispersed /
nucleated

-​ Latitude: 40.7540° N Nucleated

Locoroto -​ Longitude: 17.3180° E
ndo,
Province -​ Situated in Valle d'Itria in
of Bari, southern Italian regions
Italy of Puglia
-​ Locorotondo is part of
the metropolitan city if
Bari in the Puglia region
-​ Town is perched on a
hill
-​ Situated in the heart of
the Puglia wine region

-​ Latitude: 9.7165° N Dispersed

Kannan -​ Longitude: 77.1175° E
Devan
Hills, -​ Situated in the Idukki
India district of Kerala, India
-​ Near border of Kerala &
Tamil Nadu states
-​ Part of the western
Ghats mountain range
-​ Encompasses the
popular hill station of
Munnar
-​ Surrounded by vast tea
plantations covering
about 24,000 hectares
 -​ Latitude: 53.3570° N Nucleated
Lucan, -​ Longitude: 6.4480° W
South
Dublin, -​ Situated approximately
Ireland 12 km west of Dublin
city center
-​ Located on the river
liffey, near the
Strawberry Beds &
Lucan Weir
-​ Mostly within the local
government area of
South Dublin with some
northern parts in Fingal
-​ Near other Dublin
suburbs (e.g.
Palmerstown &
Clondalkin)
-​ Part of the wider Dublin
metropolitan area

-​ Latitude: 32.6950° N Nucleated

Nahalal, -​ Longitude: 35.1980° E
Jezreel
Valley, -​ Situated in the
Israel northwestern part of the
Jezreel Valley in
northern Israel
-​ About halfway between
Haifa & Afula
-​ Located near the foot of
the Nazareth Ridge to
the northeast
-​ Positioned in a valley
west of the main road
that historically led from
the Jezreel Valley to
Nazareth
-​ Surrounded by fertile
agricultural land with the
moshav coving 8.5km^2
Processing Questions: Linear vs. Cruciform Settlements

1.​ How do geographical features influence the formation of linear settlements?

-​ Features like rivers and coastlines can influence the formation of linear
settlements
-​ Can be influenced by natural features / man-made routes
-​ For example a river influences the formation by providing water access &
transportation routes for people living around the area
-​ Some may see it as more convenient to live around an area like this

2.​ What role do crossroads play in shaping cruciform settlement patterns?

-​ Can become a centerpoint in an area where different things like development
can occur
-​ Settlements tend to grow along roads that intersect at the crossroads
-​ This kind of settlement pattern can encourage development along the routes

3.​ Compare the environmental impact of linear versus cruciform settlements.

-​ In terms of waste, cruciform settlements will generally be at an advantage
compared to linear settlements as the waste is more spread out along the
natural geographic feature
-​ Cruciform settlements can require more planning & can cause higher
environmental impact due to the clearing of natural land for roads and housing
around the area to form the cruciform settlement while linear settlements may
require less planning and may not cause as much environmental impact as
they adapt to the natural features that the housing and settlements are built
around

Factors affecting your settlement decision

Location

Convenience

Preferably in cities
Formative Assessment on the Hierarchy of Settlements

1.​ Using evidence from Figure 2.4, describe the features of the hierarchy of
settlements and services. [3]

Figure 2.4 illustrates the relationship between settlement size, population and the
services provided. For the number and size of the settlement, at the bottom of the
hierarchy, there are many small settlements and as you move up the hierarchy, there are
less amounts of settlements as the sizes of the settlements increase. In smaller
settlements, they provide low-order services, but as you move up the hierarchy, they
provide both low-order services as well as high-order services. At the bottom of the
hierarchy, the number of hamlet settlements increase as the number of conurbations at
the top of the hierarchy decrease.

2.​ Describe the differences between low-order and high-order services. [5]

Low-order services are mostly found in settlements that are towards the bottom of the
hierarchy. They require a small threshold population in order to be viable as well as
being used by people who usually travel shorter distances in order to use these
low-order services. High-order services on the other hand are usually found in
settlements that are towards the top of the hierarchy. They require a larger threshold
population in order to keep businesses and companies running. They are used less
 frequently compared to low-order services and usually with people who are willing to
travel longer distances.

3.​ Explain the factors which have influenced the growth and functions of a named
settlement you have studied. Name the settlement. [7]

Settlement: Lozère

Lozère is located in France and is a landlocked department in Southeast France. Its

economy is primarily based on cattle farming and tourism because of its poor soil quality
and mountainous relief. Unemployment is low in Lozère due to the out-migration of
young people, this has left the population to be ageing. However, the population has
slightly increased due to the improvement in communications and easier tourism and
travelling. Although this has offered the area more job opportunities, the jobs are
seasonal, low skilled jobs which causes them to be low paying jobs and are mostly part
time as well.
A CITY’S FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE

-​ Tall high-rise buildings

-​ Highways
-​ Economic areas
-​ Areas for education
-​ Cultural areas
-​ Residential areas
-​ CBD (central business district)
-​ Public spaces
Seatwork

1. Bid Rent Theory (Diagram A)

a.​ Define the term “bid rent.”

The ‘bid rent’ explains how land value and land use change as you move
away from the CBD of an area.

b.​ Using Diagram A, explain why retail activities are willing to pay the highest
rent closest to the city center

Retail activities are willing to pay the highest rent closest to the city center
because retail activities require the consumers' demand in order to be a
successful business. Without the demand from consumers, retails will not
be able to function and will have to close.

c.​ With reference to Diagram A, describe the spatial distribution of retail,

office, and residential land uses according to bid rent theory.

Retailers are willing to pay a higher amount at the city center and
decrease their willingness to pay for rent as they go further away form the
city center. Offices are willing to pay rent closer to the city center
however it is not as much as retailers. They are more willing to pay in the
areas between points A & B. For residential, they are less willing to pay
closer to the city center and more willing to pay further away from city
centers. Point A shows the shift in retail to offices willingness to pay rent
while point B shows the shift in offices to residentials willingness to pay rent.

2. Concentric Zone Model (Diagram B)

a.​ Briefly outline the main features of the Concentric Zone Model

The main features of the concentric zone model is that areas grow
outwards from the CBD in a sense of concentric zones where there is a
common center.
 b.​ Explain how the Concentric Zone Model suggests that social status
changes as distance from the CBD increases.

The concentric zone model suggests that social status increases as the
distance from the CBD increases. This is because the CBD shows the areas
in which people are able to work. People who are living closer to the CBD,
suggest that they are from a lower-class compared to zone 5 where it is
high-class. People may want to live closer to areas that they are working
in for a more easier and more efficient way of commuting to and from
work.

c.​ Suggest two reasons why the Concentric Zone Model may not be
applicable to many cities in developing countries.

The model does not take into account the roads as well as poverty in an
area. Without the consideration of roads, the expansion of the areas do
not make sense as there is no way for expanded areas to be accessible
without a way of going and getting back from the area. As for poverty,
the model oversimplifies the poverty in an area and suggests that it is only
limited to the center of the diagram between zones of transition or light
manufacturing and the middle-class residentials.

3. Sector Model (Diagram C)

a.​ How does the Sector Model differ from the Concentric Zone Model in its
explanation of urban growth?

The sector model differs from the concentric zone model because of the
consideration of transportation routes while the concentric zone model
does not.

b.​ With reference to Diagram c, explain why heavy manufacturing (zone 6) is

often located in a specific sector of the city.

Heavy manufacturing is often located in a specific sector of the city

because zone 6 is surrounded by zone 3 where heavy manufacturing is
 surrounded by low-class residentials. This can be in the way that the area
expands due to the transportation accesses of manufacturing businesses
in zone 6. It is connected to the CBD for easier movement of products.

c.​ Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of the Sector Model
compared to the Concentric Zone Model.

An advantage of the sector model is that it takes into consideration the

transportation routes of the area in order for it to be able to expand while
a disadvantage of the sector model is that it may not take into
consideration the different ways in which an area can expand.

4. Latin American City Structure (Diagram D)

a.​ Describe the key characteristics of the Latin American City Structure
model shown in Diagram D.

The Latin American city structure model shows that the center of the
model, CBD, is connected to the upper class where they have access to
the CBD. Zones of better residences and zones of improvement of housing
surround the remaining areas of the CBD and leave for the zone of
peripheral squatter settlements lesser access to the CBDs.

b.​ Explain why squatter settlements are typically found on the periphery of
Latin American cities

Squatter settlements are typically found on the periphery of Latin

American cities due to the lack of land found around the already
higher-class areas of the area. It is generally cheaper for lower-class
citizens to live further away from the CBD center as it is cheaper and more
convenient for those who are not at the same level as the rest of the
higher class citizens who have more and better access to the city CBD.
 c.​ Suggest two reasons for the development of the "spine" of elite housing
extending from the CBD in the Latin American City Structure.

There is a development of the ‘spine’ of elite housing extending from the

CBD in the Latin American City Structure because it is a major avenue or
road that runs through the city CBD. On either side of the spine, the
higher-class residences have easy access to the CBD, which can attract
high class citizens into the CBDs and can help increase sales for retailers in
the CBD.

Case Study:

a.​ Choose one city you have studied. Describe the main land use patterns of
that city.

City: New York City

New York City’s land area covers about 825 km^2 and the distribution of
commercial land use is dominated in Midtown Manhattan and downtown
Manhattan. Lower Manhattan is the center for finance & banking
containing Wall Street and the Stock Exchange. In contrast, midtown
Manhattan has the main shops, theatres, hotels and landmark buildings
such as the Empire State building. Residential areas consist of one and
two family homes and are found more in lower-density areas of New York.
There are multi-family buildings as well and are more common in higher
density areas. In a more urban area, there are mixed residential &
commercial buildings. There are manufacturing districts which are
designed for industrial activities. Public facilities and institutions are spread
throughout the city and occupy 7% of the city’s land. Industrial uses
occupy 4% of the city’s total lot area and are found primarily in the South
Bronx along either side of Newtown Creek in Brooklyn and Queens as well
as along the western shores of Brooklyn & Staten Island.
b.​ Evaluate which of the urban land use models (Concentric Zone, Sector, or
Latin American) best explains the land use patterns of the city you have
chosen. Justify your answer.

New York can be classified as a concentric zone model because it is one

of the oldest models and New York's main businesses are in the center of
the city while manufacturers are generally in the second layer of the area.
Following that, the lower or working class around the manufacturing
zones, which fit into the concentric zone model.
Study Figure 1.74

1.​ Describe the pattern of land use in Mexico City.

Mexico City follows the Latin-American structure. Around the City Center,
it is surrounded by mostly Rich people and as you go further out from the
City Center there are more middle-class citizens as well as poorer citizens
as well.

2.​ To what extent does the pattern of land use in Figure 1.74 conform to:
a.​ the model of land use in Figure 1.73(d)
 Similar to the Latin American settlement structure, the pattern in figure 1.74
both have a CBD in the center of the map. The rich have the most access
to the CBD as the Latin American structure suggests. It displays areas in
which the difference in status of people can be seen in where the
different groups are living. The road that leads from the City Center going
into the areas of the Rich residentials can be classified as the spine of the
CBD.

b.​ any of the characteristics described in Figures 1.73(a)–(c)?

The CIty Center can be considered the CBD in all of the settlement
structures. Along the roads of the map, there also seems to be some form
of development as it is mostly middle-class people around there which
can be similar to the sector model.
Diagram 1: Core-Frame Model
Diagram 2: Factors affecting CBD

Section A: Short Answer

1.​ Study Diagram 1

(a) Define the term PLVI. (1 mark)
PLVI stands for peak land value intersection where the highest rated busiest and
the most accessible part of the CBD is located.

(b) State two characteristics of the Core (PLVI) area shown in Diagram 1. (2
marks)
-​ Contains a concentration of banks & businesses
-​ Multistory development

2.​ Using Diagram 1, describe the land use found in the zone labelled "Frame." (3
marks)
In the zone labelled ‘frame’ different parts of the area have their own functions. It
also represents the transition of the area from the core to the outer areas where
it shows the lower land values compared to the CBD.

3.​ Explain how the concept of 'functional zoning' is illustrated in Diagram 1. Give
one example from the diagram. (3 marks)
 Functional zoning is when there is a grouping of similar functions of shops in
order to maximize the efficiency & accessibility. An example would be coke &
pepsi located next to each other in order for consumers to buy one or the other.

4.​ Study Diagram 2

(a) According to Diagram 2, state three factors that contribute to the decline of
CBDs. (3 marks)
-​ Rise in car ownership where this leads to increased personal mobility as
well as a preference for out of town shopping instead of shopping in the
CBD itself
-​ Congestion which reduces accessibility into the CBDs
-​ High costs of development & upkeep in CBDs in areas like business rates
& rents
(b) Briefly explain how one of the factors you stated in (a) leads to CBD decline.
(2 marks)
When people have more car ownership it allows for people to have greater
mobility and allows them to be able to shop in areas that are not in the CBD. This
can be due to a lack of parking or prices in the CBD are just too high and not
affordable for people to pay for goods & services there. This shift reduces foot
traffic as well as economic activities in the CBD and therefore can lead to their
decline.

Section B: Extended Response

1.​ With reference to the diagrams and your own knowledge, discuss the factors
that contribute to urban sprawl and the challenges this presents for urban
planners. (8 marks)
Urban sprawl is known as the expansion of urban areas into the surrounding
areas of the rural land. Some factors that contribute to this sprawl can be
population growth, the cities will naturally grow outwards as there is demand for
land so that more people can have areas to live in. Economic development in the
area can also lead to urban sprawl as this increases the demand for larger
homes and for people to have more space. The different preferences in terms of
housing can also influence urban sprawl as some people can prefer to live in
houses where they acquire more space and can cause low-density development
in areas. Some of the challenges this presents for urban planners is that it can
 cause the environment to decline as the expansion of the city centers can cause
a loss in agricultural lands as well as increased pollution in the area. This can
lead to climate change as it contributes to the greenhouse gases emitted. Traffic
congestion can also increase as more people will become more dependent on
personal transportation and less people may use public transportation.

2.​ "The decline of the CBD is inevitable in modern cities." To what extent do you
agree with this statement? Use the diagrams and your own knowledge to
support your answer. (8 marks)
I think the decline of the CBD is not inevitable in modern cities. Generally
speaking, most CBDs have survived through significant economic & social
changes. Although some CBDs may face a decline, there is also a higher
possibility that the CBD will not face a decline. If urban planning is maximised
and done well, the chances of CBDs declining is low. I believe this because as
long as a CBD is able to adapt and evolve well, remaining as a CBD in an area
should not be an issue. This statement does not take into consideration that
different CBDs all around the world have different experiences and different ways
that it can evolve through urban planning.

3.​ The Core-Frame model (Diagram 1) suggests a clear pattern of land use within a
city. To what extent does this model accurately represent urban areas in
developing countries you have studied? Critically evaluate how factors such as
informal settlements, rapid urbanization, and limited planning influence land
use patterns, contrasting them with the model's representation. (8 marks)
The core-frame model provides an understanding of the urban structure of CBDs
but I think it is only applicable to developed countries as
Processing Questions
(a) Define the term "gentrification" in your own words, drawing on information from the
video and the provided text. (2 marks)
Gentrification is when a low income area goes through the process of alternating the
(character) area / neighbourhood and develops into a more upscale area.
(b) According to the video, what are some common visual indicators of gentrification?
Give two examples. (2 marks)
Architectural changes within buildings in the area and an increase in businesses in the
area
(c) Explain two reasons why gentrification is often considered a controversial issue. (4
marks)
Gentrification can cause those who were previously staying in areas of low income to be
displaced. This can cause long-term effects on those who are now unable to find places
to stay in as their homes have been through alteration and are now too expensive for
them to live in. Gentrification can be caused by higher tax rates which can cause people
to also be unable to afford living there, not because of housing prices but because of
the increase in tax for housing.

Contrasting Views on Gentrification

Pros (Positive) Cons (Negative)

-​ Economic growth: by allowing new -​ Displacement of the original group

businesses and the higher class to of people: if the costs of housing
enter areas of low income, it will increase, it can mean that people
cause development in the low who were previously able to afford
income area as new businesses the housing costs that they had,
will cause more job opportunities are now unable to afford them
for people (new ways for people to because of the development of the
earn more money, possibly higher area which causes costs to
wages as well) increase. It can lead to people to
be evicted and forced to leave their
-​ Improved infrastructure: in areas homes if they are unable to afford
that go through gentrification, the housing costs anymore
buildings and neighbourhoods will
generally improve infrastructure in -​ Taxes increase: the increase in tax
the areas as people that are under by the government can also be
the higher-income class enter and considered a negative effect of
 cause areas to have better gentrification. This is because
infrastructure for them to use. It although for the government
can also cause more job increasing taxes is to follow with
opportunities for people as they the rates of increased costs from
need people to be able to build the upgrades of the area, people
these new upgrades and ideas who were previously only able to
afford housing with the low tax
-​ Reduced crime rates: gentrification rates are now unable to afford
causes the area to be in a better housing because of the increased
condition compared to when it was taxes placed on housing.
before gentrification. With the
upgrade of the area, it can be -​ Cultural losses: cultures can be
shown that generally areas that are lost due to gentrification as the
gentrified usually have lower crime upgrading of areas can cause the
rates / crime rates are decreased cultures of the people who
previously lived in those areas to
have to give up their cultures in
order for the area to develop and
modernise. The unique nature of
the neighbourhood can be lost
from the upgrading and changes
that occur to the neighbourhood.
Case Study Analysis:
Figure 1.78 (Location Map):

a.​ Describe the location of Woodstock in relation to the city center and natural
features.
Woodstock is located above the main city center and its natural features include
being near a coastal area as well as the pattern of road development is organic.

b.​ What does the map suggest about the accessibility of Woodstock?
Woodstock has many roads that go through the area, it has highways, main
roads and many other kinds of roads that make the accessibility of Woodstock
easier for people to have access to the area. coastal area

Figure 1.79 (Road Network):

a.​ Describe the pattern of roads as seen in Figure 1.79.

The road network shows a slight grid-like pattern and a slightly more irregular
pattern of roads which can generally most likely suggest that there has been less
planning in terms of the roads. Slow development

b.​ What does the road network suggest about traffic flow and accessibility within
Woodstock?
It suggests that traffic flow and accessibility in Woodstock suggest that there are
lots of connections in Woodstock and that traffic flows are technically more
efficient if there are more connections within the area.

Figure 1.80 (Services in Woodstock):

a.​ Identify and comment on the types of service shown in Figure 1.80.
There are trendy cafes and newer types of businesses in figure 1.80

b.​ How do these services reflect the gentrification process?

 These services reflect the gentrification process in the area because it suggests
that there is a wealthier group of people and they mostly aim their businesses at
those people instead of focusing long-term where it includes low-income
residents. Generally people who live there have more working-class people.

Figure 1.81 (Living Conditions in Blikkiesdorp):

a.​ Describe the living conditions as suggested by Figure 1.81.

Living conditions in Blikkiesdorp show a house built with metal sheets and can
be known as a temporary relocation area for those who were displaced when
gentrification occurred to their original homes. The environment lacks proper
infrastructure with just a ground full of sand. There is most likely limited indoor
space therefore causing activities such as hanging clothes to occur outside
homes instead. There is also a worn out couch outside the house and can
suggest that there is a lack of basic furniture present inside the house. There is
also a lack of basic services (water, electricity, waste management)
b.​ What are the potential challenges faced by residents of Blikkiesdorp?
Residents of Blikkiesdorp can face challenges such as the lack of quality of
houses that they live in. The houses are not properly built and tiny holes in the
walls and roof can lead to any inconvenience if any natural hazards or just wind
blows over the area as it can enter the houses. Since the houses are also mostly
built using metal sheets, the temperature conditions in the house will differ based
on the weather outside, either being extremely hot or cold. They can also face a
denser population in the area as the proportion of people living there to the
amount of housing that the area offers does not provide enough for the people. It
can cause people to be cramped up in areas due to the lack of housing and can
cause hygiene issues as everyone will need to be sharing the same facilities. If
someone were to be infected with some sort of virus, it can be transmitted really
easily and the fact that getting medical care in these areas is not easy and cheap
can also be a challenge living in Blikkiesdorp. Since Blikkiesdorp is not
developed, there are still high crime rates in the area as people are trying to find
ways to be able to support themselves as well as their own families who have
been ‘dumped’ in these areas with poor living conditions.
Term Definition

Rural-Urban Fringe Transitional zone where urban and rural

areas meet.
Examples:
-​ San Francisco bay Area, California
-​ Outskirts of Tokyo, Japan
-​ London, England

Urban Sprawl Rapid & unrestricted expansion of urban

areas into surrounding undeveloped land
Examples:
-​ Shenzhen, China
-​ Las Vegas, Nevada
-​ Atlanta, Georgia

Green Belt Protected area of open land surrounding

urban regions to limit urban sprawl &
preserve natural spaces

Examples:
-​ Ontario’s Greenbelt
-​ Seoul’s limited development area
-​ Adelaide Park Lands

Brownfield and Greenfield Sites Brownfield sites are previously developed

lands that have been abandoned /
underused
Examples:
-​ High Line, New York City
-​ Battery Park City, Manhattan
-​ SteelStacks Arts & Cultural
Campus, Bethlehem

Greenfield sites are undeveloped lands

typically in rural areas that have never
been built on before
Examples:
-​ Vauban, Germany
-​ Tianjin Eco-City, China
-​ Songdo International Business
District, South Korea
Stakeholder How They Benefit How They Are Affected

Developers Able to purchase cheaper land for More flexibility in building design
profitable housing development due to fewer restrictions

Middle class Gain access to more affordable Enjoy a quieter and more
families spacious housing with larger land peaceful environment while still
space per family being a reasonable distance to
urban areas

Businesses Lower land costs and more space Better transport links, especially
for their operations for the for industries requiring easy
business access to highways

Farmers Get direct marketing to urban Can cause a loss (or decrease in
consumers size) in agricultural land
Can make prices for crops
increase (more revenue)

Government Can increase taxes which makes Puts the governments in a place
more revenue for them to do any where they have to make
sorts of development for the decisions where they will not
country cause harm to the stakeholders
Land Use Rural-Urban % in 2010 ​ % in 2020
Fringe

Farmland 50% 30%

Residential Areas 20% 40%

Industrial/Commercial 10% 20%

Green Belt 20% 10%

1.​ Describe how land use has changed in the rural-urban fringe between 2010 and
2020. (3 marks)
For farmland, it has decreased significantly from 50% to 30% which shows a loss
in agricultural land. As for residential areas, it shows a 20% increase from 20% to
40% which suggests that there has been some sort of urban expansion and
housing developments. Industrial and commercial land has doubled from 10% to
20% showing economic growth and that there has been more land used for
businesses. As for green belt, the land use has decreased from 20% to 10%
suggesting that there has been a reduction in the protection of green spaces in
this area of rural-urban fringe.

2.​ Explain two reasons why farmland is being lost in the rural-urban fringe. (4
marks)
Two reasons why farmland is being lost in the rural-urban fringe is because when
cities grow / expand, the demand for housing and infrastructure increases. This
leads to farmland decreasing and being used for residential areas and
commercial areas as well. Farmland near the urban areas can also become more
valuable for developers because this can be sold for higher prices for
construction projects and can cause farmland to be lost. Farmers may also
change from horizontal farming to vertical farming instead, this can be due to
saving land space or selling extra land space in exchange for money.
3.​ Assess the impacts of losing farmland and green belts due to urban expansion.
(6 marks)
There are impacts of losing farmland and green belts due to urban expansion.
There can be environmental impacts where the loss of biodiversity and wildlife
habitats are destroyed and can therefore threaten the natural species that were
living in those destroyed areas. Pollution levels can also be increased as urban
areas produce more goods and services at the cost of destroying the earth, a
way could be through the different types of pollution that it causes. The urban
expansion can cause climate change, this is because the farmland and green
belts in a way act as protection and allow for carbon dioxide to be absorbed, for
photosynthesis to happen. With the reduction of these types of land, the carbon
emissions will not be able to go through the process of photosynthesis and the
atmosphere may have increasing levels of greenhouse gas emissions.
There are also economic impacts where prices for almost all goods and services
will increase. If there is a reduction in farmland and green belts, this forces firms
and businesses to rely more on imports from other countries and can therefore
lead to higher costs for goods and services. Developers will also gain a
short-term economic benefit on their side because the sales from land and
construction projects will cause them to receive more revenue from these
businesses. However, in terms of the long-run, they may not be able to have the
same kinds of revenue compared to short - term. Farmers can also go through a
loss of jobs as they lose their careers in farmland and agriculture as the land has
already been through urbanisation and therefore has no land for farming and
agriculture to occur.
Examination Tips:
Tip 1:
One mark indicates one separate point.
If the question is worth 5 marks and you give 3 pieces of information you can only get a
maximum of 3 marks from 5.

Tip 2:
If it is relevant to draw a quick diagram you should.
Certain questions especially in Physical Geography such as the units on Rivers and
Coasts will ask you to explain the formation of a certain feature. Sometimes they will
say with the aid of a diagram, but sometimes they will not. Even if they do not
specifically ask for one (and you have the time) you can quickly sketch on in on the left
hand side of the question in the blank space there. You never know it might help you get
all the marks.

Tip 3:
'C' style questions test case study knowledge.
To be able to answer the 'C' style question worth 7 marks in Paper 1 you will need a lot
of case study material over the IGCSE course. This is the only question which take the
quality of your writing into account.

Tip 4:
Always read the question carefully and follow instructions to the letter.
The easiest way to lose marks in your Geography IGCSE is to not answer the specific
question. If anything is written in 'bold' it is important and you need to pay attention to it.
If the question says use figures or evidence, do so.
Urbanisation Key Terms

Urbanisation Urbanisation is when the proportion of

people living in towns and cities
increases.

Rural Depopulation Rural depopulation is when there is a

decline in the population in rural areas
because of factors like migration.

Counter-urbanisation Counter-urbanisation is when there is a

movement of people from an urban area
to a rural area or smaller towns, often due
to factors such as the desire for a quieter
and more peaceful lifestyle.

Squatter Settlements Squatter settlements are informal housing

areas where the people living there do not
have any legal rights of the land that they
stay in.
1.​ Calculate the percentage increase in urban population from 1950 to 2015.
[2]
3.3/0.7 x 100 = 471.43%

2.​ In 1950, 28% of the world’s population lived in urban areas. In 2015, it was
55%. What does this suggest about global urbanization trends? [3]
This suggests that global urbanisation increased over a span of 65 years. A
higher percentage of the world’s population moved to urban areas possibly due
to the benefits that urbanised areas have for them which rural areas don't.

3.​ Suggest one reason why the percentage of people living in urban areas is
expected to continue rising in the future. [2]
One reason is urbanisation and development of the economies so that more job
opportunities are created and therefore improve living standards in cities
compared to rural areas. (advances in medicine & healthcare, agricultural
improvements, urbanisation, transportation)
4.​ With reference to the graph, explain how industrialization has influenced
urban population growth. [4]
The graph shows an increase from 0.7 billion to 4.0 billion in 65 years,
suggesting that in this time span, industrialisation during this period has created
job opportunities for those living in rural areas to migrate to cities for better
employment opportunities. This has also caused the improvement of
infrastructure in cities which can make it more desirable for people to want to live
in these areas.
Why do People Move to Urban Areas?
Push Factors of Rural Area Pull Factors of Urban Areas

Lack of job opportunities and low Better job opportunities & higher
wages - not enough money made to wages - able to earn more money to
support themselves and families support themselves and families

Difficult to access healthcare and Access to healthcare and education is

education - move to urban areas for better - there is more of these factors
better access to these factors in urban areas

Limited infrastructure - electricity & More variety of infrastructure - able to

water supply may be scarce and not have access to different
enough for everyone living in rural infrastructures that urban areas have
areas (e.g. electricity)

Agriculture becomes heavily More industries that might be more

capitalised - human labour is not labour intensive compared to rural
needed for the processes in areas where it is capital intensive -
agricultural jobs (have been replaced more job opportunities for people to
by machinery) earn money to earn a living
Define suburbanization and explain one reason why it occurs in developed
countries. [3]

Suburbanisation is the process of people moving from urban areas to the rural areas.
One reason why this occurs in developed countries is that suburbanisation often
occurs due to improved transportation systems and networks (highways & public
transportations) which make the movements from urban to rural / vice versa easier.
People may be attracted to these suburban areas for a more peaceful lifestyle and
other factors.

Describe the process of counter-urbanization and explain how it affects both

urban and rural areas. [4]

Counter-urbanisation is the process of the movement of people from urban areas to

rural areas. This process is mostly occurring in developed countries where people
look for quieter lifestyles away from the busy congestion and pollutants of the cities in
urban areas.

As for the effects on urban areas, it can lead to a reduced population density in the
cities as the pressure on infrastructure and services decrease but can also cause
economic decline in some areas. Rural areas may experience population growth and
can increase demand for local economies and industries. This can also lead to
challenges in rural areas as they are not as developed as urban areas (e.g. urban
sprawl)

Using an example, explain how urban regeneration can improve the quality of
life in declining city areas. [4]

Urban regeneration in: London’s Docklands

In the Docklands of London, urban regeneration allowed for modern housing and
business hubs (e.g. Canary Wharf), improved transportation links (e.g. DLR) and
more to occur. This allowed for employment opportunities to improve, a reduction in
crime rates and also provided better living conditions for those that are staying in
those areas.

Compare the processes of agglomeration and the urbanization of suburbs,

highlighting their impact on economic growth. [5]

Agglomeration is when businesses, industries and services cluster together in a

specific area in order to benefit from the shared resources and infrastructure provided
by this area. It allowed economic growth through the increased productivity and
innovation to be maximised.

Urbanisation of suburbs is when the residential zones are developed and become a
mixed-use area with different things such as industries and services.

Although agglomeration boosts economic growth by concentrating resources in one

specific area, urbanisation of suburbs spreads the growth across a wider range of
regions by creating new hubs for employment.

Discuss how urban re-imagining can contribute to sustainable city

development. [6]

Urban re-imagining can contribute to sustainable city development because it involves

redesigning cities to prioritise sustainability through green spaces, renewable energy
use and more. Some of the benefits include the environmental benefits that this has
on the areas where it reduces pollution and allows for the air quality to improve while
promoting biodiversity in the cities. It also adds economic benefits to the area as the
sustainable designs reduce the costs long-term while at the same time attracting
investments in the new green technologies. It allows for future generations to be able
to live in these areas that have been developed in favour of the environment without
having to increase any extra spending that is unnecessary.
Primary Sector: the primary sector involves activities that are based natural
resources (e.g. agriculture, fishing)

Secondary Sector: the secondary sector focuses on the processing and

manufacturing of the raw materials from the primary sector and turns them into
finished goods (e.g. construction, manufacturing)

Tertiary Sector: the tertiary sector provides services instead of goods (e.g. retail,
education, healthcare)

MEDC: MEDC is a more economically developed country where it has a higher

standards of living and advancements which are better than an LEDC, they rely
mostly manufacturing and services

LEDC: LEDC is a less economically developed country and they rely mostly on
primary industries to support themselves. Usually have lower standards of living and
little to no advancements

Millionaire City: millionaire city is an urban area with a population that is more than a
million residents living there.

Mega City: mega city is an urban area with a population that exceeds 10 million
people

World Cities: world cities are urban areas that function as a major center for
international businesses, finance, culture, politics & innovation.
Paper 1 - Structured Questions

1.​ Describe the process of urbanisation and explain why the pace of urban
growth slows in more developed countries. (5 marks)

Urbanisation is when the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to

rural areas increases. The process slows in more developed countries because
most of the population already live in urban areas in an MEDC and the left over
population who are not in urbanised areas may not be able to afford the
change. Some people may decide to move to smaller / rural areas because they
seek to have a better quality of life and are unable to find it in the busy
atmosphere of an urbanised area. ​

2.​ Explain two reasons why counter-urbanisation occurs and discuss one
impact this has on rural areas. (6 marks)

Counter-urbanisation occurs because it may be due to the quality of life where

people desire a more peaceful and better air quality than what an urbanised
area can provide for them. Improved transportation systems also allow for
people to live further away from cities while still being able to have access to
them due to the improvements of transportation. Counter-urbanisation can lead
to more demand for housing and can raise property prices and can even
begin to displace the local populations. It can also bring economic benefits to the
area like new businesses and services. ​

Paper 2 - Skills-Based Questions

3. Study the diagram showing the stages of urbanisation. Describe two trends
shown in the diagram and explain how they relate to economic development. (5
marks)

There is low urbanisation in developing economies where most people are farmers
with very limited industrial activity. The economic development there can be considered
to be slow due to the lack of infrastructure and investment. Another trend in the diagram
is that as economies develop, urbanisation peaks with most of its people living in
cities. Industrialisation causes the economy to grow although suburban spread begins
because cities can become overcrowded.
4.​ Using the world city network map, compare the distribution of world cities
in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Suggest reasons for this
pattern. (6 marks)

World cities are mostly located in the northern hemisphere like New York and
London. The southern hemisphere, on the other hand, has fewer world cities
such as Sydney and Sao Paulo. This may be due to the development of the
northern hemisphere before the southern hemisphere and has led to urban
growth to occur earlier in one hemisphere compared to the other.
Population density can also be another factor for these patterns as regions in the
northern hemisphere like Asia and Europe generally have higher population
densities compared to the southern hemisphere which can cause the patterns to
be this way.
Paper 1 Focus: Understanding & Describing
1. Location and Context:

a)​ Describe the location of Rio de Janeiro. (Where is it in Brazil? What is its coastal
setting like?)

Rio de Janeiro is located in Brazil on the Atlantic coasts. The city lies on the
western shore of Guanabara bay surrounded by mountains and hills. Its coastal
setting includes famous beaches like Copacabana.

b)​ Outline the importance of Rio de Janeiro as a major city in Brazil and South
America.

Rio de Janeiro is one of Brazil’s most populated cities and can be a key economic
hub with industries like tourism. It serves as a major trading port and is
internationally renowned for hosting global events. The 2014 FIFA world cup was
held there and the 2016 Summer Olympics as well. It can also be considered a
cultural center due to its festivals and vibrant samba music with its iconic
landmarks.

2. Social Inequality

a)​ Describe the evidence of social inequality within Rio de Janeiro, using data from
the video.

3. Favelas

a)​ Describe the characteristics of favelas in Rio de Janeiro, including their

construction materials and locations.

4. Economic Activities

a)​ Identify the main exports of Rio de Janeiro. How do these contribute to Brazil's
economy as a Newly Emerging Economy (NEE)?
Paper 2 Focus: Analysis, Evaluation & Decision-Making

a)​ To what extent has the Favela Bairro project been successful in integrating
favelas into the wider city?
b)​ Suggest and justify sustainable strategies to improve electricity supply in
favelas.
c)​ Assess the effectiveness of the urban renewal project in the port zone of Rio de
Janeiro.
d)​ Using the information in the video and your own knowledge, suggest strategies
to improve access to education for children living in favelas.
COASTS
Key Terms

Corrosion: the degradation of a metal due to a reaction with its environment where
they are transformed into more stable compounds.

Corrasion: process of erosion where rocks & soil are worn away by the abrasive
action of solid materials moved by wind or waves (abrasion / attrition)

Attrition: as particles collide, they wear down resulting in smaller & smoother
fragments

Longshore Drift: movement of sediment along a coastline due to wave actions

Groynes: structures that are built perpendicular to the shore to interrupt water flow &
limit sediment movement (help prevent beach erosion caused by longshore drift)

Swash: movement of water up the beach after a wave breaks (transports sediment &
shaping beach profile)

Backswash: movement of water back down the beach after swash, moves sediment
away from the shore (contribute to beach erosion)
Source Direction Characteristics

Trade Winds East to west near the Caused by earth’s rotation

equator Warm
Moist air bringing rainfall to
tropical regions

Storm Systems Varies with wind direction Driven by air mass

interactions
Result in thunderstorms
Heavy precipitation
Strong winds

Swells Origin direction Ocean waves formed by

distant storms
Influenced by seabed
contours & coastal barriers
Destructive Waves Constructive Waves
Description: Description:
-​ High-energy waves -​ Low-energy waves
-​ Have strong backwash that erodes -​ Have strong swash that deposits
the coastline material on the beach
-​ Frequent & occur during stormy -​ Less frequent & occur in calm
weathers weather
a.​ Was longshore drift moving material to the left or to the right of the
photograph when Figure 5.10 was taken? What is the evidence of your
answer?
Moving material to the right of the photograph because the waves are breaking
obliquely on the beach and pushing sediment in a direction of the wave
movement

b.​ Describe the waves in Figure 5.11

Constructive waves and are relatively calm with a gentle swash which deposits
sediment on the beach

c.​ What evidence is there in Figure 5.11 that the groynes are being
successful in reducing longshore drift?

There is build-up of sediment on one side of each of the groynes and the other
side has less sediment deposited there. It suggests that the groynes are
trapping sediment and prevents it from being carried away by the longshore
drift

d.​ Why might a local authority further down the coast be concerned about
these groynes?​

A local authority might be concerned about these groynes because the groynes
interrupt the longshore drifts and can reduce the sediments supply to the area
along the coast. It can lead to an increased amount of erosion occurring
downstream because those areas may not have enough material that is
deposited there.

e.​ What evidence is there in both photographs that, as rivers do, the sea
sorts material during deposition?

There are large pebbles and are visible closer to the shore while the finer
materials like sand are deposited further away or in areas where there is
calmer waters. It happens because heavier materials require more energy to
be moved and deposited first.

f.​ How is the slope of the beach related to the size of its material?

The slope of the beach is steeper where larger materials like pebbles are
deposited because these heavier materials resist movement by waves and are
usually closer to the shorelines. Shallower slopes tend to have finer materials
like sane because of the lower wave energy.

Steeper the slope= the larger the particles

Gentler the slopes- the finer the particles
a.​ Compare the cliff profile at the Cape of Good Hope (Fig. 5.15) with the one
in Fig. 5.17. Suggest why they are different.

The cliff in fig 5.15 and fig 5.17 are different because in fig 5.15 it is steep and
shaped by high-energy waves & resistant rock types which withstand erosion
better. As for fig 5.17 it has a vertical profile and visible layers of soft rock at the
base which makes it more prone to erosion. The difference is in its rock type,
wave energy and weathering processes

b.​ What was the state of the tide when Fig. 5.16 and Fig. 5.18 were taken?
Give a reason for your answer.

The tide looks like its low in fig 5.16 because the wave-cut platform is exposed
and allows for people to walk on it which is only possible in low tides. In fig 5.18
rocks and debris at the base of the cliff are visible and indicates that the tide is
also low.

c.​ What type of wave is breaking in Fig. 5.16?

Destructive waves because they are high-energy and the waves crash against
 the rock with significant force contributing to erosion.

d.​ Describe the wave-cut platform at the Cape of Good Hope.

At Cape of Good Hope the wave-cut platform is flat and rocky. This can be
formed from continuous erosion from destructive waves over time. It
discovered with boulders and debris and it indicates that active erosion is
occurring.
1.​ Look at the colour of the water in the main river in Fig. 4.3

a.​ What is the cause of this? What type of transport is taking place?
What size of particle is being transported?
The water looks to be a bit brownish in the main river. It can be caused
by the sediment and mud being carried across the waters through
suspension. The heavy rainfall may have increased the surface runoff
and washed the soil and particles like mud into the waters. These particles
remain suspended in the water as it travels across the waters giving
it a muddy appearance.

b.​ Suggest why the tributary’s water is clear.

The tributary’s water is clear because it may be from the part of the
region where there is more stable soils and rock formations which
are less prone to erosion. The tributary flows through areas with more
vegetation compared to the other side where it is more muddy
looking, it can suggest that the roots of plants are able to stabilise
the soils and reduce the surface runoff so that less amounts of soil
and mud particles are entering the areas of water not giving it a
muddy appearance as the other sides. There may be slower-moving
waters compared to the main river. The slowed velocity of water running
can allow the already suspended particles to sink down to the bottom of
the river instead of being carried along during the process of suspension.
1.​ Explain how waterfalls and gorges are formed.

Waterfalls form when a river flows over layers of hard and soft rock. The softer
rocks will erode quicker compared to the hard rocks above it due to
processes like hydraulic action and abrasion. This creates a step in the
riverbed. Over time, it will become steeper and eventually the layer of hard rock
will be unable to support itself because the soft rock beneath it eroded. It will
eventually fall off and the process will repeat forming a waterfall.

2.​ Draw an annotated diagram to show the formation of an oxbow lake.

3.​ Compare the middle and lower course of a river with its upper course.

Upper course:
-​ Steeper gradient from high mountainous areas
-​ Narrow and shallow with rougher larger rocks
-​ More vertical erosions (depends on the processes occurring, e.g.
hydraulic action & abrasion)
-​ High velocity due to the steepness of the slopes
 -​ Larger sediments

Middle course:
-​ Less steep compared to upper course as the river flows through hills
and plains
-​ Wider & deeper compared to upper course
-​ Smoother channel bed
-​ More of widening the channel erosion as vertical erosion decreases
-​ Velocity is faster than the upper course
-​ Smaller and more rounded particles due to abrasion

Lower course:
-​ Gentle gradient as the river starts to become the same as sea level
-​ Widest and deepest parts of the river
-​ Very minimal amounts of erosion
-​ Highest velocity as the increase in discharge from tributaries
-​ Fine particles are transported

4.​ Suggest why sediment change may change downstream.

Sediment change may change downstream because as the larger sediment

particles are broken down as you go downstream, they become smaller ones
due to abrasion. The sediments become finer and smaller in size and are
therefore able to be carried downstream as it requires less energy for the
waters to carry them compared to larger sized rocks.

5.​ Define flood.

A flood is when there is an overflow of water that makes land that is dry wet
and occurs when the rivers exceed their maximum capacity. It can be due to
heavy rainfall or other factors.

6.​ A. Outline the disadvantages of floods.

The disadvantages of floods are that there may be a loss of life and property
damage. If the floods does heavy damage on an area that it has flooded,
people may lose their lives during this event and property can be heavily
damaged from the overflowing waters. Those people who manage to survive
may need to be displaced as their original homes have been damaged by
these floods. It can also lead to a contamination of water supply in the country
or area and people will have less amounts of clean water for drinking and other
uses. Agriculture can also be damaged if it is flooded as crops that require a
 certain amount of water will be overwatered and can therefore die due to too
much water that they have received.

B. Comment on the advantages that floods bring.

Some advantages that floods can bring is that soils can be replenished.
Because most of the soils are used for agriculture, its properties have to be
replenished and the floods do that. The amount of groundwater is also
replenished during a flood because more water seeps into these soils and
become groundwater.

​
7.​ A. Describe the natural causes of floods.

Some natural causes of floods are heavy rainfall where there is lots of rain over
short periods of time and they provide more water than the ground is able to
absorb in a certain amount of time. If there is heavy rainfall in areas where
there are steeper slopes, the water that runs down them ends up into those
river channels at the bottom and can cause flooding in those areas. If there is
excessive snow melting due to an increase in temperatures it adds to the
amounts of water that flows down into the main channel of the river therefore
causing flooding.

B. Outline the human factors that contribute to floods.

Some of the human factors that contributed to floods are deforestation. When
an area is deforested, the removal of the trees reduces the interceptions
that precipitation goes through and causes the rain to directly hit the ground
breaking soils. The removal of trees also removes what holds the soils
together. The soils are now unable to hold together and they are prone to
erosion and therefore reduces the ability to retain water. Urbanisation can
also cause flooding because the construction of buildings using
materials such as concrete, prevents waters from infiltration and
therefore increases the surface runoff. If the area is poorly planned it will
cause floods to occur more frequently or more severely.
(a) Identify the main feature shown in the section view of the diagram. (1)

Gorge

(b) Explain how the process of erosion leads to the formation of a gorge over time, as
illustrated in the diagram. Include references to specific processes such as hydraulic
action and abrasion. (4)

Hydraulic action - occurs when the force of water from the waterfall hits the base of
the rock, pushes air into the cracks & joints and the pressure eventually causes the
rock to break off

Abrasion - rock fragments are hit against the bedrock of the base of the waterfall

The overhang will eventually collapse due to these processes and the process will
repeat itself leaving behind a narrow gorge where the river once flowed.

(c) Discuss how the retreat of waterfalls, as shown in the diagram, impacts the
surrounding landscape and ecosystems. (6)

Landscape changes - the retreat creates a gorge as it reshapes the physical

geography of the area

Sediment transporting - the collapsed rock materials contributes to sediments

 downstream and can affect the flow and the deposition patterns of the river

Flood risks - the changes in the river can lead to increase flood risks downstream
because of the change in the sediment deposition and the flow rates

Success Criteria Modeling or Mark Scheme Modelling

Paper 1 - Short Answer & Knowledge-Based Questions:

1.​ Identify and describe two main processes of erosion responsible for the
retreat of Victoria Falls. (4 marks)

Two main processes of erosion responsible for the retreat of Victoria Falls are
hydraulic action and abrasion (2). Hydraulic action is where the water pushes
air into the cracks of the rock which increases the pressure and causes the
rock to eventually break apart after the constant pressures put on it. (1)
Abrasion is where sediments and rocks that are being carried by the waters are
scraped against the riverbeds and walls as it wears them down over time. (1)

1 mark per correctly identified process:

a.​ Hydraulic action (water forcing air into cracks, causing rock to break apart).
b.​ Abrasion (sediments and rocks carried by the water scrape the riverbed and
walls).

1 mark per correct explanation of the process.

2.​ Explain how Victoria Falls contributes to the local economy through
tourism. (4 marks)

Victoria Falls contributes to the local economy through tourism because it is a

 major tourist attraction site. This allows for visitors to be drawn to the place
from all over the world. This generates revenue through the fees that people
will need to pay to be able to experience and see the waterfall. Tourism
can also create jobs in sectors and industries like transportation and tour
guiding. There can also be indirect economic benefits as this allows for local
businesses to be supported and transportation services.
1 mark for stating that Victoria Falls is a major tourist attraction.​

1 mark for explaining how it generates revenue through entrance fees,

accommodations, and guided tours.​

1 mark for mentioning job creation in the tourism sector.​

1 mark for discussing indirect economic benefits (e.g., transportation, local businesses,
souvenirs).

3.​ Describe how Victoria Falls has changed over time due to geological
processes. (4 marks)

Victoria Falls has changed over time due to geological processes where
the waterfall has progressively retreated upstream as erosion wears away
the rock layers. The processes such as hydraulic action and abrasion have
also deepened the plunge pool and undercut that the rock faces. The softer
rock layers also erode quicker than the hard ones and therefore creates a
plunge pool which destabilises the rock that is overhanging rock and eventually
causes it to collapse.

3 marks
1 mark for mentioning that Victoria Falls has retreated upstream over time.​

1 mark for describing how erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion) wears away the rock.​

1 mark for explaining that softer rock erodes faster, forming a plunge pool.​

1 mark for linking this to the formation of gorges downstream.

4.​ What are the environmental impacts of tourism at Victoria Falls? (4 marks)

The environmental impacts of tourism at Victoria Falls is that the foot traffic
may increase as there are more people visiting the area and can cause
 soils to go through compression and erosion and can also damage local
vegetation. The littering due to more visitors can also impact the
environment as more people mean that there are higher and more
chances for the environment to be disturbed by humans, causing
pollution. The wildlife habitats can also be disrupted because of human
activity. For example, infrastructure made for tourists who cme visiting her
country. If there is more tourism related infrastructure and water usage can
have an impact on the natural water flows which causes impacts on the
ecosystem.
1 mark for stating increased foot traffic leading to soil erosion and vegetation loss.

1 mark for mentioning pollution (e.g., littering, water contamination).

1 mark for discussing habitat disturbance for local wildlife.

1 mark for noting potential water flow alterations due to tourism-related infrastructure.

5.​ Explain how tectonic activity influenced the formation of Victoria Falls. (4
marks)

Tectonic activity influences the formation of Victoria Falls as the waterfall

is located in an area where the tectonic plates are moving and creates
fractures as well as weaknesses in the rock. The tectonic processes like
rifting and uplift has shaped the landscape and has influenced the path of the
Zambezi River. This allows for the river to flow and erode the rock along the
fault lines. The Zambezi river exploited these faults and fractures as it carves
out channels which contributes to the formation of the waterfall as water is
flowing over the rock layers. Over time, the tectonic activities contributed to the
retreat of the formation of Victoria Falls as erosion processes deepened the
plunge pool and formed gorges to go downstream along the fault lines.
1 mark for stating that Victoria Falls lies in an area of tectonic faulting.

1 mark for explaining how rifting and uplift created the Zambezi River’s path.

1 mark for mentioning how the river exploited faults in the rock, leading to waterfall formation.

1 mark for linking tectonic activity to the retreat and formation of gorges.
Paper 2 - Data Response & Application Questions:

6.​ Study a topographic map showing the Zambezi River and Victoria Falls.
Describe the main physical features visible on the map. (5 marks)

https://en-us.topographic-map.com/map-31dl18/Horseshoe-Falls/?center=
-17.93271%2C25.84675&zoom=13

The map highlights that Victoria Falls is a major waterfall where the Zambezi
River plunges over a steep cliff as it creates one of the largest waterfalls in the
world. As the waterfall goes downstream the map shows that there are deep
gorges carved from the retreat of the waterfall because of the erosion
processes. At the upstream of the waterfall, the river has meanders which
suggests that there are slower-moving waters and sediments deposition in this
section. The map suggests plateaus surrounding the river with a forested area
which contributes to the beauty and biodiversity of the region. The contour
lines on the map also show the changes in the elevation near Victoria Fall and
along the gorges, as it reflects the steep drop at the waterfall.
1 mark for identifying Victoria Falls as a major waterfall.

1 mark for describing the steep escarpments and gorges.

1 mark for noting the presence of river meanders upstream.

1 mark for identifying surrounding plateaus or forested areas.

1 mark for mentioning changes in elevation indicated by contour lines.

7.​ Analyze a climate graph for the region around Victoria Falls. How does
seasonality affect the volume of water flow over the falls? (4 marks)
 1 mark for identifying the region’s wet and dry seasons.

1 mark for explaining that rainfall is highest from November to April (wet season).

1 mark for linking increased rainfall to higher water flow over the falls.

1 mark for explaining that lower rainfall in the dry season (May to October) reduces water flow.

1 mark for discussing the impact of seasonality on tourism (e.g., reduced water spectacle in
dry months).

The region experiences wet and dry seasons. Wet seasons occur from November to April with
high levels of rainfall and dry seasons are from May to October with minimal rainfall during
these months. During wet seasons, the heavy rainfall significantly increases the volume of
water flowing into the Zambezi River and results in higher water flow over Victoria Falls.
However, during dry seasons, the rainfall levels are very low. This leads to reduced water
levels in the river and a significantly lower volume of water flowing over the falls. This can
cause parts of the waterfall to dry up temporarily. Seasonality affects tourism because visitors
and tourists will only be visiting during wet seasons while those who visit during dry seasons
may see a less dramatic flow of water and can impact their experience, reducing tourists
numbers during that period.

8.​ Examine a photograph of Victoria Falls in the wet and dry seasons.
Describe the changes and explain their causes. (6 marks)
 In the wet season, the image on the right, Victoria Falls appears to look fuller
with a larger volume of water falling over the cliff. There is more mist and spray
in the image which creates a more dramatic visual effect. In contrast, during dry
seasons in the left image, the waterfall has significantly reduced flow with some
sections of the cliff exposed due to the lower water levels. The plunge pool also
appears to be calmer and there is also little to no mist visible. The region
experiences high rainfall during the wet season where the flow of the Zambezi
River increases and results in a fuller waterfall. During the dry season the
rainfall is minimal and it leads to reduced river flow and less water falling over.
Human activities can reduce the water flow during the dry season. This can be
due to activities such as extraction for irrigation and as power generators.
2 marks for describing differences (e.g., increased mist, fuller waterfalls in the wet season vs.
reduced flow in dry season).

2 marks for explaining seasonal rainfall differences.

2 marks for discussing human factors (e.g., potential upstream water extraction affecting flow).

9.​ A proposed hydroelectric dam upstream of Victoria Falls could reduce

water flow. Discuss the possible effects of this on tourism and biodiversity.
(7 marks)

Some possible effect of this on tourism and biodiversity is that it can reduce the
level of impressiveness of the waterfall especially during dry seasons. The mist
and spray would be diminished significantly as the dam would be blocking it
 from doing so. It may cause the rock at the back to be exposed and can cause
negative impacts in status as one of the seven natural wonders of the world
due to the sudden change in its appearance. Tourism can also be affected as
many people visit to view the magnificent waterfalls. If it is blocked by a dam it
removes its visual appeal and can impact local businesses that depend on the
waterfall for their revenue from tourists. It can cause job losses and lead to
unemployment in the tourism sectors. If there are lower water levels, the mist
produced will be reduced and the ecosystems that surround the area can also
be affected due to the sudden lack of mist produced by the waterfall. The fish
population can also be impacted as it negatively impacts the aquatic habitats
and can reduce the fish populations and affect the species that are relying on
these ecosystems to survive. Controlled water releases from the dam can also
mimic natural flow patterns that are to preserve the visual appeals of Victoria
Falls during its peak tourist seasons.
2 marks for explaining how reduced water flow may make Victoria Falls less visually
impressive.

2 marks for discussing economic consequences (e.g., fewer tourists, job losses).

2 marks for analyzing ecological effects (e.g., reduced fish populations, changes in local
habitats).

1 mark for evaluating possible mitigation strategies (e.g., controlled water releases,
conservation efforts).

Exemplar Answers:

1.​ Identify and describe two main processes of erosion responsible for the
retreat of Victoria Falls.

One main process of erosion is hydraulic action, where the force of fast-moving
water pushes air into cracks in the rock. Over time, repeated compression and
expansion of trapped air weaken the rock, causing it to break apart.

Another process is abrasion, where sediment and rocks carried by the water
collide with the riverbed and cliffs. This scraping action gradually wears away the
rock, deepening the plunge pool and leading to the retreat of the waterfall.
2.​ Explain how Victoria Falls contributes to the local economy through
tourism. (4 marks)

Victoria Falls is a major international tourist attraction, drawing thousands of

visitors each year. The tourism industry generates income through entrance fees,
accommodations, and guided tours. Additionally, it creates employment
opportunities in hotels, restaurants, transport, and tour operations. The increased
number of visitors also benefits local businesses, such as markets selling
handicrafts and souvenirs, boosting the overall economy.

3.​ Describe how Victoria Falls has changed over time due to geological
processes. (4 marks)

Victoria Falls has gradually retreated upstream due to continuous erosion.

Hydraulic action and abrasion wear away the rock at the waterfall’s edge,
enlarging the plunge pool. Softer rock erodes faster than harder rock, leading to
undercutting. As a result, sections of rock collapse, shifting the waterfall
backward and creating a series of gorges downstream

4.​ What are the environmental impacts of tourism at Victoria Falls? (4 marks)

Tourism increases foot traffic, leading to soil erosion and vegetation loss near
the falls. Pollution from litter and wastewater also affects the local ecosystem.
Wildlife habitats may be disturbed due to the presence of tourists, noise, and
infrastructure development. Additionally, water flow could be altered by the
construction of tourism-related facilities, impacting the natural hydrology of the
river.

5.​ Explain how tectonic activity influenced the formation of Victoria Falls. (4
marks)

Victoria Falls is located in a tectonically active region where faulting has

shaped the landscape. Rifting and uplift created the path of the Zambezi River,
guiding its flow. The river exploited faults in the rock, eroding weaker sections to
form the waterfall. Over time,
 Polar Regions

Temperate Regions

Tropical Region - Tropics

Tropical Region - Tropics

Temperate Regions

Polar Regions

6.​ Study a topographic map showing the Zambezi River and Victoria Falls.
Describe the main physical features visible on the map. (5 marks)

The map shows Victoria Falls as a steep waterfall along the Zambezi River.
There are gorges downstream, formed due to erosion and retreat of the falls.
Escarpments are visible, indicating steep changes in elevation. Upstream, the
river has meanders, where it curves before reaching the falls. Surrounding the
falls are plateaus and forested areas, shown by contour lines and vegetation
patterns.

7.​ Analyze a climate graph for the region around Victoria Falls. How does
seasonality affect the volume of water flow over the falls? (4 marks)

Victoria Falls experiences wet and dry seasons. The wet season (November
to April) has high rainfall, leading to increased river discharge and greater water
flow over the falls. In contrast, the dry season (May to October) has less
precipitation, causing a significant reduction in water flow. During dry months,
parts of the falls may appear smaller or even dry up, affecting both the landscape
and tourism appeal.

8.​ Examine a photograph of Victoria Falls in the wet and dry seasons.
Describe the changes and explain their causes. (6 marks)
 In the wet season, Victoria Falls appears fuller, more powerful, and
surrounded by mist, as heavy rainfall increases river discharge. The falls may
extend across the entire width of the gorge. In contrast, during the dry season,
water flow is significantly reduced, exposing parts of the rock face, and some
sections may temporarily dry up. This change is caused by seasonal variations
in rainfall, with higher precipitation in summer and lower rainfall in winter.
Additionally, human activities such as water extraction for agriculture or
hydroelectric projects can influence river discharge levels.

9.​ A proposed hydroelectric dam upstream of Victoria Falls could reduce

water flow. Discuss the possible effects of this on tourism and biodiversity.
(7 marks)

The construction of a hydroelectric dam upstream of Victoria Falls could have

significant negative impacts on both tourism and biodiversity.

A major concern is the reduction in water flow, which would make Victoria Falls
appear less impressive. The falls rely on high river discharge, and a decrease in
water volume could result in a less dramatic waterfall, reducing its appeal to
tourists. This could lead to fewer visitors, negatively affecting the local
economy, as businesses and jobs in the tourism sector rely on tourist revenue.

From an environmental perspective, the dam could disrupt the ecosystem of

the Zambezi River. Reduced water flow could affect fish populations, leading to
declines in species that depend on a steady current. Additionally, changes in
water levels could alter habitats for aquatic and terrestrial wildlife, impacting
biodiversity.

However, some measures could help mitigate these effects. Controlled water
releases could ensure that the falls maintain an adequate flow during peak
tourist seasons. Additionally, conservation efforts and sustainable tourism
practices could help preserve the natural environment while allowing economic
benefits from tourism to continue.
 River Flood

Opportunities Hazards

Benefits to agriculture: the flooding can Property damage and loss of lives:
replenish the soil with nutrient sediments flooding can destroy homes and
and make the soil more fertile and better infrastructure in the area which can cause
for growing crops the death of people who were caught in
these accidents
Fishing industry: flooding can create
areas for fish to appear so that those in Damages the environment: it can harm
the fish industry are able to fish for them ecosystems with excessive replenishing
and allows for more profit and revenue to of soils and polluting rivers
be made
Health risks to humans and other
Transportation: it can be a source of species: the flood water may contain
movement for people to move goods and disease and people can get infected by
people them as well as possibly cause
respiratory diseases
Paper 1

(a) Define the term hydrograph. [1]

Hydrograph is a graph that shows the discharge of a river over time (period of rainfall)

(b) Describe two differences between the hydrographs of River 1 and River 2. [2]

River 1 has a shorter lag time and river 2 has longer lag time. River 1 has higher peak
discharge and river 2 is lower

(c) Explain why River 1 has a higher risk of flooding than River 2. [3]

River 1 has impermeable rocks, steep slopes, sparse vegetation and is also more
urbanized which influences the reduction of infiltration and increases the surface
runoff. This can lead to water to accumulate in the rivers to occur quicker and have
higher peak discharges and this causes the risk of flooding to increase.
(d) Suggest two ways human activity can affect the shape of a hydrograph. [4]

Two ways human activity can affect the shape of a hydrograph due to urbanisation
where the construction of roads and infrastructure using impermeable surfaces can
increase the surface runoff and shorten the lag times while they also raise the peak
discharge. Deforestation can also change the shape because removing the trees
reduces the interception and infiltration that can occur. This increases the runoff and
cause a steeper rising limb and higher peak discharge in the hydrograph.

(e) Explain how afforestation (planting trees) can help reduce the risk of flooding. [5]

Afforestation can help to reduce the risk of flooding because it increases the
interception for when precipitation occurs. It intercepts rainfall and slows down the
movement and pressure that it has when it hits the ground as it will have to go
through the tree leaves before it can finally hit the ground. The tree roots also
enhance the soil structures and hold them together, this can increase infiltration and
reduce the surface runoff. This can lead to a longer lag time with a lower peak
discharge and also decrease the flood risks.

Paper 2

(a) Identify the river with a shorter lag time. [1]

River 1

(b) Describe the relationship between peak discharge and lag time in the two
hydrographs. [2] (1)

A shorter lag time with have a higher peak discharge while the longer lag time has a
lower peak discharge

(c) Using evidence from the figure, suggest reasons for the differences in the
hydrographs of River 1 and River 2. [4] (4)

In river 1, there are impermeable rocks and it causes infiltration to be reduced. The
steep slopes also increase the runoff speed. If there is not a lot of vegetation and
plants, this limits the interceptions with precipitation and urbanisation can also create
impermeable surfaces.

For river 2, it has permeable rocks and this allows infiltration to occur. The gentle
slopes allow the water movement to be slowed down. Usually rural areas have less
impermeable surfaces and it can result in a long lag time and low peak discharge

(d) Explain how land use changes, such as urbanisation, could impact the hydrograph
of a river over time. [5] (3 marks)

Land use changes like urbanisation can impact the hydrograph of a river over time
because urbanization increases the impermeable surfaces in an area due to the
increase of roads and buildings. This reduces infiltration levels and increases the
surface runoff. This can cause a shorter lag time and a steeper rising limbs as well as
higher peak discharges on the hydrograph.
Paper 1

(a) Define the term hydrograph. [1]

A hydrograph is a graph that shows changes in river discharge over time in response
to a period of rainfall.

(b) Describe two differences between the hydrographs of River 1 and River 2. [2]

River 1 has a shorter lag time, while River 2 has a longer lag time.​

River 1 has a higher peak discharge, while River 2 has a lower peak discharge.

(c) Explain why River 1 has a higher risk of flooding than River 2. [3]

River 1 has impermeable rocks and steep slopes, which prevent water from
infiltrating into the ground. This leads to more surface runoff, causing a sudden
increase in river discharge. Additionally, urbanisation in River 1’s drainage basin
means there are more roads and buildings, reducing infiltration and increasing flood
risk.

(d) Suggest two ways human activity can affect the shape of a hydrograph. [4]

Urbanisation increases the number of impermeable surfaces (e.g., roads and

pavements), leading to more surface runoff and a shorter lag time with higher peak
discharge.​

Deforestation reduces vegetation cover, meaning less water is intercepted and more
reaches the river quickly, increasing the risk of flooding.

(e) Explain how afforestation (planting trees) can help reduce the risk of flooding. [5]

Afforestation increases interception as trees absorb some of the rainfall, slowing

down the movement of water to the river. Tree roots also improve infiltration by
allowing water to seep into the soil instead of running off. This results in a longer lag
time and lower peak discharge, reducing the likelihood of flooding. Additionally,
afforestation helps to stabilise soil, preventing erosion that could contribute to riverbed
siltation, which can make floods worse.

Paper 2

(a) Identify the river with a shorter lag time. [1]

River 1 has a shorter lag time.

(b) Describe the relationship between peak discharge and lag time in the two
hydrographs. [2]

There is an inverse relationship between peak discharge and lag time. River 1 has a
short lag time and high peak discharge, meaning water reaches the river quickly
and causes a rapid rise in water levels. River 2, on the other hand, has a longer lag
time and lower peak discharge, as water takes longer to reach the river, resulting in
a slower increase in river discharge.

(c) Using evidence from the figure, suggest reasons for the differences in the
hydrographs of River 1 and River 2. [4]

The short lag time and high peak discharge of River 1 are due to impermeable
rocks, steep slopes, and urbanisation. These factors increase surface runoff,
causing water to reach the river quickly. In contrast, River 2 has permeable rocks,
gentle slopes, and more vegetation, which promote infiltration and interception,
slowing down water movement and leading to a longer lag time and lower peak
discharge.

(d) Explain how land use changes, such as urbanisation, could impact the hydrograph
of a river over time. [5]

Urbanisation increases impermeable surfaces such as concrete roads, buildings,

and pavements, which prevent water from soaking into the ground. This causes more
surface runoff, leading to a shorter lag time and higher peak discharge,
increasing flood risks. Additionally, drainage systems and stormwater channels
can speed up the movement of water into rivers, making flooding more likely. Over
time, the removal of green spaces due to urban expansion further reduces infiltration
and interception, making the river respond more quickly to rainfall events.
Case Study Analysis

Describe two causes of flooding in the Indus River Valley. (4 marks)

Two causes of flooding in the Indus River Valley are the torrential monsoon rains
where the region experiences heavy monsoon rains, and can lead to excessive water
accumulation. For example, in August 2020 where more than half of the normal
monsoon rainfall occurred in just a week. Another cause is the melting of snow and
glaciers where the Himalayas contribute to flooding due to the increased glacial
melting during warmer periods which can be due to global warming.

Explain how population growth has increased the impact of flooding in

Pakistan. (4 marks)

Population growth has increased the impact of flooding in Pakistan because there is
an increase in the pressure on resources because Pakistan’s population grew from 50
million in 1960 to 200 million in 2017. The increase in the population has caused the
demand on foods, water supply and other factors to be increased and therefore
increased the impacts of flooding. Urbanisation and infrastructure can also
increase the impact of flooding as the increase in population may have led to
more homes and infrastructure being built near flood-prone areas where this
increases the vulnerability of the people during floods.

Discuss the economic and environmental effects of flooding in the Indus River
Valley. (6 marks)

The economic effects of flooding are the loss of infrastructure as floods damage
roads, railways and more which can disrupt economic activities. Agricultural losses
can be affected because the floodwaters can destroy crops and reduce food
production. Example in 2010, where ⅕ of Pakistan’s arable land was affected.
Livestock deaths as well as 450,000 livestock were lost in 2010 when the flood
occurred where it impacted the rural livelihoods.

The environmental effects of flooding are the sediment deposition where the
floodwaters deposit sediment that clogged the irrigation canals and reduced
agricultural productivity. It also disrupts the ecosystem as deforestation and industrial
pollution exacerbate flooding impacts by harming vegetation and wildlife in the delta
regions.

Evaluate the effectiveness of responses to flooding in Pakistan. (6 marks)

The effectiveness of responses to flooding in Pakistan can be seen in two types of

aid, government and international aid. For the government, they have tried to have
appeals for funding in order to help provide relief but were insufficient for long-term
flood management. The National disaster management Authority also introduced
disaster risk reduction plans to focus on education and infrastructure improvements.
These initiatives can be used to show improvements but it does require consistent
implementation in order for it to be fully effective. As for international aid,
organisations such as the UN and foreign governments have provided immediate
relief, like food aid, clean water, emergency shelter and more. For example, Saudi
Arabia and the USA have promised to donate $600 million after the 2010 floods to
help out those who were affected by the floods. Although this is helpful and effective
in addressing the immediate needs of those who have been affected, there has to be
more reliance on external aid.

Suggest two sustainable strategies that could reduce the risk of future flooding
in the Indus River Valley. (4 marks)

Two sustainable strategies that could reduce the risk of future flooding in the Indus
River Valley is to implement reforestation programs and to improve water
management infrastructure. By implementing these, planting trees in the upper
tributary areas would help to reduce erosion and prevent excessive sediment to be
transported into the rivers. This minimises blockages that can lead to flooding.
Another strategy can be to improve water management infrastructure. By constructing
or upgrading the dams and levees, this addresses sediment clogging and would help
to regulate river flow during monsoon season and the glacial melting periods.
Past Paper

3 (a) Study Fig. 3.1, a map of the drainage basin of the Kalinadi River in India.

1.​ In what general direction does the river flow between X and Y?

In the Kalinadi river, it flows from northeast to southwest between X and Y

2.​ Suggest three likely differences between the river valleys at X and Y.

3 differences between the river valleys at X and Y is the gradient, river width
and the vegetation and land use. The gradient at X is most likely to be steeper
because it is closer to the watershed and higher elevations. At Y the valley is
 flatter as it approaches lower elevations near the river’s mouth. As for the river
width, at X, the river may be narrower due to the less water accumulation
upstream and at Y, the river is wider because it collects more tributaries
downstream. For vegetation and land use, at X the river may be denser due to
the less human activity in higher altitudes and at Y there could be more
agricultural or urban development due to the flatter terrain.

3.​ One benefit of living in the drainage basin of the Kalinadi River is that
hydroelectric power (HEP) can be generated. Suggest reasons why
hydroelectric power can be generated at the sites shown in Fig. 3.1. (4
marks)

Hydroelectric power can be generated at the sites shown because of the steep
gradient where the HEP are located in areas where there are steep slopes which
allows for water to flow rapidly and generate kinetic energy for turbines. There is
also abundant water supply as the river collects water from tributaries across the
drainage basin which ensures that there is consistent flow for power generation.
It may also be generated there due to its strategic location where it is positioned
upstream where the flow can be controlled effectively using dams or reservoirs.
(b) Study Fig. 3.2 (Insert), a photograph of a waterfall.

1.​ Describe the features of the waterfall shown in Fig. 3.2. (3 marks)

The waterfall shows a vertical drop where it is steep and the water flows rapidly
down the rock face. At the base of the waterfall, there is also likely a plunge pool
formed by the erosive action of the fall water. There are large rocks that are
visible around the waterfall which may contribute to turbulence in the water flow.
The area around the waterfall is also lush with vegetation and plants indicating
that it is a natural environment.

2.​ Suggest how the waterfall shown in Fig. 3.2 was formed. (3 marks)

The waterfall shows in Fig. 3.2 was formed due to the presence of hard rock
overlying softer rock. Over time the softer rock erodes more quickly than the hard
rock creating a step in the riverbed. The force of the water flowing over the edges
can cause vertical erosion which deepens the drop and forms a plunge pool at
the base. As erosion continues there may be some undercutting that has
 occurred beneath the hard rock layer which eventually causes pieces of hard
rock to collapse and maintain the steep drop of the waterfall.

3.​ Describe the main features of an oxbow lake and explain its formation. You
may use a labelled diagram or diagrams. (4 marks)

The main features of an oxbow lake is the U-shaped water body. As an oxbow
lake is curved, there is a U-shaped lake that is formed in the former river
meander. It is cut off from the main river channel and filled with stagnant water
and it will also most likely be surrounded by vegetation which often grows around
it due to the reduced water flow.

The formation process of an oxbow lake is that a river will flow across the
floodplain and develop large bends or meanders due to the lateral erosion on the
outer banks and deposition on the inner banks. As the erosion continues at the
outer banks it causes the neck of the meanders to narrow over time. During high
flow or flooding, the river can break through the arrow neck and create a new
straighter channel. The abandoned meander loop is left isolated as an oxbow
lake when sediment seals off its connection to the main river.
Table 4.1 gives the definitions of some terms used in the study of rivers and
drainage basins.

1. For each of the following terms give the letter for the correct definition from
Table 4.1:

letter

Watershed D - highest point of land which divides

drainage basins

tributary C - stream which feeds into a larger

stream / river

evaporation E - when liquid turns into gas (water

vapour)
Fig. 4.1 shows the discharge for two rivers. Both rivers receive the same amount
of rainfall at the same time.

1.​ Compare the discharge of river A with river B in Fig. 4.1.

The peak discharge in river A is higher compared to river B. the graph shows that
river A responds more intensely to the rainfall event. As for lag time, river A has a
shorter lag time compared to river B, meaning that it reacts faster to rainfall. For
the duration of high discharge river A’s discharge decreases quickly after the
peak while river B sustains a lower but longer-lasting discharge over time.

2.​ Using Fig. 4.1, suggest three ways in which the drainage basins of river A
and river B differ.

3 ways in which the drainage basins of river A and river B differ is that the size of
the drainage basin may be different. River A is likely to have a smaller drainage
basin causing water to reach the main channel more quickly resulting in a shorter
lag time and higher peak discharge. As for river B, it might have a larger basin as
it leads to slower water movement and prolonged discharge. There may be less
vegetation at river A which reduces the water infiltration and increases the
surface runoff which leads to rapid response to rainfall. As for river B there is
 more likely more vegetation which promotes infiltration and slowing runoff. The
soil in river A may be less permeable causing more surfaces runoff and faster
discharge. In contrast, river B’s basin may have more permeable soil which
allows water to infiltrate and delay runoff into the river channel.

3 (a) Study Fig. 3.1, which shows a method of protecting the coast from erosion

1.​ Identify the method of coastal protection which is labelled X in Fig. 3.1.

Groynes

2.​ Explain how the method labelled X in Fig. 3.1 protects the coast from
erosion.

The method labelled X is groynes and it protects the coast from erosion by
trapping the sediment on the beach. They reduce the movement of the sediment
along the coasts from longshore drifts and this allows for the sand to be
accumulated on the beach. By trapping the sand, the groynes create a wider and
higher beach which acts as a natural barrier against any sort of wave energy.
 When there is a larger beach, it absorbs more wave energy which reduces the
erosion of the coastline behind it.

3.​ Suggest three reasons why some coastlines are protected from erosion.

Three reasons why some coastlines are protected from erosion is because most
coastal areas often have towns, cities and other infrastructure nearby. Erosion
can threaten these structures by undermining their foundations or causing
damage which can lead to costly repairs or loss of property for those who live
nearby. By protecting these coastlines, it ensures the safety of these human
settlements and the economic activities. Another reason is to preserve the areas
for tourism purposes. As beaches are a popular tourist site, it contributes
significantly to the local economies through activities like swimming and other
water sports. Erosion can result in the loss of sandy beaches which makes them
less attractive to visitors and reduces the tourism revenue for the economy.
Therefore, coastal protection measures help maintain the aesthetic and the
appearance of these areas. Another reason can be to conserve the natural
habitats and ecosystems. As coastal zones are homes of diverse ecosystems
such as mangroves and coral reefs, these support various plant and animal
species. Erosion can lead to habitat destruction and can threaten biodiversity and
disrupt ecosystems. By protecting these coastlines, it helps to preserve these
habitats for wildlife and ensures the sustainability of the coastal ecosystems.
IGCSE Geography Model Answers

3 (a) Study Fig. 3.1, a map of the drainage basin of the Kalinadi River in India.

In what general direction does the river flow between X and Y?​
The river flows from northeast to southwest between X and Y.

Suggest three likely differences between the river valleys at X and Y.

1.​ Gradient: The valley at X has a steeper gradient as it is located near the
watershed at higher elevations, whereas at Y, the valley is flatter as the river
nears its lower course.​

2.​ River Width: The river at X is narrower because it has accumulated less water,
whereas at Y, it is wider due to additional water from tributaries downstream.​

3.​ Vegetation and Land Use: The valley at X is likely to have denser vegetation
due to limited human activity at higher elevations. In contrast, Y may have more
agriculture and urban settlements because of the flatter terrain and fertile
floodplains.​

One benefit of living in the drainage basin of the Kalinadi River is that
hydroelectric power (HEP) can be generated. Suggest reasons why hydroelectric
power can be generated at the sites shown in Fig. 3.1. (4 marks)​
Hydroelectric power can be generated at the sites shown due to:

1.​ Steep Gradient: The HEP plants are located in areas with steep slopes,
allowing water to flow rapidly and create kinetic energy to turn turbines.​
 2.​ Abundant Water Supply: The river collects water from numerous tributaries,
ensuring a continuous and reliable water flow for power generation.​

3.​ Strategic Location: The sites are positioned upstream, where flow regulation
through dams or reservoirs is more effective.​

4.​ High Rainfall in the Drainage Basin: The region likely experiences high
precipitation, maintaining a strong water flow needed for power generation.​

(b) Study Fig. 3.2 (Insert), a photograph of a waterfall.

Describe the features of the waterfall shown in Fig. 3.2. (3 marks)

1.​ The waterfall has a steep vertical drop, where water flows rapidly over a rock
face.​

2.​ A plunge pool is formed at the base due to erosion caused by falling water.​

3.​ Large boulders and rocks are visible around the waterfall, creating turbulent
water movement.​

Suggest how the waterfall shown in Fig. 3.2 was formed. (3 marks)

1.​ The waterfall formed due to differential erosion, where hard rock overlays
soft rock. The softer rock erodes more quickly, forming a step.​

2.​ Over time, hydraulic action and abrasion deepen this step, increasing the drop
height.​

3.​ Undercutting occurs as erosion continues at the base, leading to rock collapse
and maintaining the steep drop of the waterfall.​

Describe the main features of an oxbow lake and explain its formation. (4 marks)

Features of an oxbow lake:

1.​ A U-shaped body of water, isolated from the main river channel.​
 2.​ Stagnant water, with no direct connection to the river’s flow.​

3.​ Surrounded by vegetation, as deposition and reduced flow allow plant growth.​

Formation process:

1.​ A river meanders across a floodplain, with erosion on the outer banks and
deposition on the inner banks.​

2.​ Continuous erosion narrows the meander neck.​

3.​ During flooding or high discharge, the river breaks through the neck, forming a
new, straighter channel.​

4.​ Sediment seals off the old meander loop, creating an oxbow lake.​

Table 4.1 gives the definitions of some terms used in the study of rivers and
drainage basins.

For each of the following terms, give the letter for the correct definition from
Table 4.1:

Term Correct Definition

Letter

Watershed D The highest point of land that divides drainage

basins.

Tributary C A stream that feeds into a larger stream/river.

Evaporatio E The process where liquid turns into gas (water

n vapor).
Fig. 4.1 shows the discharge for two rivers. Both rivers receive the same amount
of rainfall at the same time.

Compare the discharge of river A with river B in Fig. 4.1.

1.​ Peak Discharge: River A has a higher peak discharge than River B, indicating
a rapid response to rainfall.​

2.​ Lag Time: River A has a shorter lag time, meaning water reaches the river
channel faster, whereas River B has a longer lag time.​

3.​ Duration of High Discharge: River A’s discharge decreases quickly after
peaking, while River B’s discharge is sustained for a longer period.​

Using Fig. 4.1, suggest three ways in which the drainage basins of river A and
river B differ.

1.​ Basin Size: River A likely has a smaller drainage basin, causing quicker water
movement. River B’s larger basin results in slower runoff and a prolonged
discharge.​

2.​ Vegetation Cover: River A has less vegetation, increasing surface runoff and
reducing infiltration. River B has denser vegetation, promoting infiltration and
delaying runoff.​

3.​ Soil Permeability: River A’s impermeable soil leads to more surface runoff
and faster discharge, while River B’s permeable soil allows infiltration,
reducing peak discharge.​

3 (a) Study Fig. 3.1, which shows a method of protecting the coast from erosion.

Identify the method of coastal protection which is labelled X in Fig. 3.1.​

The method labelled X is groynes.

Explain how the method labelled X in Fig. 3.1 protects the coast from erosion.
 1.​ Groynes trap sediment carried by longshore drift, preventing erosion by
maintaining a wider beach.​

2.​ A wider beach absorbs wave energy, reducing the impact of waves on the
coastline.​

3.​ They help stabilize the shoreline, reducing further land loss and protecting
infrastructure.​

Suggest three reasons why some coastlines are protected from erosion.

1.​ To protect settlements and infrastructure: Many coastal areas have towns,
roads, and businesses that need protection from erosion.​

2.​ To preserve economic activities: Coastal tourism, fishing, and ports rely on
stable shorelines.​

3.​ To prevent loss of agricultural land: Some coastlines support farming, and
erosion can lead to the loss of fertile land.​
Weather

Rainfall The amount of precipitation that falls over

a period of time

Humidity The concentration of water vapour in the

air.

Air Pressure The force that the weight of air has on the
earth’s surface

Wind direction and velocity Which way is the wind blowing from and
the speed of the wind

Sunshine and Cloud cover Amount of sunlight and how much of the
sky is filled with clouds(?)

Weather Climate

Weather is the short-term conditions of Climate is the long-term average of

the atmosphere at a specific place and weather conditions in a region over a
time period of time
1. Compare the temperature in Manila, Philippines, and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Manila has a temperature of 34ºC which is slightly higher than in Kuala Lumpur’s temperature
which is 32ºC. This indicates that Manila is experiencing warmer weather compared to Kuala
Lumpur.

2. Analyze the rainfall data for both locations. What does this indicate about the
weather conditions?

Manila has 0 mm of rainfall while Kuala Lumpur has 5 mm of rainfall. This suggests
that Manila is experiencing dry conditions whereas Kuala Lumpur is experiencing light
rain, indicating that there is a slightly wetter weather condition.

3. Compare the wind speeds in Manila and Kuala Lumpur. What implications
might these differences have?

Manila has a wind speed of 10 mph coming from the northeast while Kuala Lumpur
has a slower wind speed of 5 mph coming from southwest. The stronger winds in
Manila can help to reduce the heat by providing better ventilation while the lighter
winds in Kuala Lumpur may make the air feel more humid.

4. Based on the data provided, which location would likely feel more humid?
Explain your reasoning.

Kuala Lumpur would likely feel more humid because of its high recorded rainfall of 5
mm and lower wind speed of 5 mph. This reduces the air circulation and allows for the
moisture to linger in the atmosphere. In contrast, Manila’s dry conditions and stronger
winds would make it feel less humid despite its higher temperature.
Model Answers:

Question 1: Compare the temperature in Manila, Philippines, and Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia.

Exemplar Answer:

Manila, Philippines has a higher temperature of 93°F (34°C) compared to Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia, which has a temperature of 90°F (32°C). The difference is 3°F (2°C).

Question 2: Analyze the rainfall data for both locations. What does this indicate
about the weather conditions?

Exemplar Answer:

Manila, Philippines recorded no rainfall (0 inches or 0 mm), indicating dry weather

conditions. In contrast, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia experienced rainfall of 0.2 inches (5
mm), suggesting wetter conditions. This reflects Kuala Lumpur's tendency for more
humid and rainy weather compared to Manila.

Question 3: Compare the wind speeds in Manila and Kuala Lumpur. What
implications might these differences have?

Exemplar Answer:

Manila has a wind speed of 10 mph (16 km/h), which is stronger than Kuala Lumpur's
wind speed of 5 mph (8 km/h). The higher wind speed in Manila may contribute to
cooler perceived temperatures despite the higher actual temperature, while Kuala
Lumpur’s lower wind speed may intensify the humid conditions.

Question 4: Based on the data provided, which location would likely feel more
humid? Explain your reasoning.

Exemplar Answer:

Kuala Lumpur would likely feel more humid due to its recorded rainfall of 0.2 inches (5
mm) and lower wind speed of 5 mph (8 km/h), which reduces evaporation and
increases humidity. Manila, with no rainfall and higher wind speed, would feel less
humid despite its higher temperature.

I'm glad you liked it! Here’s the revised IGCSE Geography Paper 2-style question set
with explicit formulas for each calculation.
IGCSE Geography Paper 2 – Temperature
Calculations and Analysis
Question 1: Temperature Calculations (5 marks)

Use the formulas provided to answer the following:

(a) A city records a maximum temperature of 32°C and a minimum temperature of 26°C
in one day.​

Using the formula below, calculate the mean daily temperature: 29ºC

(b) In another location, the maximum daily temperature is 38°C, and the minimum is
28°C.​

Using the formula below, calculate the diurnal temperature range:10ºC

(c) If the mean monthly temperatures for a year in City X are:

●​ January: 24°C​

●​ February: 25°C​

●​ March: 27°C​

●​ April: 28°C​

●​ May: 29°C​
 ●​ June: 30°C​

●​ July: 31°C​

●​ August: 30°C​

●​ September: 29°C​

●​ October: 27°C​

●​ November: 26°C​

●​ December: 25°C​

Using the formula below, calculate the mean annual temperature: 27.58ºC

Compare the mean daily temperatures of Manila (maximum: 34°C, minimum: 25°C)
and Kuala Lumpur (maximum: 32°C, minimum: 24°C). Which city has a higher mean
daily temperature?

Manila - 29.5ºC

KL - 28ºC

In Lagos, Nigeria, the highest mean monthly temperature is recorded as 27.5°C in

March, and the lowest mean monthly temperature is recorded as 24.5°C in August.
Calculate the mean annual temperature range.

27.5 - 24.5 = 3ºC

Mark Scheme
1.​ A - 27ºC & B - 30ºC
2.​ A - 27ºC & B - 15ºC
3.​ A: 28 - 26 = 2ºC & B: 30-13 = 17ºC

4.​ A: rainfall is higher throughout the year with a total annual precipitation of 1811
mm. The wettest month is from January to May with rainfall exceeding 200 mm
per month while June to September has a reduction in rainfall while remaining
above 50 mm per month.

B: Rainfall is extremely low throughout the year with a total annual precipitation
of only 25 mm. It shows the characteristics of a desert as most of the months
receive little to no rainfall with a slight increase in December & January