Journal of Environmental Sciences and Resources Management Volume 6, Number 1, 2014

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD: CLIMATE CHANGE AND FLOODING, THE IMPACT ON

THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN NIGERIA

Dauda Ali and Shitufa Hamidu

Department of Architectural Technology
Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi, Nigeria.
E-mail: dauda2292@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Flood is the most frequently and devastating natural disaster that kills
people in thousands. Its consequences are profound, particularly on
people in the less developed countries as in Nigeria. The impact is more
pronounced in low laying areas due to rapid growth in population,
incessant dumping of waste in drainages, decaying infrastructures and
lack of proper environmental planning, resulting in lost of lives,
properties, spread of diseases and displacement of people. Flood is
worsened by climate change and inadequate preparedness. This paper
seeks to look at the issues of flooding; causes, impacts, and suggesting
ways of preventing and mitigating flood disaster in Nigeria. Data were
sought through secondary sources by reviewing journals and other
literatures related to the subject. The article contends that prevailing
effect of climate change, particularly flooding affects almost everything
in our cities; it demands urgent attention in form of environmental and
infrastructure planning, enhanced public enlightenment programmes
among others.

Keywords: Environmental Hazard, Climate, Flooding, Built Environment.

INTRODUCTION
Over the last 20 years, climate change has become an increasingly high profile issue
both from social, economic, and psychological viewpoints. Climate change is
currently threatening the world order by causing significant economic and
ecological dislocations and by bringing about greater water stress and scarcity, on
one hand, and on the other hand, causing increased frequency of storm surges, and
heavy rainfall of long duration or high intensity. Its potential consequences are
profound, particularly on people in the less developed countries of the world, such as
Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Odufuwa et al., 2012). Climate change has wide-
ranging effects on the environment, and on socio-economic and related factors,
including water resources, agriculture and food security, human health, terrestrial
ecosystems and biodiversity and coastal zones (Kolawole et al., 2011). For the U.N.
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (2009), in Leonard I. Ugwu et al., (2013) climate
change affects every aspect of society, from the health of the global economy to the
health of our children.

One of the most frequently occurring and devastating natural disasters, occasioned
by climate change, is flood (Potschin, 2009). Nelson (2001) views flood as a natural
consequence of stream flood in a continually changing environment; while Sada and
Odemerho (1998) in Leonard I. Ugwu et al., (2013) define it as unusually high rates
of discharging, often leading to inundation of land adjacent to streams, which is

ISSN: 2277-0097 136

Copyright © 2014 Cenresin Publications/www.cenresinpub.org
 Environmental Hazard: Climate Change and Flooding,
the Impact on the Built Environment in Nigeria

Dauda Ali and Shitufa Hamidu

usually caused by intense or prolonged rainfall. Flood, simply put, refers to a flow of
water over areas which are habitually dry. It is noteworthy to mention that excess of
water in itself is not a problem; rather it is when excess water interacts with natural
and man-modified environments in a negative sense, causing damage, death and
disruption to the ecosystem, that problem results. Commenting on the impacts of
floods on national development, Action Aid (2006) reported that flood is a major
natural disaster that prevents Africans growing population of city dwellers from
escaping poverty and stand in the way of United Nations 2020 goals of achieving
significant improvements in the lives of urban slum dwellers. The recent reported
cases of flood disasters across the globe buttressed the point being made by the
Action Aid International. For instance, within the month of September 2012 alone,
Nigeria witnessed the most devastating flood disaster in the past decade, which
killed over 148 people, including a local chief in Delta State; displaced more than
64,000 people, and destroyed properties worth millions of Naira (Daily Sun, October
14, p.5) in Leonard I. Ugwu et al ( 2013).

According to UN-Water (2011) floods, including urban flood is seen to have caused
about half of disasters worldwide, and 84% disaster deaths in the world was
attributed to flooding. Askew (1999) in Odufuwa Bashir O. et al, (2012) reiterated
that floods cause about one third of all deaths, one third of all injuries and one third
of all damage from natural disasters. It is displeasing to note that, Urban areas in
Nigeria are particularly vulnerable to flooding due to inadequate drainage system;
changes in ecosystem through the replacement of natural and absorptive soil cover
with concrete; and deforestation of hillsides, which has the effect of increasing the
quantity and rate of runoff, and through soil erosion and the silting up of drainage
channels.

Low-lying coastal areas such as Lagos and other cities like Ibadan and Abeokuta
where the flood-plains have been abused due to haphazard physical developments,
illegal erection of buildings and other structures as well as unhealthy habit of
dumping refuse and solid wastes in open channel drainage systems are particularly
prone to flood disasters; flooding in most Nigerian cities is a major environmental
challenge that deepens the horizon of poverty both directly and indirectly; and
widens the inequality gaps between the have and have-not (Odufuwa Bashir O. et
al, 2012). The need to reinvent Nigerian cities towards achieving flood free cities is
imperative. A number of recommendations and conclusions were provided at the
end of this article.

TYPES OF FLOODING
According to Ezeabasili A.C et al (2013), urban flooding can be classified in the
following: overbank flooding, flash flooding, coastal flooding, overland flooding,
infiltration flooding and engineering issues (man made). Bariweni P.A et al (2012)
classify flooding as: tidal flooding, fluvial flooding, and flash flooding.

Angela Kesiena E. (2011) opined that flooding occurs throughout Nigeria in the
following forms: coastal flooding, river flooding, flash flooding, urban flooding, dam

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burst levee, dam spill. However, urban and flash flooding are the most common type
in Nigeria.

 Flash Flooding: Flash floods are associated with rivers in the inland areas
where sudden heavy rains can change them into destructive torrents within a
short period (Angela Kesiena E, 2011). Flood from rivers, particularly in
recognized floodplains, can usually be predicted with good accuracy.
However, flash flood from sudden downpours continue to challenge the
capability of detection and forecasting systems (Bariweni P.A et al (2012).
Water over about 250mm in depth may carry debris particularly in urban
locations and can be very cold. Even travelling at low speeds, this can make it
extremely hazardous to people caught in it.
 Urban Flooding: Occur in towns located on flat or low lying terrain especially
where little or no provision has been made for surface drainage, or where
existing drainages has been blocked with municipal waste, refuse and eroded
soil sediments. Extensive urban flooding is a phenomenon of every rainy
season in Lagos, Maiduguri, Aba, Warri, Benin and Ibadan. (Angela Kesiena E.
2011). In August 1988 for instance, 142 people died, 18,000 houses were
destroyed and 14,000 farms were swept when Bagauda dam collapse
following a flash flood. Urban flooding such as the Ogunpa disaster which
claimed over 200 lives and damaged property worth millions of Naira in
Ibadan, are common occurrence. (Angela Kesiena E. 2011).

CAUSES OF FLOODING
Table1 shows selected causes of flood in a research conducted by Kofo A. Aderogba
2012. Twenty five (25) variables in twenty five (25) cities and towns, responded by
two thousand (2000) people.

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Dauda Ali and Shitufa Hamidu

Table I: Selected Causes of Floods

Causes No. of Respondents % Proportion
Torrential Rain 1482 74.10
Base water flow 116 5.80
Spring water flow 110 5.50
Car wash operations 88 4.40
Watering flowers 68 3.40
Filled/silted/dirty drainage channels 1843 97.15
Social cultural activities 1212 60.60
Ocean/Lagoon surge 1185 59.25
Illegal Channelization of Drains 1211 60.55
Constructions and Reconstructions 1575 73.75
Blockage of Canals 1941 97.55
Inadequate Drainage Channel 1886 94.30
Non-Compliance with Regulations 1629 81.45
Illegal Structure on Drainage Channels 1879 98.95
Encroachment/Land Reclamation 1818 90.90
Poor heeding to predictions 72 36.00
Poor Physical Planning 1874 98.70
Global Warming and Climate Change 1143 57.65
Government Policies and Programmes 1528 76.40
Negligence 1177 56.85
Collapsed Bridges/Culverts 175 8.75
Farming along Flood Plains 1081 54.50
Nature of Terrain 785 34.25
Others (specified) 68 3.40
Source: Kofo A. Aderogba (2012)

From table 1 above, Illegal structures on drainage channels account for (98.95%);
poor physical planning (98.70%); blockage of drainage channels (97.55%),
filled/silted/dirty drainage channel (97.15%) are the major causes of the floods. other
causes are torrential rainfall (74.10%); construction/reconstructions and rubbles that
came out of the processes (73.75%), inadequate drainage channels (94.30%), non-
compliance to regulations (81.45%), encroachment on drainage channel and land
reclamation (90.90%) and Government policies and programmes (76.40%), (See
Table I) are the major causes. Responses on base water flow (5.80%), spring water
flow (5.50%), and others specified, (3.40%), are not significant. Causes due to
physical terrain are only 34.25%.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is an attributed cause of flooding because when the climate is
warmer, it results to: heavy rains, relative sea level will continue to rise around most
shore line, and extreme sea levels will be experienced more frequently (Bariweni P.A
et al, 2012). Climate change is therefore likely to increase flood risk significantly and
progressively over time.

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Climate change is an issue that is related to economic, social, cultural and physical
environment of any nation. It is a vital environmental factor that shape and re-shape
various activities of human beings in a society. The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Odufuwa Bashir O. et al (2012) defines
climate change as a change of climate which is attributable directly or indirectly to
human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over a comparable time periods.

African Institute of Applied Economics, in Odufuwa Bashir O. et al (2012) posited

that human factors (industrialization, technology development, urbanization,
deforestation and burning fossil etc) and natural factors (solar radiation quality and
quantity, astronomical position of the earth) are notable causes of climate change.
Climate change is making weather less predictable, especially in developing
countries like Nigeria where facilities to predict and manage weather conditions are
not adequate. The unpredictability of rainfall in recent times has caused untold
hardship during the raining season. Climate change works in an indirect way to
aggravate urban flooding by altering the pattern of flooding in the flood prone
areas. The primary cause of flooding in many parts of the world is directly or
indirectly related to rainfall and the catchment areas of major river systems (Odufuwa
Bashir O. et al (2012) Climate change also works in an indirect way to aggravate
urban flooding. However, urban flooding is not just related to heavy rainfall or
extreme climatic events; it is also related to changes in the built up areas themselves.
Despite the knowledge of climate change and its impacts especially in urban
environment, it is disheartening to note that, most Nigerian cities find it difficult to
provide in advance resilient and adaptation measures that will cater for the hazards
such as increased floods resulting from global climate change.

IMPACTS ON THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Arayela (2008) in Gabriel Fadero et al (2010) defined the built environment as man
made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging from the
large scale civic surroundings to the personal spaces. In general context, built
environment refers to all buildings and spaces between them such as street and
squares as well as civil and mechanical engineering works such as roads, drainages,
sewage disposal, plumbing and so on.

The impacts of flooding on the built environment have increasingly assumed from
significant to threatening proportions, resulting in loss of lives and properties (Brody
S.D et al, 2007). Apart from houses that collapse by flooding, school buildings and
bridges sometimes collapse as well. Markets places and farmlands are submerged for
weeks and sometimes are washed away. Both arable and agro-forestry were swept
away. Farm animals lost their lives to flooding while many culverts/ bridges collapsed
and electric poles destroyed. Flood also causes diarrhea and water-borne diseases. It
makes the individual, communities and nation poor through disruption of services
and the degradation of agriculture land. Degrade the environment, spread
infestations; soil and water are polluted by chemicals. Causes soil infertility through
leaching and erosion of rich top soil. (Aliyu Baba Nabegu, 2014) observed that data
from the disaster management agencies at the state and federal levels indicate that
on average it takes 24- 43 months to repair electricity poles and reconnect electricity,
whereas repairs to roads and bridges takes 18 - 56 months. With regards to schools

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Dauda Ali and Shitufa Hamidu

and hospitals it takes 9 - 16 months. Alalade and Sanusi (2006) in Ismail Wahid A. et
al (2014) claimed that flood like any other environmental problems, consumed a
considerable amount of public fund which could have been used to develop other
sectors of the Nigerian economy like transportation, education, security etc that
could have moved the country from its present stage of under development to a
developed country.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Although flood is a natural phenomenon, human activities exacerbate it. Most flood
victims fell devastated and are emotionally and psychologically traumatized. Floods
cannot be eliminated because human beings cannot stop nature from taking its
course; rather, floods can only be managed and their impacts on the environments
and human beings minimized. (Leonard I Ugwu et al , 2013).

In order to minimize the impacts of floods on the physical as well as in the social
environments, the following actions are recommended:

1. Mass Education on Flood-Prevention: Because human activities exacerbate

floods, workshops and seminars should be organized for those living in flood-
prone areas with a view to impacting the knowledge to them so that they will
become aware of how their interactions with environment could exacerbate
flood.

2. Early Warnings: Our meteorological stations should be equipped with up to

date gadgets, which will help meteorologists predict accurately climate
variables and pass the same information to the government and the public,
respectively. This is important because early warnings will help government
take proactive actions on how to prevent the occurrence of floods, if possible,
but if not, provide appropriate intervention strategies that will minimize their
impacts on environment and people.

3. Provide Emergency Agencies with Up–To-Date Equipment: Government

should provide the employees of the emergency agencies with state-of-the-art
equipment that will help them in the effective distribution of relief materials to
the victims of natural disasters. Similarly, there should be mobile clinics to
flood-prone areas equipped with drugs and other logistics to enable the staff
come into the needs of the victims with ease.

4. The Ministries of Works and Infrastructure of each state should be tasked by

their respective state Governments to ensure free drainage channels and
erosion passages in all nooks and cranny of the states (Kofo A.A, 2012). The
Ministry may have to enforce the drainage clearing through “persuasive
approach”, while the city governments beef up supervision of any identified
problem areas.

5. Residents, manufacturing industries and assembly plants, offices, markets and

stores, hospitals and maternity homes, schools and colleges and others should
be compelled to ensure that their surroundings, the drainage channels and

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erosion passages are clean, clear and free of refuse before, during and after
rainy seasons. That is, everyone must cultivate the habit of weekly clearing of
drains in his surroundings.

6. In particular, it is imperative that:

 There must be legislations that must deal with the use of plastic bottles
and cans, sachets, such as pure water sachets, carrier bags and other
non-degradable material not only in the urban centers but throughout
the country;

 The national monthly environmental sanitation should be enforced and

sustained. The exercise may be observed at more regular intervals to rid
homes, work environments and others of dirty made up of waste waters,
plastic junks, waste foods, abandoned/condemned home utensils and
appliances, unserviceable tools and equipment and others, and properly
disposed of them without necessarily hindering free flow of water along
erosion passages, gutters, drainage channels and canals;

 There must be urgent government interventions to remedy the situations

in the cities and towns to save them from more serious calamity. There
must be dredging and re-dredging of canals and drainage channels.
Government is the only authority that can identify illegal structures. It is
better late than never; and the time is now to clear the drainage
channels, canals and erosion passages of illegal structures and silts;

 Residents, as group and as individuals, and corporate bodies should be

implored and encouraged to embark on some palliative measures such
as dredging and re-dredging of drains, erosion passages and others; and
construction of embankments and channelization of some routes that
are prone to flooding;

 Governments should deploy reasonable human and material resources

to free all floodable areas across the built-up areas from incessant floods;
and should be conscious of flood ability of new suburbs in the processes
of planning;

 It is high time Nigerians and particularly urbanites heed to the forces of

nature and any natural changes in the systems when predicted; and

 Green Areas, besides urban rivers, streams, canals and other drainage
channels should be encouraged and enforced.

CONCLUSIONS
Climate change is currently threatening the world order by causing significant
economic and ecological dislocations and impacting negatively on the general
health conditions of the displaced persons, including their mental health. One off-
shoot of climate change is flood, which today is the most frequently occurring and
devastating natural disaster that kills people in thousands worldwide and causing
inestimable damages to properties. There is an urgent need for a collaborative effort

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Dauda Ali and Shitufa Hamidu

of both government and stakeholders to support town planning, engineering and

other professional agencies to combat flooding in Nigeria to avoid its long-range
consequences. For every individual, develop your plot with deep or wide drainage
system, and don’t dump wastes in the waterways (it’s perilous to you in your living
domain. The media should also assist in educating the public on flood consequences.
“The environment remains our most valued possession and legacy which we must all
strive to protect. Let us all join hands in protecting our common interest.

REFERENCES
Aliyu, Baba Nabegu (2014). Analysis of Vulnerability of Flood Disaster in Kano state,
Nigeria. Greener Journal of Physical Sciences, Vol. 4(2) PP 022-029.

Angela, Kesiena Etuonovbe (2011). The Devastating Effect of Flooding in Nigeria.

AnGene Surveys and Consultants. TS06J- Hydrography and Environment.

Bariweni, P.A, Tawari, C.C and Abowei (2012). Some Environmental Effects of
Flooding in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. International Journal of
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Brody, S.D and Zaran, S. (2007). Examining the Impact of the Built Environment on
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Ezeabasilli, A.C.C and Okonkwo, A.U (2013). Climate Change Impacts on the Built
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Gabriel, Fadairo and Sikiru, Abiodum Ganiyu (2010). Effect of Flooding on the Built
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Ismail, Waheed A, Umar, Saidu & Faseki, Joseph O. (2014). Effects of Floods on the
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Kofo, A. Aderogba (2012). Qualitative Studies of Recent Floods and Sustainable

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Leonard, I. Ugwu and Dorothy, I. Ugwu (2013). Gender, Floods and Mental Health:
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Odofuwa, Bashir O, Adedeji Oludare H, Oladesu Johnson O and Bongwa Aloysius

(2012). Floods of Fury in Nigerian Cities. Journal of Sustainable Development,
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Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Dauda Ali and Shitufa Hamidu
(2014), Environmental Hazard: Climate Change and Flooding, the Impact on the
Built Environment in Nigeria. J. of Environmental Sciences and Resource
Management, Vol. 6, No. 1, Pp. 136 – 144.

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