LWT - Food Science and Technology 138 (2021) 110618

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LWT
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Chemical, antioxidant and sensory properties of pasta from fractionated

whole wheat and Bambara groundnut flour
Samson A. Oyeyinka a, b, c, *, Adetutu A. Adepegba c, Toyin T. Oyetunde c, Adewumi T. Oyeyinka d,
Abiola F. Olaniran e, Yetunde M. Iranloye e, Omotola F. Olagunju f, Marena Manley g,
Eugénie Kayitesi h, Patrick B. Njobeh a
a
Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng, South Africa
b
School of Agriculture and Food Technology, University of the South Pacific, Apia, Samoa
c
Department of Home Economics and Food Science, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
d
Department of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
e
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria
f
Department of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
g
Department of Food Science, Stellenbosch University Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
h
Department of Consumer and Food Sciences, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pasta from whole-grain wheat is highly nutritious but has poor sensory properties. Hence, this study prepared
Bambara groundnut pasta from fractionated whole-grain wheat flour enriched with 20% Bambara groundnut. The chemical, anti­
Antioxidant properties oxidant and sensory properties of the pasta were assessed using standard methods. The fat, protein, ash contents,
Fractionation
lightness and antioxidant properties value of the flour and pasta increased, while carbohydrate and fibre contents
Particle size
Pasta
decreased with a reduction in particle size from 500 μm to 112 μm. Potassium (246.50–249.00 mg/kg), calcium
(223.50–254.00 mg/kg) and magnesium (184.50–192.00 mg/kg) were the major mineral element in the pasta
samples, while zinc (1.00–2.00 mg/kg) and iron (3.50–13.00 mg/kg) are present in small quantities. The opti­
mum cooking time of pasta (average 6.55 min) from the fractionated flours was shorter compared to the control
pasta (pasta made from unfractionated wheat flour), but the cooking loss was not significantly affected. Pasta
from flour with particle sizes of 300 and 112 μm were very similar in their sensory attributes and showed the
highest ratings in overall acceptability. Fractionation of whole-grain wheat flour seems very promising in pro­
ducing pasta with fairly good antioxidant potentials and high level of protein and fibre to improve the health of
pasta-loving individuals.

1. Introduction turgidum ssp. durum) because of its very good cooking quality, unique
colour, flavour and high consumer acceptance (Biernacka, Dziki,
Pasta is one of the most important and popular cereal food consumed Gawlik-Dziki, Różyło, & Siastała, 2017; Vignola et al., 2018a). During
all over the world (Aranibar et al., 2018; Padalino et al., 2014; Vignola, milling of durum wheat into semolina, the bran and germ are removed
Bustos, & Pérez, 2018a, 2018b). It is increasingly becoming popular as they are regarded as contaminants (Manthey & Schorno, 2002),
because of its simplicity of preparation, long shelf life, low cost and despite being a good source of dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals (Boroski
sensory property (Wójtowicz & Mościcki, 2014). The increased demand et al., 2011) and natural antioxidants (Hirawan, Ser, Arntfield, & Beta,
for pasta products may also be associated with their low sodium and fat 2010). They are regarded as by-products and are commonly used for
contents, high level of complex carbohydrate (Kaur, Sharma, Nagi, & animal feeding or sometimes used in whole wheat bread- and
Dar, 2012; Vignola, Bustos, & Pérez, 2018b) and low glycaemic index pasta-making (Pasqualone et al., 2015). The consumption of pasta made
(Sobota, Rzedzicki, Zarzycki, & Kuzawińska, 2015). from whole wheat may contribute to adequate intake of bioactive
Pasta is made mainly from durum wheat semolina (Triticum compounds, including dietary fibre and antioxidants, which are known

* Corresponding author. School of Agriculture and Food Technology, Alafua campus, University of South Pacific, Samoa.
E-mail addresses: sartf2001@yahoo.com (S.A. Oyeyinka), pnjobeh@uj.ac.za (P.B. Njobeh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110618
Received 26 September 2020; Received in revised form 7 November 2020; Accepted 22 November 2020
Available online 1 December 2020
0023-6438/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S.A. Oyeyinka et al. LWT 138 (2021) 110618

to reduce the risk of several chronic diseases (Ciccoritti et al., 2017). 2.2. Production of Bambara groundnut flour
However, the presence of bran particles has been reported to physically
interfere with dough development, resulting in weak dough properties Flour was prepared as previously reported except that the grains
(Kaur et al., 2012), harder texture, poor cooking quality (Aravind, Sis­ were not dehulled (Oyeyinka, Singh, Adebola, Gerrano, & Amonsou,
sons, Egan, & Fellows, 2012; Manthey & Schorno, 2002) and inferior 2015). Briefly, cleaned grains were dried at 50 ◦ C in a hot air oven
sensory properties of pasta products (Steglich, Bernin, Moldi, Topgaard, (D-37520, Thermo Fischer Scientific, South Africa) for 12 h to reduce the
& Langton, 2015; Vignola et al., 2018a). Therefore, efforts are being moisture content of the grains. The grains were milled into flour using a
made through research to reach a compromise between pasta quality Warring blender (HGBTWTS3, Torrington USA) and packaged in Ziploc
and the presence of bioactive components such as antioxidants in bran bags and stored at 4 ◦ C until needed for compositing with the wheat
or fibre. Previous research reported that pasta enriched with wheat bran flour.
aqueous extracts obtained by ultrasound-assisted technology had
significantly higher antioxidant activity and phenolic content as well as 2.3. Fractionation of whole-wheat flour and compositing with Bambara
good sensory properties (Pasqualone et al., 2015). This seems a prom­ flour
ising approach to the utilization of bran which is usually discarded
during wheat milling. The need to balance pasta nutritional and sensory Cleaned wheat grains were milled using a Warring blender
properties results from consumers demand for natural, wholesome and (HGBTWTS3, Torrington USA) and sieved using a mechanical sieve
health-promoting foods (Vignola et al., 2018a). Because of the high level shaker with varying aperture size (112, 250, 300, 350, and 500 μm).
of nutrients in pasta made from whole wheat, as indicated above, and Flour (100 g) was weighed and sifted on the five-stacked screens for 10
the demand for good quality pasta, it is hypothesized that fractionating min. After completely shaken, the material on each sieve was taken off
the whole-grain wheat may produce pasta with better quality. This and kept in Ziploc bags. The step was repeated until all the flours were
seems plausible, since variation in particle size of whole wheat makes it screened. Each fraction was composited with 20% Bambara groundnut
less homogenous compared with semolina and this variation in size may flour. This level was chosen based on a previous study where moderately
significantly affect the dough and pasta quality. Hence, fractionating the acceptable cooking and sensory quality was reported for pasta enriched
whole-grain wheat flour using sieves of different aperture size to pro­ with different flours (Krishnan & Prabhasankar, 2010). The amount of
duce flour of different particle size for the production of pasta may be an whole-wheat flour on the sieve with aperture size of 250 μm was too
alternative method to reduce the impact of the bran on the pasta quality. small and therefore not used in the experiment.
Furthermore, the enrichment of flour for improving pasta quality
using different ingredients has been encouraged in recent times. For 2.4. Pasta preparation and drying
instance, wheat flour has been reportedly enriched for pasta production
using different ingredients such as oregano leaves, carrot leaves (Boroski Pasta (short spaghetti), was prepared according to the modified
et al., 2011), legumes such as pea (Padalino et al., 2014), white bean, method of Aranibar et al. (2018). Briefly, each formulation was made
split yellow pea, lentil (Wójtowicz & Mościcki, 2014) and chick pea flour with flour, water, and salt (50 g, 22.5 g, and 1.0 g, respectively) and
as well as protein isolate (El-Sohaimy, Brennan, Darwish, & Brennan, mixed in a bench top mixer until the dough had an adequate consistency.
2020). The use of legumes in enriching pasta products has been linked Dough was divided by hand and extruded using a metal clay extruder
with their high protein content and rich source of lysine which is (YG-21, China) with a diameter of 1.3 mm into trays laid with
limiting in cereals (Padalino et al., 2014). A study by Wójtowicz and aluminium foils. Pasta was dried at 80 ± 5 ◦ C for 2 h in a hot air oven
Mościcki (2014) on the influence of legume type and addition level on (D-37520, Thermo Fischer Scientific, South Africa). Dried pasta was
quality characteristics, texture and microstructure of enriched pre­ packaged in Ziploc bags and stored at room temperature (25 ± 2 ◦ C)
cooked pasta showed that precooked pasta products enriched with until needed for further analyses. All the flours used in pasta production
legume flour up to 30% had very good physical and sensory properties, had 20% Bambara groundnut, but the control pasta was made from
including a firm texture, and compact internal structure. All the legumes whole-wheat grain flour that was not fractionated.
evaluated, increased the protein, ash, fibre and fat contents of the pasta
(Wójtowicz & Mościcki, 2014). The use of underutilised leguminous 2.5. Proximate composition of flours and pasta
crops such as Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) in the enrichment
of fractionated whole-wheat flour may further enhance the nutritional The proximate composition (ash, fat, fibre and moisture contents) of
profile of the various fractions. Bambara groundnut has been reportedly the grains were determined using standard methods (AOAC, 2000).
used in the enrichment of several foods because it is rich in protein Protein content was measured using the Kjeldahl method (6.25 × N),
(16.88–28.55 g/100 g) and carbohydrate (56.42–70.16 g/100 g) (Afo­ while the total carbohydrate was calculated by difference.
labi, Opara, Kareem, & Oladoyinbo, 2018; Oyeyinka, Pillay, Tesfay, &
Siwela, 2017). In this study, Bambara groundnut flour was prepared 2.6. Functional properties of flour
using an established method and added to whole-wheat flour that was
fractionated using a mechanical sieve. Each fraction was used in the The swelling index, bulk densities, water absorption and oil ab­
production of pasta and their chemical, antioxidant and sensory prop­ sorption capacities of the whole wheat flour, Bambara groundnut flour,
erties were studied. For clarity purpose, unsieved and unfractionated unsieved composite flour and the fractionated flours were determined
were used interchangeably throughout the manuscript. according to methods described earlier (Falade & Nwajei, 2015).

2. Materials and methods 2.7. Colour of flour and pasta

2.1. Materials The colour of flour and raw pasta in terms of lightness (L*) and
colour values (+a: red; -a: green; +b: yellow; -b: blue) were measured
Whole-grain wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) and cream coat using a Colorflex-EZ bench top spectrophotometer (A60-1014-593,
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) were purchased from a local Hunter Associates, Reston, VA, USA). Total colour difference (ΔE) was
market in Ilorin, Nigeria. The grains were cleaned to remove foreign calculated according to equation given below (Falade & Oyeyinka,
matter, kept in Ziploc bags and stored at 4 ◦ C for 2 wk until needed for 2015).
production. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
ΔE = ΔL2 + Δa2 + Δb2

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S.A. Oyeyinka et al. LWT 138 (2021) 110618

3. Results and discussion

2.8. Total phenolic content and antioxidant properties of pasta
3.1. Proximate composition of fractionated flours
Total phenolic content of the dried pasta was determined as previ­
ously reported (Ahmed, Khan, & Saeed, 2015; Klompong & Benjakul, Whole wheat flour had significantly (p < 0.05) different proximate
2015) while the antioxidant properties using DPPH and FRAP assays composition from the Bambara groundnut flour (Table 1). This was
were determined according to the method of Klompong and Benjakul expected, since wheat is a cereal, and Bambara groundnut is a legumi­
(2015) at absorbances of 517 and 593 nm, respectively using a spec­ nous crop. Protein and carbohydrate were the major components of the
trophotometer (Jenway 7305 Bibby Scientific, London, UK). two flours, while the ash, fibre, fat and moisture contents were generally
low. The protein content (24.56 g/100 g) of Bambara groundnut flour
2.9. Mineral composition of pasta was higher (almost double) than that of whole wheat flour. Legumes
generally have higher protein than cereals and tubers, and are also
Pasta samples were analyzed for calcium, magnesium, potassium, excellent sources of carbohydrate. The proximate composition data in
zinc and iron using a Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Unicam this study is in agreement with previous studies on Bambara groundnut
939 spectrometer, Burladingen, Germany) as previously described (Falade & Nwajei, 2015; Oyeyinka et al., 2017) and wheat flour (Ara­
(Tazrart, Lamacchia, Zaidi, Haros, & Analysis, 2016). Briefly, samples nibar et al., 2018; Ocheme, Adedeji, Chinma, Yakubu, & Ajibo, 2018).
were placed in a Teflon perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) vessels and treated with The protein content of whole-wheat flour increased by approxi­
4 mL of 14 M HNO3 and 1 mL of H2O2, 30% (v/v). The Teflon PFA mately 37% when 20% Bambara groundnut flour was added to it.
vessels were irradiated at 800 W (15 min at 180 ◦ C) in a microwave Fractionation significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the composition of the
accelerated reaction system (MARS). At the end of the digestion, the composite flours (Table 1). Generally, fat, protein and ash contents
digests were placed in polypropylene tubes and made up to final volume increased, while carbohydrate and fibre contents decreased with a
with 5% HCl. Measurements were done in duplicates and average values reduction in particle size from 500 μm to 112 μm. The nutrients were
reported. randomly distributed among the different fractions and indicate their
suitability for various applications. The trend observed in this study with
2.10. Cooking properties of pasta regards to the ash, fat and protein contents after fractionation, is similar
to previous reports (Ahmed, Thomas, & Arfat, 2019; Dhen et al., 2016;
The disappearance of the white central core of the pasta samples Sullivan, Engebretson, & Anderson, 1960). However, some authors
squeezed between two plates of glass was used to ascertain the optimum found the opposite, with protein content decreasing with a reduction in
cooking time (OCT) (Zarzycki et al., 2020). The OCT was determined by particle size (Ahmed, Al-Attar, & Arfat, 2016; Bressiani et al., 2017;
the method of Sobota et al. (2015). Briefly, 100 g of pasta was placed in Memon et al., 2020). Differences noted in the effect of particle size on
1000 mL of boiling distilled water. Samples were taken every 15 s to the proximate composition of flours may be attributed to several factors.
determine the OCT, until the white core could no longer be seen. The Firstly, change in composition after fractionation has been suggested to
cooking time was done in triplicate and was used to prepare samples for depend on the structure of the endosperm (hard/soft), and type of
sensory evaluation. endosperm cells (peripheral, prismatic or central) (Sullivan et al., 1960).
The swelling index and water absorption index of the pasta were Secondly, variation in the composition of the fractionated flours could
determined using the method described by Padalino et al. (2014), while be due to the different aperture size of the sieves used in the respective
weight increase and cooking loss were done according to the procedure studies. Another plausible reason could be attributed to the milling ef­
of Özyurt et al. (2015). ficiency with regards to the initial size of the flour and compositional
differences in terms of the type of flour may also influence the variation
2.11. Sensory properties observed. For instance, in this study, the flour used was a composite of
whole-wheat (80%) and Bambara groundnut flour (20%) while majority
A 9-point hedonic scale was used to evaluate the acceptability of the of the studies where protein fractions decreased with a reduction in
pasta, where 1 and 9 represent ‘dislike extremely’ and ‘like extremely’, particle size used only whole-grain wheat flour (Ahmed et al., 2016;
respectively. The pasta samples were evaluated by a consumer panel Bressiani et al., 2017; Memon et al., 2020).
consisting of 57 members who are regular consumers of pasta. Pasta
samples were cooked in distilled water to optimum cooking time as
described above and thereafter drained for 2 min and served in coded 3.2. Functional properties of flours
plates. Participants were instructed to rinse their mouth with water
before they began testing and between samples. Pasta samples were Presented in Table 1 are the functional properties of wheat flour,
evaluated for colour, taste, aroma, texture (mouth feel), and overall Bambara flour, their composite (unsieved) and the fractionated flours.
acceptability. In order to prevent bias, each panellist received samples in Wheat flour showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher bulk density (BD),
a randomized order, which was done using a table of permutation. The swelling index (SI), water absorption capacity (WAC) and oil absorption
study proposal was presented within the Departmental Research and capacity (OAC) than Bambara groundnut flour. The higher WAC of
Ethical Committee and was approved by the Ethical Committee of the wheat flour may be due to its higher carbohydrate and fibre contents
Department of Home Economics and Food Science, University of Ilorin, compared to Bambara groundnut flour (Table 1). Differences in amylose
Nigeria. All participants used in the study were duly informed of the content (Oyeyinka et al., 2015), starch content and granule structure
implication of participating in the investigation and gave their consent. may also explain the variation in the WAC of the flours (Falade and
Oyeyinka, 2015). Fractionation did not significantly influence (p ≥
2.12. Statistical analysis 0.05) the SI of the flours, but influenced their BD, WAC and OAC. Finer
particles were more compact as shown in their high BD. The BD
Samples were prepared in duplicate and analyses done in triplicate. increased with a reduction in particle size, while the SI, WAC and OAC
All the data obtained were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance decreased. Ideally, small-sized particles should show an increase in WAC
(ANOVA) and the means were compared using the Fisher’s Least Sig­ due to an increase in surface area. However, the opposite was the case in
nificant Difference (LSD) test (p ≤ 0.05) using the Statistical Package for this study. It is possible that the higher fibre content of the samples with
the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 16.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chi­ bigger particles enhanced their water absorption compared to the
cago, IL, USA). smaller ones.

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S.A. Oyeyinka et al. LWT 138 (2021) 110618

Table 1
Proximate composition ((g/100 g) and functional properties fractionated whole-grain wheat flour enriched with Bambara groundnut.
a
Samples Moisture Fat Protein Fibre Ash CHO BD (g/mL) SI WAC (mL/g) OAC (mL/g)
a e g a g a d ab bc
Wheat flour 6.54 ±0.01 2.69 ±0.01 13.67 ± 5.85 ±0.01 1.86 ± 69.39 ±0.02 0.49 ± 0.97 ± 1.99 ±0.01 1.30a±0.09
0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
Bambara 5.74c±0.02 7.93a±0.01 24.56a±0.03 2.59g ± 5.04a±0.00 54.15f±0.00 0.48d ± 0.94c±0.01 1.88d ± 0.05 1.01bc±0.01
flour 0.07 0.00
b
Unsieved 6.14b ± 3.95d ± 18.66e±0.00 5.36c±0.01 4.74c±0.01 61.15e±0.05 0.48d ± 0.98a±0.00 2.02b ± 0.04 1.08b ± 0.07
0.01 0.02 0.01
500 μm 5.67d ± 4.01c±0.00 16.75f±0.00 5.61b ± 3.88f±0.00 64.09b ± 0.01 0.40e±0.00 0.98a±0.01 2.25a±0.09 1.29a±0.08
0.02 0.01
350 μm 5.72c±0.02 3.93d ± 18.97d ± 3.47e±0.02 4.60e±0.00 63.31c±0.01 0.50c±0.00 0.97ab ± 1.90cd ± 1.03bc±0.02
0.04 0.00 0.00 0.10
300 μm 5.77c±0.03 4.44b ± 20.06c±0.02 3.87d ± 4.67d ± 61.19de ± 0.51b ± 0.97ab ± 2.03b ± 0.03 0.93c±0.08
0.02 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.01 0.03
112 μm 5.66d ± 4.47b ± 20.57b ± 3.16f±0.00 4.87b ± 61.27d ± 0.04 0.52a±0.00 0.96b ± 0.01 1.80d ± 0.03 1.02bc±0.02
0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01

Mean ± S.D. Means with different superscript within the same column are significantly (p < 0.05) different.
a
CHO: Carbohydrate; BD: Bulk density; SI: Swelling index; WAC: Water absorption capacity; OAC: Oil absorption capacity.
b
Composite of whole wheat (80%) and Bambara groundnut flour (20%).

3.3. Colour of flour and pasta results of the pasta indicate that fractionation significantly altered the
surface characteristics of the pasta with greater effect observed in pasta
Bambara groundnut flour (L* = 81.67) was lighter than whole-grain made from flour with smaller particles.
wheat flour (L* = 77.85) and the unsieved (L* = 74.13) composite flour
(Table 2). Fractionation of the unsieved flour resulted in flour samples
3.4. Proximate composition of pasta
with varying colour attributes (Table 2). Except for the flour from 500
μm sieve aperture size, all the fractionated flours had higher lightness
The proximate composition of pasta prepared from unsieved and
(75.99–83.24) values compared to the unsieved flour (74.13). The
fractionated flours enriched with Bambara groundnut flour are pre­
higher L* values suggest the presence of fewer amounts of bran or fibre
sented in Table 3. Regardless of fractionation, protein (16.12–20.63 g/
in the flour samples. This is the thrust of the current study, which was to
100 g) and carbohydrate (61.15–69.59 g/100 g) were the major com­
fractionate flours in order to have varying levels of bran or fibre in the
ponents of the pasta samples. Fractionation significantly influenced the
flours and to produce pasta of different composition that could be
composition of the pasta samples. For instance, the fat, protein and ash
appealing to consumers and also provide the desired level of nutrients.
contents of pasta from finer particles (112–350 μm) were significantly
The colour parameters of the pasta were not significantly (p ≥ 0.05)
lower than values recorded for pasta from coarse flour with a particle
affected by flour fractionation as revealed by their L*, a* and b* values,
size of 500 μm. Among pasta from fractionated flours, the fibre content
but the L* value increased with a reduction in particle size. The observed
was highest for pasta produced from flour with a particle size of 500 μm.
increase in L* with reduction in particle size has been previously re­
This is in agreement with the flour composition result (Table 1).
ported (Ahmed & Al-Attar, 2015; Ahmed et al., 2016) and is suggested to
Compared with pasta from the unsieved enriched flour, the protein
be associated with an increase in surface area that allows more reflection
content of the pasta samples increased by approximately 2.7, 16 and
of light (Ahmed & Al-Attar, 2015). Pasta from fractionated flours were
17%, for pasta produced from fractionated flours with particle sizes of
lighter, less red and yellower, with a reduction in particle size. Previous
350, 300 and 112 μm, respectively. Although the addition of Bambara
studies reported that pasta with a bright yellow colour was the most
groundnut flour resulted in a significant increase in the protein content
acceptable by consumers (Biernacka et al., 2017).
of the whole-grain wheat flour (Table 1), the increase in protein in the
The calculated total colour difference (ΔE) values of the pasta sam­
pasta after fractionation could be due to re-distribution of the various
ples ranged between 1.33 and 4.71 for pasta prepared from fractionated
components within the flour during fractionation. The enrichment of
flour with particle sizes of 350 and 300 μm, respectively (Table 2).
pasta using different legumes has earlier been reported (Padalino et al.,
Although the ΔE values did not increase progressively with a reduction
2014; Wójtowicz & Mościcki, 2014). The protein contents of enriched
in particle size, pasta from flour with smaller particle size (112 and 300
pasta in this study were higher than values reported for pasta enriched
μm) showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher ΔE than pasta from bigger
with 5–15% partially-deoiled chia flour (11.04–12.66 g/100 g) (Arani­
particle size (350 and 500 μm). The ΔE values were calculated by
bar et al., 2018), 5–15% pea flour (15.29–16.16 g/100 g) (Padalino
comparing the colour values (L*, a* and b*) with that of the control
et al., 2014) and 1–4% parsley leaf (14.59–17.41 g/100 g) (Sęczyk,
pasta that was made without fractionating the flour. Hence, the ΔE
Świeca, Gawlik-Dziki, Luty, & Czyż, 2016). The variations in the amount

Table 2
Colour of flour and pasta from fractionated whole-grain wheat flour enriched with Bambara groundnut.
Sample Flour Pasta

La aa ba ΔE La aa ba ΔE
c a cd cd
Wheat flour 77.85 ±1.55 − 1.45 ±0.15 18.72 ± 0.88 4.24 ± 1.41 _ _ _ _
Bambara flour 81.67ab ± 0.85 − 2.89b ± 0.23 20.26bc±1.42 7.75b ± 1.14 _ _ _ _
a
Unsieved 74.13d ± 1.66 − 3.28b ± 0.37 18.78cd ± 0.85 0 51.79a±2.01 − 4.99a±1.26 13.57b ± 1.80 0
500 μm 68.09e±1.12 − 2.58b ± 0.34 17.99d ± 0.56 6.16bc±1.16 52.11a±1.09 − 4.74a±0.86 13.57b ± 0.96 1.46b ± 0.46
350 μm 75.99cd ± 1.99 − 2.81b ± 0.67 18.99bcd ± 1.66 2.43d ± 2.04 52.28a±0.58 − 4.21a±0.53 14.46ab ± 0.55 1.33b ± 0.86
300 μm 80.69b ± 1.47 − 3.11b ± 0.30 20.51b ± 0.74 6.79b ± 1.58 54.78a±2.61 − 3.48a±2.61 16.62a±2.28 4.71a±3.43
112 μm 83.24a ±0.62 − 3.27b ± 0.66 22.35a ±1.01 9.81a±0.89 54.19ab ± 2.82 − 4.39a±1.36 15.45ab ± 2.08 4.02ab ± 2.32

Mean ± S.D. Means with different superscript within the same column are significantly (p < 0.05) different.
a
Composite of whole wheat (80%) and Bambara groundnut flour (20%) ΔE: Total colour difference.

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S.A. Oyeyinka et al. LWT 138 (2021) 110618

Table 3 3.6. Total phenolic content and antioxidant properties of pasta

Proximate (g/100 g), mineral composition (mg/kg) and total phenolic content
(mg GAE/g) of pasta from fractionated whole-grain wheat flour enriched with The total phenolic content (TPC) of the pasta samples expressed as
Bambara groundnut. milligrams of gallic acid equivalent per gram varied between 0.39 and
Samples b
Unsieved 500 μm 350 μm 300 μm 112 μm 0.86 mg GAE/g for pasta made from fractionated flour with a particle
Moisture 4.26 ± a c
3.64 ± c
3.62 ± a
4.27 ± 4.02b ± size of 112 μm and 500 μm, respectively (Table 3). Pasta from unfrac­
0.02 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.01 tionated flour showed a TPC value of 0.65 mg GAE/g, which is signifi­
Fat 2.65c ± 2.12e ± 3.58a ± 3.23b ± 2.39d ± cantly (p < 0.05) higher than pastas made from 112 μm to 300 μm flours,
0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 but significantly lower than those of 350 μm and 500 μm. The TPC of the
Protein 17.64d ± 16.12e ± 18.13c ± 20.46b ± 20.63a ±
0.00 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01
pasta from fractionated flours decreased with a reduction in particle
Fibre 5.51a ± 4.58b ± 3.49d ± 4.01c ± 3.21e ± size, indicating that the fractionation process significantly influenced
0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 the TPC of the pasta samples. The higher TPC of pastas with larger
Ash 4.59b ± 3.94d ± 4.48c ± 4.60b ± 4.63a ± particle size were expected since the flours from which they were pre­
0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01
a pared (Table 1) and pasta (Table 3) had higher fibre contents. Grain
CHO 61.15e ± 69.59a ± 66.69b ± 63.42d ± 65.12c ±
0.05 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.03 outer membranes, especially the bran fraction are reportedly richer in
Calcium 238.50ab ± 223.50b 230.50b 254.00a ± 237.50ab phenolic acids than the endosperm (Vignola et al., 2018a) and may also
4.95 ± 3.54 ± 4.95 2.83 ± 13.44 contain carotenoids which contributes significantly to the final antiox­
Magnesium 184.50c ± 191.00a ± 192.00a ± 188.50b 170.00d ± idant activities (Lv et al., 2012). Memon et al. (2020) studied the impact
0.71 0.00 0.00 ± 0.71 0.00
of flour particle size on nutrient and phenolic acid composition of
Potassium 248.00a ± 247.50a ± 248.50a ± 249.00a ± 246.50a ±
0.05 0.71 4.95 0.00 3.54 commercial wheat varieties and found that flour samples with the
Zinc 1.00a ± 1.00a ± 1.00a ± 2.00a ± 1.00a ± smallest particle size fractions showed the lowest quantity of total
0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 phenolic acids. Hirawan et al. (2010) reported varying TPC values
Fe 8.50c ± 3.50e ± 10.00b ± 13.00a ± 7.00d ±
(0.773–1.529 mg ferulic acid/g) for commercial and regular
0.71 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.00
TPC 0.65c ± 0.86a ± 0.73b ± 0.55d ± 0.39e ± whole-wheat pasta.
0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 Antioxidant properties of the pasta samples were assessed using
FRAP (Fig. 2A) and DPPH assays (Fig. 2B). Generally, the FRAP and
Mean ± S.D. Means with different superscript within the same column are
DPPH activities of the pasta samples increase with increasing concen­
significantly (p < 0.05) different.
a
CHO: Carbohydrate; GAE: Gallic acid equivalents; TPC: Total phenolic tration of the extracts. Fractionation significantly (p < 0.05) affected the
content. FRAP and DPPH radical scavenging activities of the pasta samples. The
b
Composite of whole wheat (80%) and Bambara groundnut flour (20%). FRAP and DPPH activities of the pasta samples significantly (p < 0.05)
increased with a reduction in particle size. Among the pasta produced
of protein is due to the varying levels of the ingredient added in the from fractionated flour samples, pasta prepared from flour with a par­
respective studies. In the current study, the flour used in pasta produc­ ticle size of 112 μm displayed the highest antioxidant activities (FRAP =
tion was enriched with 20% Bambara groundnut flour, which is higher 58.10%; DPPH = 92.43%), while pasta prepared from flour with a
than the levels used by other authors. particle size of 500 μm had the lowest (FRAP = 13.87%; DPPH =
41.51%). The antioxidant activities of the pasta followed the order 112
3.5. Mineral composition μm > 350 μm > 300 μm > 500 μm for both FRAP and DPPH assays.
Ahmed et al. (2019) reported that finer particles with increased surface
Potassium (246.50–249.00 mg/kg), calcium (223.50–254.00 mg/kg) area enhances the release of phenolic compounds embedded in the
and magnesium (184.50–192.00 mg/kg) were the major mineral fibrous matrix due to a higher mass transfer rate. The FRAP and DPPH
element in the whole-grain wheat pasta and pasta made from assay data were not in agreement with the TPC since pasta from flour
fractionated-enriched flours, while zinc (1.00–2.00 mg/kg) and iron with smaller particle size showed lower TPC value. The observed trend
(3.50–13.00 mg/kg) are present in relatively small quantities (Table 3). suggests that not all the phenolics are contributing to the antioxidant
High levels of potassium in human diet is well-known to protect against activities of the pasta. Hirawan et al. (2010) also did not find any cor­
life-threatening diseases cardiac dysfunctions and osteoporosis (Lewu, relation between the TPC and the overall antioxidant activity (DPPH
Adebola, & Afolayan, 2010). Previous studies also found potassium, radical scavenging activity and ORAC values) of the regular and whole
calcium and magnesium as major minerals in pasta enriched with potato wheat spaghetti. According to these authors, the variation may be due to
peel autohydrolysis extract (Fradinho et al., 2020), whole grain pasta the underlying mechanisms of the assays employed and also to the
(Vignola et al., 2018b) and pasta containing buckwheat bran flour varying degrees of reactivity of several components in the extracts.
(Manthey and Hall, 2007). Furthermore, the inclusion of Bambara groundnut flour at 20% level to
Except for magnesium and iron contents, which were affected by whole-wheat flour may also have contributed to the variation in the TPC
fractionation, the potassium, zinc and calcium contents of the pasta were of the fractionated flours. Whole Bambara grains are rich sources of
very similar. Pasta from flour with finer particle size (112–350 μm) antioxidants (Abdualrahman et al., 2019; Ademiluyi & Oboh, 2011;
showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher iron contents (7.00–13.00 mg/ Oyeyinka et al., 2017) including their protein hydrolysates and mem­
kg) compared to pasta (3.50 mg/kg) from flour with a larger particle size brane ultrafiltration fractions (Arise et al., 2016).
(500 μm). Of the pasta samples prepared in this study, pasta made from
finer particles seems to provide the recommended dietary allowance 3.7. Cooking properties
(RDA) for all age groups of men and postmenopausal women, which is 8
mg/d and may also supply the needed iron of 12 mg/d for women (FNB, Fractionation of the composite flour generally altered the cooking
2001). The added Bambara groundnut flour may have contributed to the properties of the pasta (Table 4). There was a significant (p < 0.05)
mineral content of the pasta since the Bambara flour showed higher (3 reduction in the OCT of pasta (average 6.55 min) from the fractionated
times) ash than the whole-grain wheat flour (Table 1). flours compared to the control pasta made from unfractionated flour
(unsieved), indicating less preparation time. Fractionated flours with
bigger particle size seemed to have lower OCT, suggesting the influence
of bigger particles such as fibres and germ in providing a path for ease of
water absorption. Previous research associated reduced cooking time to

5
S.A. Oyeyinka et al. LWT 138 (2021) 110618

Table 4 3.8. Appearance and sensory properties of pasta

Cooking properties of pasta from fractionated whole-grain wheat flour enriched
with Bambara groundnut. Obvious differences were observed in the appearance of the pasta
Samples Optimum Swelling Water Cooking Weight before and after cooking (Fig. 1) and these differences could be due to
cooking index (g absorption loss (g/ increase variation in their composition (Table 1) and particle size. Furthermore,
time (min) water/g index (g/ 100 g) index (g/ pasta appearance appears less defective with a reduction in particle size
dry pasta) 100 g) 100 g)
of the flour used. Pasta from finer particles showed lighter appearance
a
Unsieved 8:23a ± 1.89b ± 138.50bc ± 6.95ab ± 243.00b indicating the influence of particles size on the colour of the pasta.
00:01 0.06 6.36 1.34 ± 0.00
Compared with pasta samples from fractionated flours, pasta from flour
500 μm 5:02e ± 2.56a ± 208.00a ± 6.50ab ± 308.00a ±
00:03 0.09 0.00 2.12 0.00 with a particle size of 500 μm appeared darker, and this observation, is
350 μm 6:23d ± 1.56c ± 125.50c ± 8.45a ± 226.00c in agreement with the objective colour result for both flour and pasta
00:00 0.08 0.70 0.64 ± 1.41 (Table 2). The darker appearance of the pasta from flour with a particle
300 μm 7:33c ± 1.82b ± 150.00b ± 7.90ab ± 250.00b size of 500 μm was due to its high fibre content (Tables 1 and 3). Earlier
00:02 0.12 2.83 1.41 ± 2.83
112 μm 7:45b ± 1.57c ± 139.50bc ± 4.50b ± 239.50b
studies reported that bran particles physically interfere with dough
00:00 0.39 10.61 0.71 ± 10.61 development, resulting in weak dough properties (Kaur et al., 2012) and
poor sensory properties of pasta products (Steglich et al., 2015; Vignola
Mean ± S.D. Means with different superscript within the same column are
et al., 2018a). The surface characteristics of the pasta may also have
significantly (p < 0.05) different.
a
Composite of whole wheat (80%) and Bambara groundnut flour (20%).
been influenced by the impact of a gluten-free Bambara groundnut flour
(20%) that was added to the fractionated wheat flours.
Fractionation of the flours resulted in significant (p < 0.05) differ­
the presence of bran and germ particles, which causes physical disrup­
ences in the sensory attributes of the resulting pastas (Table 5). Pasta
tion of the gluten matrix and provides a path for water absorption (Kaur
from flours with finer particles (112–350 μm) generally had higher
et al., 2012; Manthey & Schorno, 2002). Differences in the rate of water
ratings in colour, taste, mouthfeel and overall acceptability compared
penetration to the core of the pasta due to the absence of continuity in
with the pasta from 500 μm flour sample. The ratings for pasta made
the protein-starch network has also been suggested to influence cooking
from flour with 300 and 112 μm were very similar in all the sensory
time (El-Sohaimy et al., 2020; Padalino et al., 2014). The OCT recorded
attributes assessed and both had higher ratings in overall acceptability
in this study is much lower than values (10–11.15 min) reported for
compared to all the pasta samples. The lower ratings observed for pasta
semolina spaghetti enriched with pea flours (Padalino et al., 2014), but
made from coarse sample (500 μm) may be attributed to its higher fibre
similar to values reported for pasta enriched with flaxseed flour
content (Table 1), which obviously imparted its appearance before and
(6.05–7.10 min) and flaxseed cake (5.82–6.10 min) (Kowalczewski
after cooking (Fig. 1). The dark colour of pasta from coarse flour sam­
et al., 2019) as well as pasta (5.30–6.00 min) enriched with chick pea
ples, especially from whole-grain wheat has been a concern for con­
flour and protein isolate (El-Sohaimy et al., 2020).
sumers over the years (Aranibar et al., 2018). Thus, improving pasta
Fractionation similarly affected the swelling index (SI), water ab­
appearance while ensuring the delivery of healthier products will be a
sorption index (WAI), and weight increase index (WII). In general, pasta
welcome development. From the result of sensory evaluation, it appears
from finer particles (112–350 μm) had reduced SI, WAI and WII
that the finer the particles, the less defective was the pasta appearance.
compared to pasta produced from coarse flour (500 μm). The lower SI in
Findings by earlier researchers noted that the particle size distribution of
pasta from finer particles may be due to the presence of less amounts of
flour samples play an important role on its properties and determine the
fiber and carbohydrate (Table 1) including starch, which possibly
quality of resulting products (Bressiani et al., 2017).
resulted in the lower water absorption ability. Starch and fibre are
known to absorb water to a greater extent than proteins and varied
4. Conclusion
amount of these components have been shown by other researchers to
influence the water absorption capacities of food (Ahmed et al., 2016;
This study determined the quality of pasta made from fractionated
Padalino et al., 2014). Padalino et al. (2014) enriched durum wheat
whole-grain wheat enriched with Bambara groundnut flour. The addi­
spaghetti with pea flour and found that the water absorption signifi­
tion of Bambara groundnut to whole-wheat flour increased the protein
cantly decreased as the pea flour was incorporated into the pasta. Ac­
content by approximately 37%. Pasta from finer particles are rich in fat,
cording to their report the protein in the pasta matrix may link to most of
protein and ash, but low in carbohydrate and fibre compared to pasta
the water molecules leaving less water to swell the starch phase during
made from larger particles. Pasta colour, protein, fibre and antioxidant
cooking. Thus, the high protein in the pasta (Table 3) from flours with
properties improved with fractionation. The sensory results further
finer particles may also explain the decreased WAI of the pasta samples.
showed that fractionation of whole-grain wheat flour can produce pasta
The cooking loss (CL) values, which indicate the amount of dry
with improved appearance and sensory properties. Fractionation is
matter lost into the cooking water, of the pasta samples were not
therefore a promising technique to produce pasta with fairly good
significantly affected by fractionation (Table 4). Pasta made from the
antioxidant potentials and high level of protein, fibre, calcium, potas­
finest flour (112 μm) had the lowest CL value of 4.50 g/100 g, while the
sium, magnesium and iron to improve the health of pasta-loving in­
sample made from flour with a particle size of 300 μm had the highest CL
dividuals. This study has demonstrated that fractionation of enriched
value (8.45 g/100 g). High cooking loss is suggested to result from
flour can produce pasta with different beneficial health and improved
amylose leaching and solubilisation of some salt soluble globulins
sensory properties. Future studies may be required to determine the in-
(Petitot, Barron, Marie-Morel, & Micard, 2010; Petitot, Boyer, Minier, &
vitro digestibility and storage stability as well as the impact of cooking
Micard, 2010). The lower the CL the better for pasta products, because
on the nutritional properties of the pasta for the possibility of
the CL is an important parameter used to predict pasta cooking quality
commercialization.
(Özyurt et al., 2015). The CL values (4.50–8.45 g/100 g) in this study,
were within the range (4.27–13.61 g/100 g) reported for pasta enriched
CRediT authorship contribution statement
with legume flours (Aranibar et al., 2018; Padalino et al., 2014; Petitot
et al., 2010a, 2010b). With the exception of the pasta prepared using
Samson A. Oyeyinka: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal
flours with a particle size of 300 μm, all the pasta samples had CL values
analysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, analyses of
below the technologically acceptable limit (≤8%) previously reported
data, writing of original draft and revision of reviewed manuscript.
(Özyurt et al., 2015).
Adetutu A. Adepegba: Data curation, Formal analysis, analyses of data.

6
S.A. Oyeyinka et al. LWT 138 (2021) 110618

Fig. 1. Appearance of uncooked and cooked pasta from fractionated whole-grain wheat enriched with Bambara groundnut. A: Pasta from unsieved flour (control); B:
Pasta from fractionated flour (500 μm); C: Pasta from fractionated flour (350 μm). D: Pasta from fractionated flour (300 μm); E: Pasta from fractionated flour (112
μm) *Composite of whole wheat (80%) and Bambara groundnut flour (20%).

Fig. 2. Antioxidant capacities of pasta from fractionated whole-grain wheat enriched with Bambara groundnut. A: FRAP; B: DPPH.

manuscript. Omotola F. Olagunju: Methodology, Writing - original

Table 5
draft, Reading of original draft of manuscript. Marena Manley: Meth­
Mean sensory scores of pastas from fractionated whole-grain wheat flour
odology, Writing - review & editing, revision of original and reviewed
enriched with Bambara groundnut.
manuscript. Eugénie Kayitesi: Funding acquisition, Fund acquisition,
samples Colour Aroma Taste Mouth Overall
Supervision, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, reading
feel acceptability
of final draft and reviewed manuscript. Patrick B. Njobeh: Funding
a
Unsieved 6.56c ± 6.26a ± 6.53b ± 5.42b ± 6.65b ± 1.51 acquisition, Resources, Supervision, Validation.
0.89 1.75 1.43 1.78
500 μm 5.23d ± 6.39a ± 4.74c ± 4.28c ± 5.51c ± 1.73
1.86 1.39 1.69 2.05 Declaration of competing interest
350 μm 6.88bc ± 5.72b ± 6.05b ± 5.77b ± 6.30b ± 1.66
1.47 1.04 1.52 1.97 All authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
300 μm 7.46a ± 6.77a ± 7.33a ± 7.07a ± 7.68a ± 0.95
1.19 0.92 1.16 1.24
112 μm 7.21ab ± 6.65a ± 7.07a ± 7.37a ± 7.63a ± 0.88 Acknowledgement
1.05 1.19 0.96 1.03
Authors wish to thank the Faculty of Science-University Research
Mean ± S.D. Means with different superscript within the same column are
significantly (p < 0.05) different.
Committee Fellowship of the University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
a
Composite of whole wheat (80%) and Bambara groundnut flour (20%).
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