Jàmbá - Journal of Disaster Risk Studies

ISSN: (Online) 2072-845X, (Print) 1996-1421

Page 1 of 11 Original Research

Using geographic information system to

evaluate land use and land cover affected by
flooding in Adamawa State, Nigeria

Authors: The impact of natural disaster on land use and/or land cover (LULC) has emerged as a
Salihu D. Musa1
global phenomenon and is perhaps the most significant regional anthropogenic and natural
Terwase Shabu2
disturbance to the environment. Natural disasters and land use change are major concerns
Affiliations: all over the world, and if these two concerns exist together along large rivers, then the
1
Department of Geography consequences for people and the human activities may be severe. This study evaluated land
and Planning, Kogi State
use and land cover affected by flooding along Benue River in Adamawa State, Nigeria.
University, Nigeria
Satellite imageries of land use, vegetation, settlements and drainage basins were collected
2
Department of Geography, from the National Space Research and Development Agency, Abuja, and the National Centre
Benue State University, for Remote Sensing, Jos. The imageries were collected for the selected study period: 2002,
Nigeria 2012 and 2014, all between October and November. The three imageries were used to
generate a LULC map of the study areas. Land cover and/or land use and flood inundation
Corresponding author:
Terwase Shabu, analysis was carried out using Integrated Land and Water Information System image
tshabu@bsum.edu.ng processing and Earth Resources Data Analysis (ERDAS 9.2) image processing geographic
information system software. A supervised classification was done using the LULC samples
Dates:
Received: 15 May 2017
collected on the field. This final product generated a LULC map for the entire study area.
Accepted: 25 Apr. 2018 Six LULC classes were generated: waterbodies, farmland, vegetation, settlement, alluvial
Published: 10 Jan. 2019 deposits and bareland. The study revealed that in 2002 floods affected 38% farmland and
53% vegetation of the total inundated areas. In 2012, it affected 56% farmland cover and 35%
How to cite this article:
Musa, S.D. & Shabu, T.S.,
vegetation, while in 2014, it affected 51% farmland cover and 42% vegetation cover of the
2019, ‘Using geographic total inundated area of Adamawa State. This study concluded that the most flood-affected
information system to land cover is farmland and recommended that farming activities should be located outside
evaluate land use and land flood-prone areas in order to avoid food insecurity issues during and after flood disaster in
cover affected by flooding in
Adamawa State, Nigeria’,
the state.
Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster
Risk Studies 11(1), a494.
https://doi.org/10.4102/
jamba.v11i1.494
Introduction
Flood strikes communities around the globe each year. It is one of the top ten natural disasters in
Copyright: the world in terms of people affected and property damage caused (Miller 2005). Flooding is a
© 2019. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
major problem and a risk to environmental components of the society. In humid tropical climates,
is licensed under the river flooding is a recurrent and natural phenomenon (Dewan 2013; PDNA 2013; Sanyal& Lu
Creative Commons 2004), causing damage to social and economic activities, agricultural land and crops. This limits
Attribution License. the capacity of livelihoods to recover and reconstruct after flood events.

Ologunorisa (2004) defined a flood as a covering by water on land not normally covered by water.
According to Oyegbile (2008), flood refers to an overflow of water that submerges land. This is not
entirely correct as rivers and the sea also experience floods. Flooding is the unusual presence of
water in a place to an intensity that has a disruptive effect on normal activities. Flooding arises
mainly as a result of overflowing rivers and heavy rain over a short duration. In the sense of
‘flowing water’, flooding may also be applied to the inflow of tide on land and may also result
from the excessive volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which flows or
breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its boundaries. It may also be because
of accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an area (Oyegbile 2008). Natural disasters
are defined as (UNISDR 2004):
Read online: a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental
Scan this QR losses which exceed the capacity of the affected society to cope using only its own resources. (p. 5)
code with your
smart phone or
mobile device The areas along the bank of the Benue River and its tributaries are flood disaster prone because of
to read online.
their geographical location, that is, land characteristics.

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 Page 2 of 11 Original Research

Land use has been seen as a product of interactions between In contemporary time, flooding has become a common
a society’s cultural background, skills and physical needs on characteristic and part of life in Nigeria not only in the low-
the one hand and the natural potential of land on the other lying coastal areas such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Calabar
hand (Nagamani & Ramachandran 2003). According to the and Warri, but also in the hinterland (Oriola 2000). Upland
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, places such as Kano, Sokoto, Maiduguri and Bauchi often
‘Land use is characterized by the arrangements, activities experience splash floods during heavy rainfall events. The
and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type’ rural areas are also not left out from this environmental
(FAO 2000). According to this definition, land use reflects danger.
human activities such as the use of the land in industrial
zones, residential zones and agricultural fields. Land and The incident of floods is becoming a reoccurring phenomenon
land use may be affected differently by various types of in most areas, leading to huge loss of properties and lives. For
disaster. Large areas maybe left uninhabitable by long-term example, in 1973, 1974 and 1976, cases of floods were recorded
inundation through floods, storm surges and tsunamis. in Ilorin (Jimoh 2000); in 1973, 1980 and 2011 Ogunpa floods in
Ibadan occurred (Amori et al. 2012). In Adamawa State, flood
Cyclones, tornados and other big wind events do not
has almost become an annual event, leading to loss and
necessarily have a large physical effect on land but may cause
destruction of properties worth millions of Naira. In 1996,
destruction of houses and resources and displacement of a
2000, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2012 and 2014, floods occurred in
large number of people (UN-HABITAT 2010). Land use and
different parts of the state, especially in areas along the
land cover along the bank of the Benue River in Adamawa
Benue River.
State of Nigeria affected by flooding are diverse. Land in
these areas is used intensively for agriculture, settlements,
A disastrous flood in September 2012 affected about 27
forests, ponds, waterbodies and fisheries production,
states of the federation, covered one-third of arable land for
industrial and infrastructure developments, and tourism months, killed more than 300 people and displaced about 2
(Islam et al. 2016). Moreover, construction of dams in the million people from their homes (PDNA 2013). It affected
upper part of the river channel is considered as one of the farmland used for crop production, mainly vegetable
main land use activities that has changed the stability of land gardening and other crops such as maize, sorghum, millet,
covers along the banks of the river in terms of water flow groundnut, beans, yam, cassava and sweet potatoes along
activities. the banks of the Benue River and its distributaries. The
communities within the region have a limited capacity to
The principal flood problem in the flood plains of the Benue control the hydrological events ensuing from the basin
River is damage to agricultural land and crops. During the catchment areas, thereby increasing their vulnerability to
rainy season, floodwaters overflow the banks of low- flood disaster.
capacity channels and inundate thousands of hectares (ha)
of adjacent cropland. Rainstorms also produce stream flows Agriculture is considered the engine of the community’s
above channel capacities that cause sheet-water flooding economy in Adamawa State. It is worth noting that the
(Banerjee 2006; Khan, Mia & Hossain 2012; Leitch & Scott agricultural sector is the highest employer of the affected
1977). These floods result in serious reductions in agricultural household labour force (Gonslaves & Mohan 2011). Flood
production, which in turn have a depressing effect on the impact on farming activities and commercial value of agriculture
economy of the affected regions (Leitch& Scott 1977). can certainly culminate in a serious agrarian change that would
impact the greater number of people and the livelihood strategy
People settle on floodplains because of the many advantages, of farming communities in the area.
including fertile soil for farming, ample water for irrigation,
availability of nearby rivers for transportation and recreation, Previous studies on flooding within the area focused on causes,
flat land suitable for crop production and other economic health effects of incidence, government control and resident
activities (Miller 2005). Floodplains provide the world’s most coping measures (Mngutyo & Ogwuche 2013; Ocheri & Okele
productive farmland as a result of nutrient-rich silt left after 2012; Ologunorisa & Terso 2006; Shabu & Tyonum 2013). Some
flood water recedes, but these areas are bedevilled with of the studies looked at the social and economic impact of
flooding (Duru & Chibo 2014; Oruonye 2012; Tadesse 2009).
natural disasters. Floodplains within the Benue trough in
Elsewhere, studies on natural disaster and land use and/or
Nigeria are characterised with flood events (Etuonovbe
land cover (LULC) were carried out to ascertain the impact of
2011). Heavy rainfall combined with increased runoff has
natural disaster, especially flooding, on LULC (Khan 2012;
increased the severity of flooding along the Benue River and
Krishnakumar et al. 2011; UN-HABITAT 2010). However,
its tributaries within Adamawa State (PDNA 2013). Apart
there is no research that has covered flood impact on LULC
from precipitation, several other factors influence the
in Adamawa State of the upper Benue trough as a
generation of surface runoff within the region, which hydrological area.
eventually leads to flooding. Among the most important of
these factors are geology, land use, topography, soil
characteristics, vegetation and evapotranspiration (Duru & Methodology
Chibo 2014). Even with this impending danger of flood Satellite imageries of land use, vegetation, settlements and
disaster, many within the region have little choice but try to drainage basins were collected from the National Space
survive in flood-prone areas. Research and Development Agency and the National

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 Page 3 of 11 Original Research

Centre for Remote Sensing, Jos. Land cover and flood distortions, while most of them are cloud free. The Landsat
inundation analysis was carried out using Integrated Land imageries downloaded from the Global Land Cover Facility
and Water Information System (ILWIS) image processing (GLCF) website are in 11 bands; the appropriate bands (bands
and Earth Resources Data Analysis (ERDAS 9.2) image 5, 4 and 3) were selected stacked as ‘green’, ‘red’ and ‘blue’
processing geographic information system (GIS) software.
bands. This was stacked to form one false colour composite
The process and procedure involved in the application of
image. Lastly, all data were projected to World Geographic
ILWIS and ERDAS image processing software are presented
next. System (WGS), Northern Hemisphere and Zone 32 projection.
This was done in order to have a homogenous projection.
The imageries were collected for the selected study period,
namely, 2002, 2012 and 2014, all between October and Two factors were considered in modelling the inundated
November. A few of the downloaded images have cloud cover areas in the study area (see Figure 1): proximity to the Benue

10˚30˚N 10˚30˚N
11˚30˚E 13˚30˚E

Madagali

Michika
Borno State

Mubi
North
Hong
Mubi
Gombi South

Gombe Shelleg Maiha

Song
State

Guyuk

Lamurde N
R iv e r
Be Fufure
nu
e Girei
Numan
Yola
Demsa North
Yola
South
Mayobelwa

Taraba State

Jada

Ganye
Cameroun Republic

Internaonal boundary

Toungo State boundary

LGA boundary

River

0 20 40 60 80 Km

7˚30˚N 7˚30˚N
11˚30˚E 13˚30˚E

Source: Adapted from Ministry of Land and Survey, 2010, Map of Adamawa State
FIGURE 1: Adamawa State showing the study area.

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 Page 4 of 11 Original Research

River and elevation. The elevation data obtained from the generated: water bodies, farmland, vegetation, settlement,
field were used to ascertain the highest flooded point alluvial deposits and bareland.
observed in 2012; this data was used to perform a slicing
operation in ILWIS using the Shuttle Radar Topography The flood inundation map was used to mask out LULCs
Mission 1 (SRTM1) data to establish the area flooded and that were affected. This automatically generates a layer
non-flooded in 2012. The areas with the highest elevations depicting LULC elements affected by flood disasters along
obtained from the field were the areas that are considered the Benue River in Adamawa State. The total area of LULC
non-flooded, while the elevations below the highest point in the study areas for 2002, 2012 and 2014 was estimated in
were considered flooded. The operation was performed for Excel and graphs and tables were generated. The area of
all different sub-basins using terrain height as a major factor each class extracted was converted from square meters to
for basin delineation. hectares. Similar operation was performed for the elements
at risk and bar charts were generated to illustrate
Furthermore, a domain group in ILWIS was created with a graphically the LULC areas affected in the 2012 flood
flood level at the highest levels recorded. A flood inundation disaster.
map was created by using the slicing algorithm in which the
SRTM Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was sliced by the
highest flood level mark in the domain group.
Results
From field observation, the entering point of the flooded dam
The three imageries were used to generate a LULC map of in Gurin Fufora Local Government Area (LGA) of Adamawa
the study areas. Earth Resources Data Analysis imagine 9.2 State, where the flood height (flood water level) was 197 m.
software was used for this analysis. The imageries were At this point, distance of the flooded water extended to
classified using maximum likelihood classification method. 50 km away from the Benue River. The distance of the flooded
A supervised classification was done using the LULC samples water receded to only 8 km in Yola because of narrow flood
collected on the field. This final product generated an LULC plains. Beyond Yola at a major tributary, connecting the
map for the entire study area. Six LULC classes were Benue River, the area of the flooded water increased to about

11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E 13˚200˚E N Legend

Flood inundaon area
Flood affected LGA
Se„lement

10˚0˚0˚N
10˚0˚0˚N

Waterbody
Bareland
Farmland
Vegetaon
Alluvial deposits
9˚40˚0˚N

9˚40˚0˚N
9˚20˚0˚N
9˚20˚0˚N

9˚0˚0˚N
9˚0˚0˚N

8˚40˚0˚N
8˚40˚0˚N

11˚20˚0˚E 11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚200˚E 12˚400˚E 13˚00˚E 13˚200˚E

0 15 30 60 90 120
Km 1:1,200,000

FIGURE 2: Flood inundation and land use and/or land cover of Adamawa 2002.

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 Page 5 of 11 Original Research

19 km away from the Benue River. At Numan, because of the The flood incidence of 2002 affected 53% vegetation land
contribution from Kirri Dam, the flood water area was about cover of the area followed by 38% farmland of the total
16 km away from the Benue River. However, where the water inundated areas of Adamawa State. Only 1% of settlement
exited at Adamawa State the flood water was only 8 km away area was affected by flooding, whereas 6% of waterbody,
from the Benue River. especially drinking water, was affected by flood disaster (see
Figure 8). Apart from 53% of vegetation cover that was
The flooded LGAs in the Adamawa area includes affected, 38% of farmland comparing different kinds of
Demsa, Fufore, Girei, Lamurde, Numan, Shelleng, Song, crops, such as cereals, roots or tubers, tree crops and others,
Yola north and Yola south (Figure 1). The flooded area in were affected by flooding of 2002. This led to some extent to
Adamawa State is about 276 089 ha. Six features, (i.e. food security issues within the areas affected by the flood
waterbody, bareland, farmland, vegetation, alluvial disaster.
deposits and settlement) of land covers of the affected
LGAs, were classified based on their spectral signature. The inundated areas in Adamawa State affected farmland,
The 2002, 2012 and 2014 classified images are presented in waterbody, vegetation and alluvial deposits. Among the land
Figures 2–4. cover affected by the 2012 flooding, farmland and vegetative
cover were the most affected in the area.
Land use and/or land cover elements affected
by flooding in Adamawa State The flood incidence of 2012 affected 56% farmland cover of
The classified images of Adamawa covering flood inundated the area followed by 35% vegetation of the total inundated
areas of Landsat ETM 2002, 2012 and 2014 are presented in areas of Adamawa State. Only 2% of settlement area was
Figures 3, 4 and 5, respectively. Six features of land cover affected by flooding (see Figure 9). The 2012 flooding
affected by flood waters were identified and estimated. The affected more farming activities and crop production than
land covers affected include waterbody, bareland, farmland, any other economic activities. This resulted in food crises
vegetation, alluvial deposits and settlement (see Table 1 and and food security issues, leading to malnutrition and
Figures 5–7). diseases in the area.

11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E 13˚20˚0˚E N Legend

Flood inundaon area
Flood affected LGA
Se„lement

10˚0˚0˚N
10˚0˚0˚N

Waterbody
Bareland
Farmland
Vegetaon
Alluvial deposits
9˚40˚0˚N
9˚40˚0˚N

9˚20˚0˚N
9˚20˚0˚N

9˚0˚0˚N
9˚0˚0˚N

8˚40˚0˚N
8˚40˚0˚N

11˚20˚0˚E 11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E 13˚20˚0˚E

9 15 30 60 90 120
Km 1:1,200,000

FIGURE 3: Flood inundation and land use and/or land cover map of Adamawa 2012.

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 Page 6 of 11 Original Research

11˚20˚0˚E 11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E 13˚20˚0˚E N Legend

Flood inunda on area
Flood affected LGA
Seƒlement

10˚0˚0˚N
Waterbody
10˚0˚0˚N

Bareland
Farmland
Vegeta on
Alluvial deposits

9˚40˚0˚N
9˚40˚0˚N

9˚20˚0˚N
9˚20˚0˚N

9˚0˚0˚N
9˚0˚0˚N

9˚40˚0˚N
11˚20˚0˚E 11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E 13˚20˚0˚E

0 15 30 60 90 120
Km 1:1,200,000

FIGURE 4: Flood inundation and land use and/or land cover map of Adamawa 2014.

The flood incidence of 2014 affected 51% farmland cover of Table 2 shows that in Adamawa State of the upper Benue
the area followed by 42% vegetation of the total inundated trough, 28.8% of the affected households experienced
areas of Adamawa State. Only 2% of settlement area was damage and/or losses of between 51 and 100 tree stands,
affected by flooding (see Figure 10). From estimates of land followed by 23.3% experienced damage of between l and 50
covers affected by the 2014 flooding, it was observed that 51% tree stands. In Benue State of the lower Benue trough, 43.7%
farmland was affected. Crops at various stages of development of the affected households experienced damage and/or
were submerged. Even though some of the crops regenerated losses of between 101 and 150 tree stands. This is an indication
after flood water resided, their output was not enough to that more tree crops were affected in the lower Benue trough
offset losses observed during and after the flood. compared to the upper Benue trough, which is based on the
fact that tree crops are largely produced in the lower Benue
region.
Damage and/or losses to crop production
Crop production is one of the major components usually Information in Table 3 shows that 39.5% of the affected
affected by flood disaster. This is because agricultural households indicated that affected farm size for arable crops
activities, especially acculturation of crops, are carried out was between 1.1 ha and 1.5 ha and 28.5% of the households
along the river banks. Soil fertility along this river banks indicated that arable crops affected were mature for harvest
attract the cultivation of different crops by farmers in the with farm size of between 0.6 ha and 1.0 ha. Another 30.6% of
region. Therefore, any rise in the volume of water will mean the affected households indicated that about 1.6 ha and 2.0 ha
that areas cultivated along the river bank will submerge of farms for arable crops were affected by the flood event and
before other agricultural activities are affected apart from 23.0% indicated that their affected arable crops were mature
fishing. Out of the sampled affected households, 97.9% and for harvest (farm size 0.1 ha and 0.5 ha) before the flood
78.7% in Adamawa and Benue states, respectively, disaster.
experienced damage and losses in crop production.
Information on the farm size of affected crops in the study Table 4 shows that 30.9% of the affected households in
area is presented in Table 2. Adamawa lost between ₦1000.00 and ₦50 000.00 during the

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 Page 7 of 11 Original Research

11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E N Legend

Flood affected LGA
Selement
Waterbody
Bareland
Farmland

10˚0˚0˚N
Vegetaon
10˚0˚0˚N

Alluvial deposits

9˚40˚0˚N
9˚40˚0˚N

9˚20˚0˚N
9˚20˚0˚N
9˚0˚0˚N

9˚0˚0˚N
11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E

0 15 30 60 90 120
Km 1:1,200,000

FIGURE 5: Flooded land cover and/or land use in Adamawa State in 2002.

TABLE 1: Classified area of elements affected by flooding in Adamawa. employers and employees from going to work. Information
Class name 2002 2012 2014
Area (ha) Area (ha) Area (ha) on the number of working days lost during the flooding is
Settlement 0.304371 0.414882 0.570726 presented in Table 5.
Waterbody 1.497180 1.068530 1.0428000
Bareland 0.204426 0.702270 0.114768 Table 5 shows that 80.6% of the affected households in the
Farmland 10.344000 15.551600 14.068500 upper Benue trough lost between 29 and 35 days in crop
Vegetation 14.422800 9.641740 11.663700 production, while 81.9% lost in fisheries, 79.1% lost in
Alluvial deposits 0.203373 0.208431 0.147960
livestock production and 74.9% lost in agro-processing for
ha, hectare.
the same number of days.

flood disaster, followed by 28.3% who lost between ₦51 000.00

and ₦100 000.00 in crop production, while 19.1% of the Estimated income loss in agricultural sector
affected households lost between ₦251 000.00 and ₦300 000.00 The many advantages of flood plains, which include fertile
in the area of crop production. soil, ample water for irrigation and rivers for transportation,
attract farming activities to vulnerable areas. These areas are
Number of working days lost in prone to flood disasters which can occur at any time, and
agricultural sector farmers as a result experience losses and damages in crops
Employment was also affected by the flood disaster. Work and/or animal production and in the agro-processing sectors.
premises that were submerged by flood water or access From the survey conducted, it was asserted that farmers
roads to work premises were affected, restricting both experienced some level of income loss in the sector.

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 Page 8 of 11 Original Research

11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E N Legend

Flood affected LGA
Selement
Waterbody
Bareland
Farmland

10˚0˚0˚N
Vegetaon
10˚0˚0˚N

Alluvial deposits

9˚40˚0˚N
9˚40˚0˚N

9˚20˚0˚N
9˚20˚0˚N

9˚0˚0˚N
9˚0˚0˚N

11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E

0 15 30 60 90 120
Km 1:1,200,000

FIGURE 6: 2012 flooded land cover and/or land use in Adamawa State.

Information on estimated income loss in the area is presented

in Table 6.
Conclusion
Land along the river banks is usually fertile and suitable for
Table 6 shows that in Adamawa State of the upper Benue crop production because of the nutrient-rich silt deposited
trough, 42.9% of the affected households lost between after flood water recedes. However, these areas along the
rivers are characterised by flood disaster. Moreover, the
₦601 000.00 and ₦900  000.00 and 23.3% lost between
flood events return period has declined from 10 years to
₦301 000.00 and ₦600 000.00 as a result of flooding, while
less than 10 years in recent times as a result of climate
only 14.6% of the affected households did not experience
change. Farmland cover in these areas is frequently affected
income loss during the flooding in the area of crop
by flood disaster and as such the following is required to
production. In fisheries production, 30.6% of the affected
minimise the adverse effect of the disaster on farming
households lost between ₦901 000.00 and ₦1 200 000.00,
activities in the area: avoidance of farming activities in
20.2% lost between ₦901 000.00 and ₦1 200 000.00 because flood-prone areas in rainy season, avoidance of areas that
of flooding, while 20.7% did not experience income loss in drain slowly after intense or heavy rainfall, and cultivation
the area. Also, in animal production, 45.0% of the affected of crop species that are tolerant to long period of inundation
households did not experience income loss in this area of in flood risk areas. We can advocate for use of indigenous
agricultural production. Agro-processing component of the techniques for people living with floods to protect crops
agricultural sector experienced little income loss. Out of the and animals. There is a need to build their capacities to
sample affected households, 41.4% lost between ₦1000.00 anticipate, cope and recover as they will persist to cultivate
and ₦300 000.00, 18.3% lost between ₦601 000.00 and on flood plains. These measures can minimise food shortage
₦900 000.00, while 22.5% did not experience income loss in challenges experienced during and after flood disaster in
the area of agro-processing. the study area.

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 Page 9 of 11 Original Research

11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E N Legend

Flood affected LGA
Selement
Waterbody
Bareland
Farmland

10˚0˚0˚N
Vegetaon
10˚0˚0˚N

Alluvial deposits

9˚40˚0˚N
9˚40˚0˚N

9˚20˚0˚N
9˚20˚0˚N

9˚0˚0˚N
9˚0˚0˚N

11˚40˚0˚E 12˚0˚0˚E 12˚20˚0˚E 12˚40˚0˚E 13˚0˚0˚E

0 15 30 60 90 120
Km 1:1,200,000

FIGURE 7: 2014 flooded Local Government Area in Adamawa State map.

6 1 1. Selement (1%) 1 1. Selement (1%)

2 6 2
3 2. Waterbody (6%) 3 2. Waterbody (4%)
3. Bareland (1%) 3. Bareland (3%)
4. Farmland (38%) 4. Farmland (56%)
5. Vegetaon (53%) 5. Vegetaon (35%)
6. Alluvial deposits (1%) 5 6. Alluvial deposits (1%)

5
4

FIGURE 8: Land cover and land use affected by 2002 flooding in Adamawa. FIGURE 9: Land cover and/or land use affected by 2012 flooding in Adamawa.

Flood inundated areas of 2002, 2012 and 2014 affected measures to minimise the damage and loss of crops
majorly farmlands, vegetation cover and settlements. through capacities to anticipate, cope with and recover
This severely affected the agricultural sector in the state, from such devastating events. This can help communities
most especially crop production which is the major become versatile in pooling resources through
livelihood strategy in the area. Flood damage to crop and community-based efforts in issues of preparedness and
agricultural land deteriorates societies’ and communities’ recovery measures and at the same time in minimising
ability to recover their livelihoods, security and health damage and losses to the food the production sector to
status. There is a need for communities to adapt proactive ensure food security in the area.

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TABLE 6: Income loss in agricultural sector.

6 1 1. Selement (2%)
2 Income (₦) Crop Fisheries Livestock Agro-processing
3 2. Waterbody (4%) production production
3. Bareland/Cloud (0%)
F % F % F % F %
4. Farmland (51%)
100.00– 36 9.4 26 6.8 172 45.0 158 41.4
5. Vegetaon (42%)
301 000.00
6. Alluvial deposits (1%)
301 000.00– 89 23.3 83 21.7 16 4.2 18 4.7
600 000.00
601 000.00– 164 42.9 77 20.2 101 26.4 72 18.8
5 900 000.00
901 000.00– 37 9.7 117 30.6 28 7.8 48 12.6
1 200 000.00
No loss 56 14.6 79 20.7 65 17.0 86 22.5
₦, Nigerian Naira (currency); F, frequency.
4

Acknowledgements
FIGURE 10: Land cover and/or land use affected by 2002 flooding in Adamawa. Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
TABLE 2: Farm size of affected tree crops. relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them
S/N Farm size (tree stand) Adamawa
in writing this article.
Frequency %
1 1–50 89 23.3
2 51–100 110 28.8 Authors’ contributions
3 101–150 83 21.7
Both authors contributed equally toward the article.
4 101–200 38 9.9
5 201–250 62 16.2
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