Chapter 1- Part1

Introduction to Digital Communications

Computer Engineering Department

College of Engineering, University of Basrah,

Prepared by

Prof. Dr. Ghaida A. AL-Suhail

2019-2020

4/30/2020 CoE337 Digital Communications 1

 Chapter 1- Part 1
Digital vs. Analog Concepts

 Digital vs. Analog Signals ‫االشارات الرقمية والتناظرية‬

Analog:  Continuous values Digital:  A discrete set of values

Bit= Binary digit

High= 1 Low= 0  +ve logic

1 0 1 0 1 0

Digital System:
(1) Sampling  (2) Quantization  (3) Digital Coding (0’s and 1’s)

 In Computer System, Data represented by binary information units

in the form of 0s and 1s.
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Digital Applications:
 Wide Range of Applications Such as: Computers, Satellite TV, Military
Systems, Medical Systems, Navigation GPS, Industrial Control,..etc.

Example: Digital/Analog System ‫رقمي‬/‫نظام تناظري‬

Storage Unit

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Digital Signal (Ideal Pulse)
High
High Falling Edge or
Trailing Rising Edge
Rising Edge Falling Edge or Leading
Low
Low
Positive-going Pulse (+ve) Negative-going Pulse (-ve)

+5volt VH (max)
Logic Levels
High Binary 1
VH (min)
Unacceptable Threshold level ‫العتبة‬
VL (max)
Low Binary 0
0volt VL (min)
Periodic and No-Periodic Pulse:

Period= T1 = T2 = T3…..
T1 T2 T3…..

1 1
Periodic f    Bit Rate [bps ] Non-Periodic
T Tbit
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Frequency=Clock [Hz]
 Threshold level

Digital Signal
(Data 0 or 1)

Bit (0 or 1)

Digital Advantages ‫مميزات البيانات الرقمية‬

 Digital data can be processed and transmitted more efficiently and
reliably than analog. ‫ كفاءةعالية – وثوقية عالية‬-
 Store Data (if necessary). ‫ سهولة الخزن عند الحاجة‬-
(e.g. Music is converted to digital form and stored on CD)
 Less effect to Noise (compared to Analog) ‫اقل تأثرا بالضوضاء‬-
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Signal (Waveform) Characteristics:
Non-Ideal Pulse

90% 9V

Pulse
50% 5V
Amplitude
(10V) (t W )
Pulse width Non-Linearity
10% 1V
‫الالخطية‬

Base time
Rise Fall
time time
(tr ) (t f )

1
T 
f

t 
Duty Cycle   W  100%  For Periodic Pulse
T 
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Example: Consider a periodic digital waveform (signal) :

(tW ) T=10ms

Time
1 ms

Determine: (a) Period (b) Frequency (c) Duty cycle

Solution:

(a) The Period T =10 ms

1 1
(b) The Frequency f    100Hz
T 10ms
 tW 
(c) The Duty Cycle  Duty Cycle    100%
T 
 1ms 
Duty Cycle    100%  10%
 10ms 

Exercise: A period digital signal of a pulse width of 25μs and a period of 50 μs.
4/30/2020 7
Determine its frequency, bit rate and duty cycle.
 Chapter
1. Data Communications 1- Part 2
Concepts
Introduction to Digital Communications

 Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a

source and a receiver.

 The Data refers to facts, concepts and instruction presented in whatever

form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.

 Communications Types: - Local or Remote

‫انواع االتصاالت‬ - Unicast or Multicast or Broadcast
- Single User or Multiple Users (Sharing)
- Serial or Parallel
- Half-Duplex or Full-Duplex
- Wired or Wireless ….etc.

 The term Telecommunication means communication at a distance.

e.g. Telephony, Telegraphy, and television.

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2.Communication System

(a) Simple Communication System

MODEM =Modulation/DEModulation

(b) Example
 Information (Voice, Data, Image, Video)
 Transmission Media (Line or Network) Wired (guided) or Wireless
(unguided Media)
 Signals (Digital/Analog)
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Communication System  data exchange between two parties
- The key elements of this System are:
 Source : generates data to be transmitted
 Transmitter : converts data into transmittable signals
 Transmission System: carries data from Source to Destination
 Receiver: converts received signal to data
 Destination: takes incoming data

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3. Communications Tasks

Message formatting Addressing

Interfacing Routing Data communication is
Signal generation Recovery made up of a combination
of Hardware and
Synchronization Flow control
Software.  e.g.
Exchange Management Security Computer Networks
Error Detection and Correction Network Management
Transmission System Utilization

 Fundamental Characteristics in Data Communication System:

1. Delivery: The System must deliver data to the correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (no error).
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner
i.e. (without delay).
Example:
In case of video, audio, and voice data, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay.

This kind of delivery is called Real-time transmission

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 Network: is a Set of Communication links for interconnecting a
collection of Stations (Nodes)
e.g. Terminals, Printers, Computers, Modems, …etc.

A B
Point-to-Point Link
PC PC, MODEM, Printer

 Type of Nodes:
- Terminal Node: generates or use information transmitted over network
e.g. PC, Printer Video Monitor, File-Servers, (routers) (Processing)

- Communication Node: transport information (not generate or use)  i.e.

(transmit & receive)
e.g. Switches, Hub, Repeaters, Boosters, modem, etc.
Terminal Nodes
T Shared Link
T
n=no. of nodes PC, Laptop
(wire or wireless)
n(n-1)/2=4(3)/2=6 links T T

Mesh Network T
4/30/2020 Communication Nodes 12
Type of Networks:
 Computer Buses: Cables like RS-232, RS449, etc.
 LANS: Local Area Networks, 1970’s
e.g. wireless LAN Wi-Fi IEEE802.11a (54Mbps) 100-300m
 MANs: Metropolitan Area Networks,
e.g. WiMAX (IEEE802.16) up to 50km
 WANs: Wide Area Networks e.g. Internet
 BANs: Body Area Networks (Sensors)
 PANs: Personal Area Networks (Bluetooth IEEE802.15.3)

100Mbps
Data Rate MANs
WANs
(bps) Computer LANs (WiMax)
Buses (Coverage area)
(WLANs)

100kbps
Distance (meter)

4/30/2020 1m 10m 100m 10km 50km ………. 13

Messages and Packets

 Message: Binary Symbols=Stream of bits

 Messages needs Control bits (reliable communication, e.g. CRC in data link layer
 The long message is broken (decompose) up into shorter bit strings called Packets.
 The Packets are sent through network and are reassembled into a complete message
at the destination.
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Note:
There is a minimum separation between successive packets instead
of successive characters in (Asynchronous Transmission mode). This time
is smaller in Synch. mode than Asynch. mode.

 Example: Transmission speed 38 kbps, 15 meters distance (cable),

data transmission char-by-char ASCII(7bit) or EBCDIC(8bit) (Asynch
Mode)

Data flow
RX
TX Char3 Char2 Char1

Time Interval (gap), e.g. 10μsec

H.W: Consider Bit rate 100kbps Packet size 1000bit, what is the
time required to send one packet (i.e., transmission time) if the time
interval is 10μsec?
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Store-and-Forward Transmission
 Message Switching
 Packet Switching

 The store-and-forward mode needs the controller at each node to

perform:
● Store a Message
● Select Appropriate Outgoing Link (Routing table)
● Transmit the Message if the link is free. Post office.

Nodes (Router or Switch)

Routing Table

An Example of 6 nodes store-and-forward network

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Example: Consider Computer A is connected to Computer B and to C by two
point-to-point links. Message is sent from ABC

Consider 1min 60 packets1pkt/sec Thop=1sec

Intermediate Node

one Hop one Hop  Message Switching:

A B C
0 Each hop =1min 60 packets Total Time
P1
1 required=2 min to sent a message of 60
packets
P2 P1
2
Let N=No. of intermediate nodes then total
P3 P2 3
time required= N+1 minutes
If N=1 then 1+1=2min.
 Packet Switching: 60s+ N=60+1=61s
P60 P59
60 Note: If there are N intermediate nodes, we
P60 61sec
need (N+1) min for message switching and
(1 min +N) sec in case of packet-switching

Time
(sec) 17
4/30/2020
Exercise (2): Consider two intermediate nodes between A and B users, hop interval
for each packet is 5sec. Determine
1- Transmission time for sending 4 packets using Packet-switching.
2- If the message consists of 4 packets, what is transmission time of
message-switching.
Solution:
N n  No. of Intermediate Nodes
TPkt  Switching  N n  Thop  N P  Thop
No. of Hops  ( N n  1)
TMessage switching  ( N P  Thop  Pkt )  ( N n  1) N p  No. of Packets
Thop  Hop Interval Time
 Thop  message  ( N n  1)

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1. Bit-oriented Transmission (Protocol): Data-Link Layer
- Packet is framed by two special patterns called Flags.

Flag Address Control CRC Flag

Data >=0
8 bit 8bit 8 bit 16bit 8bit

One Frame e.g. HDLC frame

Original Packet

01111110 00111111010……………………………0111111010 01111110

011111 Pattern Insert 0 Inserted 0

01111110 001111101010…………………………0111110101001111110

Bit Stuffing (at TX): adding an extra 0 after each group of 011111 in the packet
after the flag.
Bit De-stuffing (at RX): inverse operation of stuffing (i.e., deleting an extra 0)

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Bit-Stuffing Start

After receiving 011111

0 7th 1
Bit?
Delete”0” De-stuffing 0 8th 1
Bit?

It is flag Continue counting 1s

It is part of the Data Until the next 0

<15 Total >=15

1s?

It is an abort idle channel

stop

Bit-oriented Transmission (Protocol): (HDLC)

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2. Character-oriented Transmission: Data Link Layer
Packet consists of integer No. of Bytes. The string of bits is preceded by one or
more special SYN characters followed by DLE and STX.
16 10 02 10 03 16
SYN DLE STX DLE ETX CRC SYN
Header Data >=0
1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 2 byte 1 byte

One Frame
SYN= Synchronization character
DLE= Data-Link Escape Note: Char-oriented Protocol ASCII 7bit
STX= Start of Text
ETX= End of Text

Character Stuffing (at TX): Replacing every occurrence of DLE in the string by
DLE DLE.
Note: Inside the Frame (Data field)  DLE DLE ETX DLE DLE STX as a
data but only DLE STX means frame beginning.
Character De-Stuffing (at RX): change DLE DLE to DLE
USART: Universal Synchronous /Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
e.g. 8251A 16550
4/30/2020 21
 Exercise:

 Consider simple network shown in figure. One file of K>>1 bits must be
sent from A to C. The file is decomposed into packets of P bits each.
Each packet contains 16 error-control bits, 32 bits of address and
sequence number, in addition to the P data bits. Each packet is first sent
from A to B and then from B to C.

a) Find the value of P that minimizes the transmission time from A to C,

neglecting the propagation time.

b) Repeat the problem when the file must go through N communication

nodes between A and C.

A B C

4/30/2020 22
 Chapter 1- Part2

Introduction to Digital & Data

Communications

 Transmission Modes
 Synchronization & Framing

Prepared by
Prof. Dr. Ghaida A. AL-Suhail
2019-2020 - 2ndTerm

Dept. of Computer Engineering, University of Basrah,

5/4/2020 CoE337 Digital Communications 1
Transmission Modes – PART 2 TX RX

Transmission Direction: RX TX

 Simplex: Signals are transmitted in only one direction

 Half-Duplex: Both stations may transmit, but one at a time
 Full-Duplex: Both stations may transmit simultaneously

The designer of Communication System must deal with

four factors:
 Signal Bandwidth (Hz or bps)  Channel Capacity
 Data Rate of digital information (bps)
 Transmission Impairments (Noise, loss, attenuation, delay, …..etc.)
 Accepted error-rate level  Bit Error Rate (BER)

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 Transmission Modes: ● Serial Transmission
● Parallel Transmission
 Serial Transmission (USART)
● Asynchronous Mode ● Synchronous Mode

 USART 8250  8088 Intel 9600bps, 19200bps

 USART 16450 80286 PCAT 19200bps
 USART 16550 80386,80486, Pentium 115.2kbps
 USART= converts parallel data transmission to serial transmission.
(The bits are sent in sequence over a line).
Ex (1): Direct Connection (Short distance) Ex(2): MODEM (Long distance)

USART USART e.g. 56kbps

PC PC
PC Serial PC Terminal M M Terminal
Terminal Terminal Serial
RS-232C cable RS-232C cable
Parallel Parallel
RS-232C cable
PSTN=Public Switched Telephone Network
Short distance
ISDN=Integrated Services Digital Network
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Asynchronous Mode:
 It can occur at any time for sending letters e.g. ASCII (7bits)
 Each character has Start and Stop bits
 When no Data are being transmitted a receiver stays in High-State.
Mark =logic 1 High State
High State Space=logic 0

Clock RX TX Clock
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 PB

Start bit ASCII 7 bits 1, 1.5, or 2 stop bits

One Frame 11bits

-The transmission is called Framing.  Character-by-character

One Frame= 1 (Start bit) + 7 (or 8) Data bits (ASCII) + 2 Stop bits
= 11 bits
-It is used for low-speed transmission – e.g. RS-232C (15meters, 38kbps)
4
5/4/2020
Example:
 Consider Character “I”=49Hex in ASCII is transmitted with 1200
baud with framing format 1 start bit, 2 stop bits and odd parity.
Assume 15 meter distance (cable length) and propagation
speed=3x105 m/s
Solution:
Baud Rate=Bit Rate = R bps
0 100 1001 = 49HEX using Figure above then  11 bits (Framing):
1 1
Tbit    0.83ms
R 1200
Total time required to send char ‘I’  (Framing):
Tframe  11 0.83  9.13ms
Propagation Time = Distance/Propagation speed
d 15
Tprop    50 sec
 3 105

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Example (1):
Asynchronous data is transmitted in the form of characters as follows: 5
information bits of duration 20ms, and a start bit of the same duration of 20 ms,
and a stop bit of duration 30ms. Determine:
(a) The transmission rate in bps.
(b) The signaling rate in bauds.
Sol:
(n=7 bits= 1 Start + 5 Infor. + 1 Stop)
(a)
Total transmission time of a Single Character (Ttotal)  (Framing)
Ttotal  (5  1)  20  1 30  150ms

Let R= Transmission Rate (Bit Rate)

n 7
R  3
 46.67bps
Ttotal 150 10

(b) Since the shortest signaling element has duration of 20ms:

1
Signalling Rate  3
 50bauds
20 10
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Note: Bit Rate≠ Baud Rate
Example (2):
A modem transmits using an eight-level signaling technique. If each
signaling element has duration of 0.8333ms. Determine:
(a) The baud Rate (b) The bit Rate
Sol:
(a)
Baud Rate=Inverse of the shortest signaling element  (Signal change)
Baud Rate=1/0.8333ms=1200 bauds
(b) For 8 levels  means 23  using n=3bits for each level (000,
001,…..111)
Thus each three bits are transmitted every 0.8333ms,
n 3
Bit Rate   3
 3600bps
Tbaud 0.833 10
Or
Bit Rate  n  Baud Rate  3 1200  3600bps

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Synchronization and Framing:
When does the Receiver measure the signal to recover the bits?

At RX, there are Two Problems:

Bit Stream
T
1) Keeping the correct pace when Uni-polar
signal
reading the bits  Synchronization
2) Finding Start time T1 and End time
T2 Framing time
T1 Tick
Start T2
End

● Using Clock at time (T1+T/2) 

● Incorrect clock means Loss of Synchronous  Clock Drift i.e. Not
exactly find “Tick” at RX

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Example: To avoid Clock Drift (Loss of Synch) at RX
Consider 11 bit sequence including 1 extra bit (i.e. start bit) for clock

Assume at Start bit, Synch is late 10% of T.

Let (clock period) T at TX
Let (clock period) S at RX.
To find S is the period of the receiver clock, T Start Bit at TX
then we must achieve the Two conditions:

(1) (10  0.5)  S  10%  T  11 T

At RX At TX
Clock Clock
and, S T
 3.8%
(2 ) (10  0.5)  S  10  T where T
5/4/2020 9
Synchronous Mode:
• It transmits long sequences of bits called Packets  Long Sequences
increases Transmission efficiency.
• The receiver is synchronized by either very accurate clock (Quartz Clock) or
a self-synchronizing code (e.g Bi-phase code) –Manchester code, AMI,
4B/5B
- Examples: Bit-oriented and Character-oriented Packet transmissions.
Clock

TX SYN SYN Data SYN SYN RX

Start bytes

Synch Mode: ● No Start bit ● No Stop bits ● No Gaps (Min. interval)

● Hardware Implementation (only)  USART
5/4/2020 10
Asynchronous Mode can be software or hardware implemented.
Parallel Transmission: -Transmitting all bits as one byte (8bit=8lines)
or character at one time + control signals (handshaking) –The cable
distance is short – Fast data rate (speed) – impractical over long distance
(very expensive)

Example: PC-to Printer

Parallel data bus [8 bits]

PC Printer
Data Available DAV

Data Accepted DAC

Parallel Transmission & Handshaking Signals

DAV

time

DAC
time

5/4/2020 Data available on bus Printer has accepted Data 11

RS-232 Cables: DB25 (25 pin) DB9 (9 pin)

DB25 Signal DB9 Signal

2 TXD Transmit Data 2 RXD

3 RXD Receive Data 3 TXD
4 RTS Request To Sent 4 DTR
Clear To Send
5 CTS 6,1 DSR, CD

Data Set Ready, Carrier Detect

6,8 DSR, CD 7 RTS

7 GND Signal Ground 8 CTS

20 DTR Data Terminal Ready 5 GND
22 RI Ring Indicator 9 RI

DTE = Data Terminal Equipment. (e.g. PC Terminal.)

5/4/2020
DCE = Data Circuit Terminating Equipment. (e.g. Modem, Hub, Switch.)
12
 Straight Connection Null-Modem (Cross-Connection)
DTE (PC) >> << DCE (MODEM) DTE (PC) >> << DTE (PC)

[2] TXD TXD [2] TXD RXD

[3] RXD RXD [3] RXD TXD
[4] RTS RTS [4] RTS RTS
[5] CTS CTS [5] CTS CTS
[6] DSR DSR [6] DSR DSR
[7] SG SG [7] SG >>>>>>>>>>> SG
[8] CD CD [8] CD Not Required CD
[20] DTR DTR [20] DTR DTR
[21]
5/4/2020
RI RI [21] RI Not Required RI 13