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Applied Physics R20 - Unit-1

Engineering Physics-1 (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada)

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UNIT-1
INTERFERENCE
Interference:

When two or more waves are superimposed then there is a modification of intensity or
amplitude in the region of superposition. This modification of intensity or amplitude in the
region of super position is called Interference.
When the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to two waves, the
interference is known as Constructive interference and when the resultant amplitude is equal to
the difference of two amplitudes, the interference is known as destructive interference.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:

This principle states that the resultant displacement of particle in a medium acted upon by
two or more waves simultaneously is the algebraic sum of displacements of the same particle due
to individual waves in the absence of the others.
Consider two waves traveling simultaneously in a medium. At any point let y1 be the
displacement due to one wave and y 2 be the displacement of the other wave at the same instant.

Then the resultant displacement due to the presence of both the waves is given by

y = y1 ± y2

+ve Sign has to be taken when both the displacements y1 & y 2 are in the same direction
−ve Sign’ has to be taken when both the displacements y1 & y2 are in the opposite direction.
INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

Consider a thin film of thickness t and refractive index µ . A ray of light OA incident on the
surface at an angle i is partly reflected along AB and partly refracted into medium along AC,
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making an angle of refraction r .at C it is again partly reflected along CD. Similar refractions
occur at E.

To find the path difference between the rays, draw DB perpendicular to AB

Then the path difference = µ ( AC + CD ) − AB …………….(1)
From triangle ACE
CE
cos r =
AC
CE t
AC = = ………………..(2)
cos r cos r
From triangle CDE
CE
cos r =
CD
CE t
CD = = ……………….(3)
cos r cos r
From triangle ABD
AB
cos(90 − i ) =
AD
AB = AD cos(90 − i ) = 2 AE sin i ………..(4) ( AD = 2 AE )
FROM triangle ACE
AE
sin r = AE = AC sin r
AC
t sin r t
AE = ( AC = )
cos r cos r
From Eq (4)
2t sin r
AB = × sin i
cos r
2t sin r sin i sin r
AB = ×
cos r sin r
2
2µt sin r sin i
AB = ………………………(5) ( µ= )
cos r sin r
On substituting the values of AC , CD & AB from Eq(2),(3)&(5) in Eq(1) ,we get
t t 2µt sin 2 r
The path difference = µ ( + )−
cos r cos r cos r
2µt 2µt cos 2 r
= (1 − sin 2 r ) = = 2µ t cos r
cos r cos r
∴The path difference = 2 µ t cos r
According to the theory of reversibility, when the light ray reflected at rarer-denser interface, it
λ
introduces an extra phase difference π (or) path difference of
2
∴The actual path difference = 2 µ t cos r − λ
2

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Case.1: condition for maximum intensity

We know that the intensity is maximum when path difference= nλ

λ
∴ From Eq.(6) 2µt cos r − = nλ
2
λ
2 µ t c o s r = ( 2 n + 1)
2

Case.2: condition for minimum intensity

λ
We know that the intensity is minimum when path difference = (2n + 1)
2
λ λ
∴ from Eq.(6) 2µt cos r − = (2n + 1)
2 2
2 µ t cos r = ( n + 1)λ

NEWTON’S RING EXPERIMENT

A Plano convex lens(L) having large focal length is placed with its convex surface on the
glass plate(G2).a gradually increasing air film will be formed between the plane glass plate and
convex surface of Plano convex lens. The thickness of the air film will be zero at the point of
contact and symmetrically increases as we go radially from the point of contact.

A monochromatic light of wavelength ‘ ’ is allowed to fall normally on the lens with the
help of glass plate (G1) kept at 450 to the incident monochromatic beam. A part of the incident
light rays are reflected up at the convex surface of the lens and the remaining light is transmitted
through the air film. Again a part of this transmitted light is reflected at on the top surface of the
glass plate (G1).both the reflected rays combine to produce an interference pattern in the form of
alternate bright and dark concentric circular rings, known as Newton rings. The rings are circular
because the air film has circular symmetry. These rings can be seen through the travelling
microscope.

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THEORY

Consider a Plano convex lens is placed on a glass plate. Let R be the radius of curvature and r
be the radius of NEWTON ring, corresponding to constant film thickness.
As one of the rays suffers reflection at denser medium, so a further phase changes of π or path
λ
difference of takes place.
2
λ
The path difference between the rays =2 t cos r + ----------------------------- (i)
2

For air µ = 1 , and normal incidence r = 0

λ
∴ Path difference = 2t +
2

AT THE POINT OF CONTACT

The thickness of the air film t=0, µ=1 & for normal incidence r = 0.

λ
Then the path difference = .
2
λ
If the Then the path difference = then the corresponding phase difference is .so that
2
gives a dark spot is formed at the centre.
For bright ring

λ
2t + = nλ
2
λ
2t = (2n − 1) ----------------------------------- (ii)
2
For Dark ring

λ λ
2t + = (2n + 1)
2 2

2t = nλ ------------------------------------------- (iii)
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In the above fig, from the property of the circle

NP × NQ = NO × ND

r × r = 2t × ( 2 R − t )

r 2 = 2 Rt − t 2

As t is small, t 2 is very small. So t 2 is neglected.

∴ r 2 = 2 Rt
r2 D2
t= t= ------------------------ (iv)
2R 8R
Thus for bright ring
From Eq (ii) & (iv)

2D 2 λ
= (2n − 1)
8R 2

Dn2 = 2( 2 n − 1)λ R ---------------------------------------- (v)

Thus for dark ring

From Eq. (iii) & (iv)

2D 2
= nλ
8R

Dn2 = 4 Rnλ …………………………….. (vi)

Dn2 = 4 Rnλ

Determination of wave length of monochromatic light

From Eq(vi) Dn2 = 4 Rnλ

For n = m , Dm2 = 4 Rmλ

∴ Dm2 − Dn2 = 4 Rm λ − 4 Rnλ = 4 Rλ ( m − n )

2 2
∴ λ = Dm − Dn ------------------------------------(vii)
4 R (m − n)

This is the expression for wave length of monochromatic light.

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Determination of refractive index of a liquid

The experimental set up as shown in fig. is used to find the refractive index of a liquid.
To find the refractive index of a liquid, the plane glass plate and Plano convex lens set up is
placed in a small metal container. The diameter of nth and mth dark rings are determined, when
there is air between Plano convex lens and plane glass plate.
Then we have,

Dm2 − Dn2 = 4 Rm λ − 4 Rn λ
= 4 Rλ ( m − n ) .

Now the given liquid whose refractive index (µ) is to be introduced in to the space
between Plano convex lens and plane glass plate without disturbing the experimental set
up.
Then the diameters of Newton’s rings are changed. Now the diameter of nth and mth dark
rings are measured.
Then Dm2 – Dn2 = 4R (m-n)/µ--------------------------- (viii)
Therefore from (vii) & (viii) µ= Dm2 – Dn2

CONDITIONS TO GET STATIONARY INTERFERENCE FRINGES

1. The two sources should be coherent.
2. The two sources must emit continuous waves of the same wavelength and same frequency.
3. The distance between the two sources (d) should be small.
4. The distance between the sources and the screen (D) should be large.
5. To view interference fringes, the back ground should be dark.
6. The amplitude of interfering waves should be equal.
7. The sources must be narrow, i.e., they must be extremely small.
8. The source must be monochromatic source.
Production of Colors in thin films:
With monochromatic light alternate dark and bright interference fringes are obtained.
λ
With white light, the fringes obtained are colored. it is because the path difference 2µt cos r −
2
depends upon µ , t & r
(i) Even if t and r kept constant, the path difference will change with µ & λ of light
used. White light composed of various colors from violet to red. The path difference
λ
also changes due to reflection at denser medium by as λV λR .
2
(ii) If the thickness of the film varies with uniformly, if at beginning it is thin, which will
appear black. as path difference varies with thickness of the film, it appears different
colors with white light.
(iii) If the angle of incidence changes, the angle of refraction is also changes, so that with
white light, the film appears various colors when viewed from different directions.

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DIFFRACTION

“When light is incident on the obstacles or small apertures whose size is comparable to
wavelength of light, then there is a departure from straight line propagation, the light bends round
the corners of the obstacles and enters into geometrical shadow. This bending of light is called
diffraction.”

Differences between Interference and diffraction

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION

1. Superposition is due to secondary wavelets

1. Superposition is due to two separate wave
originating from different parts of same wave
fronts originating from two coherent sources.
front.

2. Interference fringes may or may not be of same

2. Diffraction fringes are not of the same width
width.

3. Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly

3. Points of minimum intensity are perfectly dark
dark.

4. All bright bands are of uniform intensity 4. All bright bands are not of same intensity.

There are two types of Diffractions are there, they are

1. Fresnel Diffraction
2. Fraunhofer Diffraction

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Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

Differences between Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

1. Eighter a point source or an illuminated

1. Extended source at infinite distance is used.
narrow slit is used.

2. The wave front undergoing diffraction is 2. The wave front undergoing diffraction is
either spherical or cylindrical. plane wave front.

3. The source and screen are at finite distances 3. The source and screen are at infinite
from the obstacle. distances from the obstacle.
4. No lens is used to focus the rays. 4. Converging lens is used to focus the rays.

FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT:

Consider a slit AB of width “e” and a plane wave front WW1 of monochromatic light of
wavelength “ ” is incident normally on the slit. The diffracted light through the slit is focused with the
help of a convex lens on a screen. The screen is placed at the focal plane of the lens. Here the secondary
wave lets spared out to the right in all directions.
The waves travelling along OPo are brought out to focus at Po by the lens. Hens PO is the
bright central image.
The secondary wavelets at angle “ ” with normal are focused at P1 on the screen.
Depending upon path difference, P1onmay be of maximum (or) minimum intensity point.
To find intensity at P1 we drawn a normal AC from A to the light ray at B the path
difference between the wave lets from A and B in the direction “ ” is given by
BC
From TraingleABC , sin θ = BC = AB sin θ = e sin θ
AB

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2π
∴Phase difference = e sin θ
λ
Let us consider the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts. Then the phase difference
between any two consecutive waves from these parts would be.
1 1 2π
(total. phase) = .e sin θ = d (say)
n n λ
nd
a sin
Resultant amplitude R = 2
nd
sin
2
n 2π
a sin × .e sin θ
2 nλ
∴R =
2π
sin .e sin θ
2nλ
π e sin θ
a sin
λ
=
π e sin θ
sin
nλ
π e sin θ
Let α = . Then
λ
a sin α
R=
α
sin
n
α α α
As is small, sin ≈
n n n
a sin α sin α
∴R = = na
α α
n
2
Now the intensity 2 2 sin α
I=R = A .......(1)
α

Principal Maximum:
sin α A α3 α5 α7
R=A = α− + − + ....
α α 3! 5! 7!
α2 α4 α6
= A 1− + − + ....
3! 5! 7!
π e sin θ
The value of R will be maximum, when α=0, i.e = 0 or sin θ = 0
λ
Or θ = 0
∴ Maximum intensity I=R2 =A2, this is occurred at θ = 0, this maximum is known as
principal maximum.
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Minimum intensity Positions:

The intensity will be minimum, when sin α=0.
∴α = ±π , ±2π , ±3π ,.......... ± mπ
α = ± mπ
π e sin θ
= ± mπ
λ

e sin θ = ± mλ
In this way, we obtain the points of min. inf. on either side of the principle maxima.

Secondary maxima:

In addition to principle maxima at α=0. There are weak secondary maxima between
equally spaced minima. The points of secondary maxima obtained as follows.
2
2 sin α
I=A
α
dI sin α α cos α − sin α
= A2 .2 . =0
dα α α2
From above either sin α=0, or α cosα -sin α =0 if sin α=0, it is min. intensity position. Hence
positions of maximum are obtained by
α cos α − sin α = 0
α cos α = sin α

α = tan α ---------------- (2)

The values of α satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically by plotting curves y = α ,
y = tan α on the same graph. The points of intersection of two curves give the values of α which
satisfy the equation (2)

π π
From fig The points of intersections are α = 0, ±3 , ±5 ,......... , at these points we get secondary
2 2
maxima
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Intensity distribution graph

FRAUN HOFFER DIFFRACTION AT DOUBLE SLIT:

Let A B and CD be two parallel slits of equal width ‘ e ’ separated by an opaque distance d . The
distance between the corresponding middle points of the two slits is (e + d ) . Let a parallel beam of
monochromatic beam of wave length λ be incident normally upon to the two slits. .

When a wave front is incident normally on both slits all the points with in the slits
become the sources of secondary wavelets. The secondary waves traveling in the direction of
incident light come to focus at Po while the secondary waves traveling in the direction making an
angle with θ the incident light come to focus at P1.

According to the theory of diffraction at a single slit. The amplitude R due to all the
wavelets diffracted from each slit in a dissection θ is given by.

sin α π e sin θ
R=A where α =
α λ
Thus for simplicity we can take two slits as equivalent to two sources S1 and S2 placed at
A sin α
mid points of the slits and each slit sending a wavelet of amplitude in the direction θ .
α
∴ Resultant amplitude at a point P1 on the screen will be a result of interference between
A sin α
two waves of amplitude and having a phase difference.
α
The path difference between the wavelets from S1 and S2 in the dissection θ = S2k.
path.difference = (e + d )sin θ
2π
∴ phase.difference(δ ) = (e + d ) sin θ
λ

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A sin α A sin α
From figure R cos θ = + cos δ …………(1)
α α
A sin α
R sin θ = sin δ ……………………..(2)
α
Squaring & adding eq(1)&(2)
2 2 2 2
A sin α A sin α A sin α A sin α
I = R2 = + cos δ + 2 cos δ + sin δ
α α α α
2
A sin α
= [ 2 + 2 cos δ ]
α
2
A sin α
=2 [1 + cos δ ]
α
2
A sin α δ
=2 2 cos 2
α 2
2
A sin α δ π
I =4 cos 2 β ........(3) , Where β = = (e + d ) sin θ
α 2 λ

Discussion of Intensity:

From equation (3) the resultant intensity depending upon the following two factors.
sin 2 α
1. A2 Which is same as the intensity in the case of single slit diffraction thus it gives
α2
intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern.
2. cos 2 β Which gives the intensity pattern due to two waves interfere.
The resultant intensity at any point on the screen is given by the product of these two
factors.
sin 2 α
∴ Diffraction term gives the
α2
(i)Central maximum at θ = 0
(ii)Minimum intensity positions α = ± mπ
π e sin θ
= ± mπ
λ
e sin θ = ± mλ
.
π π
(iii) .Secondary maxima obtained at α = ±3 , ±5 ,...............
2 2
On taking these three points plotted as graph as shown in the fig(a).
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The interference term cos 2 β gives the maximum

cos 2 β = 1 β = ± mπ
π
(e + d ) sin θ = ± mπ
λ
(e + d ) sin θ = ± mλ
This is plot as shown in fig.(b)
The resultant intensity graph is as shown in fig. (c)

Diffraction at N-Parallel slits [Diffraction grating]

An arrangement consists of large no. of parallel slits of same width and separated by equal

opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating.

If there are N slits.

The path difference between any two consecutive slits is = (e + d ) sin θ
2π
∴ Phase difference = (e + d ) sin θ = 2 β
λ
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By the method of vector addition of amplitudes

nd
a sin
R= 2
d
sin
2
A sin α
In this case a = , n = N and d = 2β
α

A sin α sin N β
∴ R= .
α sin β
2 2
2 A sin α sin β sin N β
I =R =
α β sin β
2
A sin α
The factor gives the distribution of intensity due to single slit. While the factor
α
2
sin N β
gives the distribution of intensity as a combined effect of all the slits.
sin β
Principle maxima:
The intensity will be maximum when sin β = 0
β = ± nπ , n = 0,1, 2,3,.....

sin N β
But at the same time Sin N β = 0. So that the factor becomes indeterminate.
sin β
sin N β N cos N β
∴ lim = lim β → nπ = ±N
β → nπ sin β cos β
2
sin N β
lim = N2
β → nΠ sin β
2
A sin α
∴ The Resultant intensity I = N2
α
i.e. The principle maxima obtained for β = ± nπ
π (e + d ) sin θ
= ± nπ
λ
(e + d ) sin θ = ± nλ
Minimum Intensity Positions:
Intensity I is the minimum when sin N β = 0 ,but sin β ≠ 0
∴ N β = ±π , ±2π , ±3π ,.........
N π (e + d ) sin θ
= ± mπ
λ

N (e + d ) sin θ = ± mλ

Where m having all values except

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0, N , 2 N ,............nN .
i.e, m = 1, 2,.....( N − 1), ( N + 1),....(2 N − 1), (2 N + 1),.......
Secondary maximum:
I maximum when
dI
=0
dβ
d sin α 2 sin N β 2
[( A ) ( ) ]=0
dβ α sin β
A sin α sin N β
N sin β cos N β − sin N β cos β
( ) 2 2[ ][ ]=0
α β sin 2 β
N sin β cos N β − sin N β cos β = 0
N sin β cos N β = sin N β cos β
sin N β
N sin β = cos β ( )
cos N β
N
tan N β =
cot β

N
∴ sin N β =
( N 2 + cot 2 β )
sin 2 N β N2
=
sin 2 β ( N 2 + cot 2 β )sin 2 β
N2
= 2 2
N sin β + cos 2 β
N2
=
N 2 sin 2 β + 1 − sin 2 β
sin 2 N β N2
∴ =
sin 2 β 1 + ( N 2 − 1)sin 2 β

sin α N2
I sec = ( A )2 [
α ( N 2 − 1)sin 2 β + 1

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int ensity.of .sec.ondary max ima

∴
int ensity.of . principle max ima
N2
=
(1 + ( N 2 − 1) sin 2 β ) × N 2
int ensity.of .sec.ondary max ima 1
∴ =
int ensity.of . principle max ima 1 + ( N − 1)sin 2 β
2

From this we conclude that as the value of N increases the intensity of secondary maxima will decreases

GRATING SPECTRA

We know that the principle maxima in a grating are formed in a direction θ is given by
(e + d ) sin θ = ± nλ
Where (e + d ) grating element is θ is the angle diffraction and is Wave length
From the above equation, we conclude that
1. For a particular wave length , the angle of diffraction θ is different for different orders.
2. For white light and for an order n the light of different wave lengths will be diffracted in
different directions. The longer the wavelength, greater is the angle of diffraction. So violet color
being in the innermost position and red color in the outermost position.
3. Most of the intensity goes to zero order and rest is distributed among other orders thus the spectra
become fainter as we go to higher orders.
Characteristics of grating spectra
1. Spectrum of different orders are situated symmetrically on both sides of zero order
2. Spectral lines are almost straight and quite sharp.
3. Spectral colors are in the order from violet to red.
4. Most of the intensity goes to zero order and rest is distributed among the other orders.

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Maximum no. orders available with a grating

The principle maxima in grating satisfying the condition
(e + d ) sin θ = nλ
(e + d )sin θ
n=
λ
(e + d ) sin 900
nmax =
λ
(e + d )
n m ax =
λ

DISPERSIVE POWER OF GRATING:

The dispersive power of grating is defined as the rate of variation of angle of diffraction with
dθ
wavelength i.e., is known as dispersive power of grating.
dλ
The condition for maxima is (e +d) sin = nλ
On differentiation we get (e+d) cos d = n dλ

This is the expression for dispersive power of grating.

Conclusions :

The dispersive power is directly proportional to diffraction order n.

The dispersive power is inversely proportional to grating element (e+d).
The dispersive power is inversely proportional to cosθ.

RESOLVING POWER OF GRATING:

The resolving power of a grating is defined as the capacity to form separate diffraction maxima of two
wave lengths which are very close to each other

Let A B be a plane grating having grating element (e + d ) and N be the total no. of slits. let a
beam of wavelengths λ and λ + d λ is normally incident on the grating in the fig P1 is the nth primary
maximum of wavelength λ at an angle of diffraction θ n and P2 is the nth primary maximum of
wavelength λ + d λ at an angle of diffraction (θ n + dθ n ) .
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According to Rayleigh’s criterion, the two wave lengths will be resolved if the principle
maximum of one falls on the first minimum of the other.
The principle maximum of λ in the direction θ n is given by
(e + d ) sin θ n = ± nλ ..........(1)
The wave length (λ + d λ ) form its nth primary maxima in the direction (θ n + dθ n )
(e + d ) sin(θ n + dθ n ) = ± n(λ + d λ ).............(2)

The first minimum of wave length λ from in the direction (θ n + dθ n )

N (e + d ) sin(θ n + dθ n ) = ( nN + 1)λ .............(3)
Multiplying eq(2) with N

N (e + d ) sin(θ n + dθ n ) = ± nN (λ + d λ )............(4)

From (3) & (4)

Nn(λ + d λ ) = (nN + 1)λ
nN λ + nNd λ = nN λ + λ
nNd λ = λ
λ
= nN
dλ
(e + d ) sin θ n
But from eq (1) n =
λ λ N (e + d ) sin θ n
∴ Re solving. power.of .grating =
dλ λ

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by diffraction of light? Explain on the basis of Huygens wave theory.
2. Explain with necessary theory, the Fraunhofer diffraction due to ‘n’ slits.
(Or)
Give the theory of plane diffraction grating. Obtain the condition for the formation of nth order
maximum.
3. Distinguish between Interference and Diffraction.
(Or)
How is diffraction different from Interference?
4. Calculate the maximum number of orders possible for plane diffraction grating.
5. Write notes on Rayleigh’s criterion.
6. Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhoffer diffractions.
7. Define Resolving power of grating. Derive the expression for Resolving power of a grating based
on Rayleigh’s criterion.
8. Describe the action of plane transmission grating in producing diffraction spectrum.
9. Show that grating with 500lines/cm cannot give a spectrum in 4th order for the light of wave
length 5890 A0.

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POLARIZATION
Interference and diffraction are the phenomenon which confirmed the wave nature of light. But
the phenomenon could not establish whether light waves are longitudinal (or) transverse.
When the phenomenon of polarization was discovered it was established that light waves are
transverse in nature.
Polarization is a property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations. In a
transverse wave if all the vibrations are confined in a single direction, it is said to be polarized.
Polarization: It is the process of converting ordinary light into polarized light.
Polarized wave: the wave which is unsymmetrical about the direction of propagation is called
polarized wave.
Polarized light: The light which has acquired the property of one sidedness is called polarized
light
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT WAVES

When a ordinary light is passed through a pair of tourmaline crystal plates with their
planes parallel to each other, then the maximum intensity is obtained. When their planes
perpendicular to each other, the intensity is zero. This shows that light is a transverse wave
motion

TYPES OF POLARIZED LIGHT

There are three different types of polarized light.
1. Plane polarized light
2. Circularly polarized light.
3. Elliptically polarized light.

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1. Plane polarized light: When the vibrations of light are confined along a single direction, the
light is said to be plane polarized light. (Eighter in the direction along the plane of the paper (or)
in the direction along the perpendicular to the plane of the paper)

2. Circularly polarized light:

The projection of a wave on a plane intercepting the axis of propagating gives a circle
with the amplitude vector remaining constant.
I.e. The vector rotates in the clock wise direction with respect to the direction of propagation; it
results in right, circularly polarized light while the rotation anti-clock wise direction results in
left circularly polarized light.

If the vibrations are along a circle, the light is said to be circularly polarized light.

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3. Elliptically polarized light:

The projection of a wave on a plane intercepting the axis of propagating gives a ellipse
and amplitude vector is not constant but various periodically.

If the vibrations are along an ellipse, the light is said to be elliptically polarized light.

Unpolarized light:
Unpolarized light (or) ordinary light has vibrations both parallel and perpendicular
to the plane of the paper.

Partially polarized light:

If the linearly polarized light contains small additional component of unpolarised

light it becomes partially plane polarized light.

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1. POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION (BREWSTER’S LAW)

Brewster observed that for a particular angle of incidence is known as angle of

polarization .The refracted light is completely plane polarized in the plane if incidence.

Brewster proved that the tangent of the angle of polarization (P) is numerically equal to
refractive index of material.

µ = tan P
This is known as Brewster’s law.

He also proved that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.

The angle between reflected and refracted rays

From Brewster’s law

µ = tan p.........(1)

From Snell’s law

sin p
µ= ..........(2)
sin r
from(1)and (2)
sin p sin p
=
cos p sin r
cos p = sin r
cos p = cos(90 − r )
p = 90 − r

p + r = 90

The angle between reflected and, refracted ray is 90o

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2. POLARIZATION BY REFRACTION (PILE OF PLATES)

We know that when unpolarized light is incident at polarizing angle the reflected light is
completely plane polarized and transmitted light contains a greater proportion of light vibrating
parallel to the plane of incidence. if the process of reflection at polarizing angle is repeated using
no. of plates all inclined at polarizing angle, finally the transmitted light become s purely plane
polarized. Such an arrangement is known as pile of plates.

GEOMETRY OF CALCITE CRYSTAL

Calcite is a transparent color less crystal. Chemically it is hydrated calcium carbonate. It

was at one time found in large quantities in ICELAND. Hence it is also known as ICELAND
SPAR.

It consist six faces of parallegrams having angles of 1020 and 780. The corners A
and H are said to be blunt corners. The other corners of the crystal consist of two acute and one
obtuse angle.

Blunt corner:
The corner where three obtuse angles meet .that corner is called Blunt corner

Principle axis:

It is the line passing through the any one of the blunt corner and making equal angles
with the three faces which meet at this corner.
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Principle section:

Any plane which contains principle axes and is perpendicular to two opposite faces is
called a principle section.

3. BIREFRINGENCE (POLARIZATION BY DOUBLE REFRACTION):

When a beam of ordinary un polarized light is passed through a calcite crystal, the
refracted light split into two refracted rays .this phenomenon is called double refraction

Among the two rays one which always obey the ordinary laws of refraction and having
vibrations perpendicular to the principle section is known as ordinary ray and The other which
do not obey general laws of refraction and having vibrations in the principle section is called
extraordinary ray .

The crystals showing this phenomenon are known as doubly refracting crystals or Birefringent
crystals.

PLANE OF POLARIZATION & PLANE OF VIBRATION:

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When ordinary light is passed through a tourmaline crystal, the light is polarized and the
vibrations are confined only in one direction which is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of light

The plane in which the vibrations of polarized light are confined .this plane is known as
plane of vibration. This plane contains the direction of vibration as well as direction of
propagation

The plane which has no vibrations the plane is known as plane of polarization. Thus a
plane passing through the direction of propagation and perpendicular to the plane of vibration is
known as plane of polarization

HUYGEN’S THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION

1. When any wave front strikes a double refracting crystal, every point of the crystal becomes a
source of two wave fronts

2. Ordinary wave front is spherical, because ordinary have same velocity in all directions

3. Extraordinary wave front is elliptical, because E-Ray has different velocities in different
directions

4. The sphere and ellipsoid are touch each other along optic axis because the velocity of
ordinary and extraordinary rays is same along optic axis

4. The crystal in which the velocity of ordinary is grater than extraordinary ray. That crystal are
called Positive crystals

5. The crystals in which the velocity of extra ordinary is grater than ordinary ray .that crystals
are called Negative crystal

NICOL PRISM

When an ordinary light is transmitted through a calcite crystal, it splits into ordinary and
extraordinary rays. Nicol eliminated the ordinary beam by utilizing the phenomenon of total
internal reflection at Canada balsam separating the two pieces of calcite .this device is called
NICOL PRISM

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Construction:

A calcite crystal whose length is three times as that of its width is taken .The end faces
of this crystal are grounded in such a way that the angle in the principle section becomes 680
and 1120 .Then calcite crystal cut into two pieces . The cut surfaces are grounded and polished
optically flat and then cemented together by Canada balsam. The refractive index of Canada
balsam lies between refractive indices of O-ray and E-ray. i.e

µe <µcb <µo

Working:

When an ordinary beam of light incident on the Nicol prism, it split into ordinary plane
polarized light and extraordinary plane polarized light. From the values of refractive indices the
Canada balsam acts as a rarer medium for ordinary ray and denser medium for extraordinary ray.
Moreover the dimensions of the crystal are so chosen that the angle of incidence of ordinary ray
at the calcite-Canada balsam surface become grater than the corresponding critical angle .Under
these conditions the ordinary ray under go total internal reflection and is eliminated. Only
extraordinary transmitted

EXPLAIN HOW NICOL PRISM CAN BE USED BOTH AS POLARIZER AND

ANALYZER

When two of Nicols placed co-axially then the first Nicol produces polarized light is
known as polarizer while the second which analyzes the polarized light is known as analyzer.

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When two Nicols are placed with their planes parallel to each other. Then the extra
ordinary Plane polarized transmitted by one is freely transmitted by the other. .if the second
nicol is rotated gradually, then the intensity of E-ray gradually decreases and when the two nicols
are at right angles to each other, no light comes from the second prism.

Thus first Nicol produces plane polarized light and second nicol detects it.

WAVE PLATES:
The wave plates are introduced specified path difference between o-ray and e-ray for
particular wavelength.

HALF WAVE PLATE:

λ
If the thickness of a crystal is taken such that it introduces a path difference of or phase
2
difference of π ,then that crystal is called half wave plate.

Let µo , µe are the refractive indices of ordinary, extraordinary rays and t is the thickness of the
calcite crystal

Then the path difference between ordinary and extraordinary ray = µet − µot

λ
But for half wave plate path.difference =
2

λ
∴ µe t − µo t =
2
λ
( µe − µo )t =
2

λ
t=
2( µe − µo )
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QUARTER WAVE PLATE

λ
If the thickness of a crystal is taken such that it introduces a path difference of or phase
4
π
difference of , then that crystal is called quarter wave plate.
2

Let µo , µe are the refractive indices of ordinary, extraordinary rays and t is the thickness of the
calcite crystal

Then the path difference between ordinary and extraordinary ray = µet − µot

λ
But for half wave plate path.difference =
4

λ
∴ µe t − µo t =
4
λ
( µe − µo )t =
4

λ
t=
4( µe − µo )

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