13.

021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004

Lecture 4

c 2004 MIT - Department of Ocean Engineering, All rights reserved.

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13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics

Lecture 4

Introduction
Governing Equations so far:

Knowns Number of Equations Number of Unknowns

ρ Continuity(conservation of 1 vi 3
mass)
Fi Euler (conservation of 3 τij 6 3 of 9 eliminated by
symmetry
momentum)
4 9

Therefore, some constitutive relationships are needed to relate vi to τ ij .

1.7 Newtonian Fluid

1. Consider a fluid at rest (vi ≡ 0). Then according to Pascal’s Law:

τij = −ps δij (Pascal’s Law)

 
−ps 0 0
τ =  0 −ps 0 
∼
0 0 −ps
where ps is the hydrostatic pressure and δij is the Kroenecker delta function, equal to 1 if i = j and
0 if i 6= j.
2. Consider a fluid in motion. The fluid stress is defined as:

τij = −pδij + τ̂ij

1
 where p is the thermodynamic pressure and τ̂ij is the dynamic stress, which is related to the velocities
empirically.

Experiments with a wide class of fluids, ”Newtonian” fluids, obtain that:

τ̂ij ≈ linear function of the rate of strain ≡ velocity gradient

z µ ¶ }| µ ¶{ z}|{
∂ ∂X ∂ ∂X ∂uk
=
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t ∂xm
| {z }
u

∂uk
i.e. τ̂ij ≈ αijkm i, j, k, m = 1, 2, 3
| {z } ∂xm
34 =81
empirical coefficients
(constants for Newtonian fluids)

Note that the shear stress is proportional to the rate of strain.

τ ij
Newtonian Fluid

Fluid

∂u k
∂x m

For isotropic fluids, this reduces to:

µ ¶ µ ¶
∂ui ∂uj ∂ul
τˆij = µ + +λ ,
∂xj ∂xi ∂xl
| {z }
∇·~v

where the fluid properties are:

• µ - (coefficient of) dynamic viscosity.

• λ - bulk elasticity, ‘second’ coefficient of viscosity

2
 ∂ul
For incompressible flow, ∂xl
= 0. Therefore, for an incompressible, isotropic, Newtonian fluid the viscous
stress τ̂ij is given as
µ ¶
∂ui ∂uj
τ̂ij = µ +
∂xj ∂xi

1.8 Navier-Stokes equations

Equations Number of Unknowns Number of

Equations Unknowns
Euler 3 ui 3
continuity 1 p 1
constitutive 6 (symmetry) τij 6
(Newtonian)
10 10
| {z }
closure

Substitute the equation for the stress tensor

µ ¶
∂ui ∂uj
τij = −pδij + µ +
∂xj ∂xi
for a Newtonian fluid into Euler’s equation:
Dui ∂τij
ρ = Fi +
Dt ∂xj
where
µ ¶
∂τij ∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj
=− +µ +
∂xj ∂xi ∂x ∂xj ∂xi
| j {z }
∂ 2 ui ∂
∂u j
∂xj ∂xj
+ ∂x
i
∂xj
|{z}
0

∂uj
and ∂xj
= 0 due to continuity. Finally,

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 Dui ∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p ∂ 2 ui 1
= + uj =− +ν + Fi Tensor form
Dt ∂t ∂xj ρ ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ρ
D~v ∂~v 1 1
= + ~v · ∇~v = − ∇p + ν∇2~v + F~ Vector form
Dt ∂t ρ ρ
µ
where ν ≡ ρ
denoted as the Kinematic viscosity [ L2 /T ].

• Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible, Newtonian fluids

Number of Number of
Equations Unknowns
continuity 1 p 1
Navier-Stokes 3 (symmetry) ui 3
4 4

1.9 Boundary Conditions

1. Kinematic Boundary Conditions: Specifies kinematics (position, velocity, . . . ) On a solid
boundary, velocity of the fluid = velocity of the body. i.e. velocity continuity.

~v = ~u ”no-slip” boundary condition

where ~v is the fluid velocity at the body and ~u is the body surface velocity

• ~v · n̂ = ~u · n̂ no flux – continuous flow

• ~v · t̂ = ~u · t̂ no slip – finite shear stress

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 2. Dynamic Boundary Conditions: Specifies dynamics ( pressure, sheer stress, . . . )

Stress continuity:

p = p0 + pinterface
τij = τij0 + τij interface

The most common example of interfacial stress is surface tension.

p interface, τ ij interface
τij '
p'
τ ij
p

Surface Tension
• Notation: Σ [Tension force / Length] ≡ [Surface energy / Area].

• Surface tension is due to the inter molecular forces attraction forces in the fluid.

• At the interface of two fluids, surface tension implies in a pressure jump across the interface. Σ
gives rise to ∆p across an interface.

• For a water/air interface: Σ = 0.07 N/m. This is a function of temperature, impurities etc. . .

• 2D Example:
dθ dθ
cos · ∆p · Rdθ = 2Σsin ≈ 2Σ dθ
2
2
| {z } 2
| {z }
≈1 ≈ dθ
2
Σ
∴ ∆p = R
Higher curvature implies in higher pressure jump at the interface.

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 p

p’=p+∆p dθ/2

Σ
R Σ

dθ

• 3D Example: Compound curvature

µ ¶
1 1
∆p = + Σ
R1 R2
where R1 and R2 are the principle radii of curvature.

1.10 Body Forces – Gravity

• Conservative force:

F~ = −∇ϕ for some ϕ,

where ϕ is the force potential.
I Z 2 Z 2
F~ · d~x = 0 or F~ · d~x = − ∇ϕ · d~x = ϕ(~x1 ) − ϕ(~x2 )
1 1

• A special case of a conservative force is gravity.

F~ = −ρg k̂,
with gravitational potential:

ϕ = ρgz → F~ = −∇ϕ = ∇(−ρgz) = −ρg k̂,

where −ρgz is the hydrostatic pressure ps = −ρgz = −ϕ.

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 Navier-Stokes equation:

D~v
ρ = −∇p + F~ + ρν∇2~v
Dt
= −∇p − ∇ρgz + ρν∇2~v
= −∇ (p + ρgz) + ρν∇2~v ,

but p − ps = pd and ps = −ρgz, where p is the total pressure and pd is the dynamic pressure.
Therefore,

D~v
ρ = −∇pd + ρν∇2~v
Dt
• Presence of gravity body force is equivalent to replacing total pressure p by dynamic pressure pd in
the Navier-Stokes(N-S) equation.

• Solve the N-S equation with pd , then calculate p = pd + ps = pd − ρgz.