PHYSICAL SCIENCE

REVIEWER ⭑ Isotopes
- Elements with the same atomic number but
Module 1: Formation Of Light Elements in different atomic mass.
the Big Bang and Stellar Evolution

⭑ Light elements are Hydrogen up to Beryllium.

(H - Be)
Module 2: Formation of Heavier Elements in
⭑ Big Bang Theory the Big Bang and Stellar Evolution
- The universe developed 13.7 billion years ago
from a very small, extremely dense, and hot ⭑ Heavier Elements; Beryllium - Iron
state that expanded rapidly. (Be - Fe)
- The term big bang does not imply that there ●​ What: Stellar Nucleosynthesis
was an explosion but the truth is that there was ●​ When: After the star system/solar
an expansion. system formation.
- Rapid expansion caused the universe to cool ●​ Why: Factors: temperature (hotness)
down and become less dense forming new and density inside the star/sun.
particles – protons, neutrons, & electrons. ●​ Where: Inside the star
- As it cooled down and the subatomic particles ●​ How: Through burning/combination
formed, the universe entered the phase called
big bang nucleosynthesis ⭑ Heavy Elements; Iron - Oganesson
(Fe - Og)
⭑ Nucleosynthesis ●​ What: Neutron Capture Reaction
- Process that creates new atomic nucleus from ●​ When: Supernova - massive explosion
pre-existing nucleons, primarily protons and of star.
neutrons. ●​ Why: It needs a tremendous amount of
energy.
p+ - protons + ●​ Where: The stars
n⁰ - neutrons ●​ How: An element will gain neutrons
until it becomes UNSTABLE then it will
undergo Beta Decay - (radioactive
proton (p) + neutron (n) → deuterium (D) nuclei
process, converting neutrons to protons)
and gamma (γ) rays. Then two deuterium nuclei
to form another element.
combine to form one neutron and helium-3 (
³He) that has two protons and one neutron.
Module 3: The Emergence of Ideas About the
Atom
- The energy and temperature of the universe are
extremely high to cause the neutrons and protons
to combine and form certain species of atomic ⭑ Ancient Greeks
nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion. - Concept of the atoms and elements.

⭑ Nuclear Fusion
- process by which light nuclei fuse together to
form a heavier nucleus.
⭑ Element - Also claimed that all matter consisted of
- pure substance that is made up of only one four elements–earth, fire, water, and air.
kind of atom.
ALCHEMISTS CONTRIBUTIONS TO
⭑ Atom MODERN CHEMISTRY
- basic unit of matter.
⭑ Alchemy
IDEAS OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS ON - Medieval practice which aims to transform
THE ATOM a metal into gold.
- It played a role in the scientific revolution
- It is started from the early Greek concept particularly in the development of the
of the atom 5th BCE in ancient Greece. atomic structure during 16th and 17th
- Early Greek natural philosophers and thinkers centuries.
were the first to describe matter and to wonder - Alchemists tried to explain atomic theory
whether matter could be divided infinitely into based on experiments unlike the
smaller pieces – they did not experiment to philosopher's logical way of explaining.
disprove their ideas, they simply made
arguments for their claims.

⭑ Leucippus (480 BCE - 460 BCE)

- First proposed the idea of atom.
- Believed that all things are made up of
tiny, invisible particles.
ATOMIC MODELS
⭑ Democritus (460 BCE - 370 BCE)
- Student of Leucippus
⭑ John Dalton (1766 - 1844)
- Posited that all matter was composed of
- revived the idea of atomic theory 2000
small indestructible particles, which he
years after Democritus.
called atoms, from the Greek word atomos,
- formulated his theory based on Antoine
which means "indivisible".
Lavoisier's (1743-1794) Law of
- He concluded that matter could not be
Conservation of Mass and Joseph Proust's
divided into smaller and smaller pieces
(1754-1826) Law of Definite Proportion.
infinitely.
⤷ Law of Conservation of Mass - The total
⭑ Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE)
mass of substances before and after a
- Strongly opposed Leucippus and
complete reaction is equal.
Democritus theory that atoms were
⤷ Law of Definite Proportion - Elements
indivisible.
combine in a fixed proportion to form a
- Believed that all things can be divided
compound.
infinitely; therefore he said that there was no
smallest part of matter.
- His theory states that: - He fired a stream of alpha particles,
A. atoms are indivisible particles of matter which are the tiny positively charge
B. same elements have the same atoms particles, at a thin sheet of gold foil.
C. while atoms of the same elements are the
same, atoms of different elements are - Discovered that most of the positively
different. charged "bullet" easily passed through the
D. two or more elements can be combined to gold foil without changing direction.
form a compound
E. chemical reactions involve only - Proposed a new idea of atomic structure,
separation, combination, or rearrangement that the atom is mostly an empty space that
of atoms. has a dense positively charge center that
repelled the positively charge alpha
- The atomic theory offers an acceptable structure.
explanation of the laws of chemical change
where atoms merely rearrange, so that the - This model is an atom where all of its
number of atoms of each element in the positive charges are contained at its center
reactant is equal to the number of atoms in in the nucleus and the negatively charge
the products. electrons are contained outside the nucleus
around the edge of the atom.
⭑ J.J THOMPSON
- English Scientist who first speculated that - He concluded that atom did not
the atom is made up of even smaller adequately explain the arrangement of
particles. the electrons, but it was useful in many
- Plum pudding model of atom ways.
- The atom is composed of electrons
surrounded by a soup of positive charge to
balance the electrons' negative charges, like
negatively charged "plums" surrounded by
positively charged

⭑ Niels Bohr
- made an improvement on Rutherford's
model.
- Planetary model of atom
- Placed each electron on a specific energy
⭑ Ernest Rutherford level. This electron moved in definite orbits
- an English Physicist who worked on an around the nucleus just like the movement
experiment which remotely related to the of planets around the Sun in the solar
unfolding of the mysteries of the structure system.
of the atom.
 atom's tendency to attract electrons in a
- Explains the structure and behavior of chemical bond. In order to determine the
simple atoms like hydrogen but it could not polarity of a bond, you must find the
explain the behavior of more complex difference in the electronegativities of the
atoms. atoms involved.

CHEMICAL BONDS

⭑ IONIC BOND - occur between a metal

and a nonmetal; difference in
electronegativity is 2.0 and up.
⭑ Erwin Schrodinger
- created an atom model using quantum ⭑ COVALENT BOND – it occur between
mechanics and the formula and nonmetals.
“Uncertainty Principle” of Werner ⤷ POLAR difference in
Heisenberg electronegativity is between 0.5 to
1.9.
⤷ NONPOLAR - difference in
electronegativity is between 0 to 0.4.

⭑ Linus Carl Pauling

(Feb 28, 1901 - Aug 19, 1994
- an American chemist, biochemist, peace
Module 4: Polarity and Intermolecular activist, author, and educator.
Forces of Attraction - His contributions to the theory of the
chemical bond include the concept of orbital
⭑ Polarity hybridisation and the first accurate scale of
- The way in which atoms bond with each electronegativities of the elements.
other. When atoms come together in
chemical bonding, they share electrons. A Elements become more electronegative as you go
polar molecule arises when one of the from left to right across a period.

atoms exerts a stronger attractive force on

the electrons in the bond. The electrons get
drawn more towards that atom, so that the
molecule exhibits a slight charge imbalance.

⭑ Determining Polarity
- The polarity of a bond is determined by a
periodic concept called electronegativity.
Electronegativity is an expression of an
Module 5: Chemical Reactions EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL AND
CHEMICAL CHANGE
⭑ Physical Change
- change in the physical properties of a PHYSICAL CHANGE
substance without altering its composition ⤷ Pouring of milk
and internal structure. ⤷ Boiling of water
- there's no new substance formed. ⤷ Melting of ice
⤷ Attracting nails using a magnet
⭑Chemical Change ⤷ Sawing a log into half
- a change which alters the composition and ⤷ Cutting paper into pieces
structure of the substance. ⤷ Breaking a glass
- a new substance with different
characteristics are formed. CHEMICAL CHANGE
⤷ Souring of Milk
⤷ Bleaching a stain
⤷ Burning a piece of wood
⤷ Rusting a nail
⤷ Tarnishing silver
⤷ Fermenting coconut sap
⤷ Bubbling antacid in water

⭑Chemical Equation
- A chemical equation is needed to find the
amount of materials (reactant) that you
need and the new substance (product) to be
formed.
- It is also needed to prepare the proper
amounts of reactants to yield the proper
amounts of products in a chemical formula.
- Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed
(Law of Conservation of Matter).
- Atoms of reactants are just rearranged to
form the products.
- Formulas are written in an equation when
the reactants and the products are known.
- The numbers of atoms in both sides of the
equation are the same.
⭑ Writing a chemical equation
- Reactants are written on the left,
products on the right
- Two or more formulas on one side are
separated by a (+) sign
- The delta sign, (Δ), indicates heat is used
to start the reaction
- Physical states are abbreviated, including
solid (s), liquid (1), gas (g), and aqueous
(aq)