2027-1

School on Astrophysical Turbulence and Dynamos

20 - 30 April 2009

Basic Fluid Dynamics

Lectures 1 & 2

S. Sridhar
Raman Research Institute
Bangalore
India
 Basic Fluid Dynamics
S. Sridhar

Raman Research Institute, Bangalore 560080, India

ssridhar@rri.res.in

1. Introduction

Continuum treatment of classical uids is valid when the linear dimensions (L) of the
system are so large that the volume can be partitioned into many cells, each of which
contains many particles: L  x  n1/3 , where n is the number density of particles.
Then the mass density, (x, t), is a smoothly varying function of space. In contrast to
solids, uids cannot maintain shear stress without yielding to it.

If x is much larger than the mean free path for collisions, particles cannot freestream
out of cells. Rather, the whole cell can be thought of as moving with a common veloc-
ity. Then the mass-weighted average velocity, v(x, t), is a smoothly varying function.
Streamlines are integral curves of the velocity eld at any instant of time.

If we average over times much longer than the collision time, the particles in any cell
may be assumed to be in local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE). Then two thermody-
namic variables determine all other thermodynamic quantities. The simplest example
is a perfect gas, whose equation of state, p = kT /mp determines p(x, t) as a function
of (x, t) and T (x, t).

Mass conservation:

+ (v) = 0 , continuity equation (1)
t
Dene the convective derivative, d/dt /t + v . Then the continuity equation
can also be written as
d
= ( v) (2)
dt
Note that ( v) is the rate of change of volume of a uid element.

Internal stresses: The forces acting on a uid element can be external (e.g. gravity),
as well as those due to the uid outside of the element. The latter are usually surface
forces, such as (i) pressure and (ii) viscous (frictional) forces in the case of a nonideal
uid. The stress tensor makes precise the notion of one part of the medium acting on
 2

another part, by exerting a force across their common area of contact. Imagine a small
plane of area A oriented perpendicular to the xaxis. Suppose that the material to
the left of the area element exerts force F on the material to the right. Resolve the
force into its components, Fx , Fy , and Fz . If the area element is small enough,
the force will be proportional to A. So it makes sense to dene
Fx Fy Fz
Sxx = ; Syx = ; Szx = (3)
A A A
We call Sxx the normal component of the stress. Syx and Szx are the tangential com-
ponents of the stress, also referred to as components of the shear stress. At any point
in the material, we can evidently construct nine numbers, Sxx , Syx , . . ., Szz . For con-
venience, we will organise them into a matrix, often denoted by Sij , where the indices
i, j take all possible values, 1, 2, 3.
Sij is the ith component of the force exerted, per unit area, across a small area element
oriented with its normal in the jth direction. Some important properties of any stress
tensor are (see 31-6 of Feynman Lectures II):
1: Sij is a tensor eld: the ith component of the force per unit area on an area element
with unit normal n is equal to Sij nj .
2: The stress tensor is symmetric: Sij = Sji , because of the conservation of angular
momentum. Therefore only six of the nine components are independent.
3: The stress tensor may be diagonalised at any point: the stress is normal across area
elements oriented perpendicular to the principal axes.
4: The force per unit volume is equal to the negative of the divergence of the stress
tensor.

Momentum balance: In the rest frame of a uid element, for an inviscid (or ideal)
uid the stress tensor is isotropic, and independent of the velocity eld. We write

Sij = p ij ; ideal uid (4)

where p is the pressure. The force per unit volume is

Sij p
fi = = (5)
xj xi
Therefore, momentum balance for an ideal uid gives
 
dv v
+ (v ) v = p , Euler equation (6)
dt t
where (x, t) is the potential of an externally applied gravitational eld.
 3

Thermodynamics: In an ideal uid, the entropy per unit mass, s(x, t), is conserved:
ds s
+ v s = 0 (7)
dt t

Boundary conditions: A uid cannot penetrate a solid boundary, so the normal

component of the relative velocity must vanish on a boundary. However, for an ideal
uid, there is no constraint placed on the relative tangential velocity.

Comment: Equations (1), (6) and (7) are 5 partial dierential equations involving
the 6 unknown quantities, (, v, p, s). One more equation of the form f (, p, s) = 0,
due to LTE, is always assumed to be specied. Therefore, if we are given (, v, p, s)
as functions of x at some instant of time, we can, in principle, integrate the equations
forward in time, to obtain (, v, p, s) as functions of x at a later time.

Problems:
1. Hydrostatic equilibrium; planeparallel atmospheres.
2. Archimedes principle on hydrostatic equilibrium: buoyancy.

2. Steady ow of an ideal uid

A ow is steady if /t of all quantities vanish, but v = 0. In a steady ow, streamlines

are the paths along which uid elements move. A Streamtube is the surface spanned
by all the streamlines that pass through a simple, closed curve.

Energy conservation: The energy per unit mass in the uid is,
v2
(x, t) = + int + (8)
2
where int is the internal energy per unit mass. Accounting for the pdV work done
by pressure forces on a uid element moving through a streamtube we can derive
Bernoullis equation:
v2 p
v B = 0 , B= + int + + (9)
2
The above equation states that the quantity B is constant on streamlines. Note that
the combination int + p/ = h, is the enthalpy per unit mass.

Using equation (7), we can also prove that, v s = 0: i.e. the entropy per unit mass
is also constant along streamlines.
 4

Applications of Bernoullis equation

(i) Lift on a 2-dimensional aerofoil: Consider a thin aerofoil inclined at a small angle
to the ow, so that the spanwise direction is perpendicular to the ow direction (x)
everywhere. The upward force (per unit length in the spanwise direction) on element
dx is (pb pt ) dx, where pb and pt are the pressure below and above the aerofoil.
Bernoullis equation gives,
 2 
pb pt = ut u2b  U0 (ut ub ) (10)
2
where we have used ut  ub  U0 , the freestream speed (which is appropriate for a
thin aerofoil). Therefore, the total lift per unit span is
 a
FL = U0 (ut ub ) (11)
0

(ii)When can a steady ow be considered as nearly incompressible? To answer this

question let us consider ow in the absence of an external eld. i.e. let us assume that
= 0. Since B = 0 and s = 0 along a streamline, we have
 2  
v 1
= (h)s = (p)s = c2 (12)
2 s

where c is the speed of sound. Therefore, |/|s (v/c)2 . For highly subsonic ows,
v  c, and the density variations in the ow are very small. Then the continuity
equation (1) implies that v  0. Most ows in the lab, or inside the earth, or in
our atmosphere are nearly incompressible.

Problems:
3. Equations of motion in conservation form.
4. The Schwarzschild criterion for the local stability of an atmosphere.

3. Vorticity

Vorticity is a vector eld, dened by

= v (13)

If a small, light object is placed in the uid, it will move as a whole with velocity v,
and rotate with angular velocity /2.
 5

Vortex lines are integral curves of (x, t) at time t. Because = 0, vortex lines
are either closed or are innitely long, or end on a solid boundary. A vortex tube is the
surface spanned by all the vortex lines that pass through a simple, closed curve.

A barotropic uid is one whose equation of state is p = p(). Taking Curl of Eulers
equation (6), and using the continuity equation (1), we can derive an equation of
motion for the vorticity eld of a barotropic uid:
     
d
+ v = v (14)
dt t

The separation, dx, between two nearby uid elements satises the same equation as
(/). Consider a vortex tube of innetesimal length, dx, and crosssectional area,
dA, in a barotropic uid. Let the density and vorticity in the tube be and ,
respectively. Over time, the vortex tube moves to a new location, with new values
(dx , dA ,  ,  ). Mass conservation and the fact that (/) behaves like dx imply
that
 dA = dA (15)
This fact is sometimes stated as, vorticity is frozen in an ideal uid.

Kelvins Circulation theorem: Consider an imaginary simple closed curve, C(t), in

the uid. Imagine that the curve is spanned by a surface, S, which is partitioned into
many innitesimal area elements dAi . If i be the vorticity of the ith area element,

then the sum, i dAi is conserved in time as the imaginary curve C(t) moves with
the uid. Using Stokes theorem, we can see that the circulation around the moving
loop C(t), dened by 
= v d (16)
C(t)

is constant in time for a barotropic uid.

Problems
5. A ow is called potential if = 0. This is the case with linear sound waves, which
is explored in this problem.
6. Flow in an idealised bath-tub.

4. Viscous Fluids

Elastic solids (but not uids) at rest can possess internal shear stresses. However, when
they ow, real uids develop shear stresses, which we have ignored until now. These
 6

stresses give rise to frictional forces between neighbouring uid elements and cause
dissipation of the kinetic energy of the ow. Moreover, there are shear forces between
a uid and a solid boundary. It is a nontrivial (and not selfevident) fact that the
relative velocity between the uid and solid is zero.

The Viscous Stress: We have already come across one constituent of the stress
tensor, the pressure, which contributes to the normal stress in a uid at rest. As noted
earlier, the movement of a real uid gives rise to additional stresses. In the rest frame
of a uid element, the stess tensor is

Sij = p ij + Tij (17)

where Tij is the viscous stress tensor. Galilean invariance implies that Tij can depend
only on the gradients of the velocity eld, not on the velocity eld itself.

Rate of Strain Tensor: This is equal to the velocity gradient, vi /xj , at any point in
the uid. Split the velocity gradient into symmetric and antisymmetric components.
The symmetric component is itself split into a divergencefree (shear) part and a pure
divergence part:
vi 1
= ij + ij + rij (18)
xj 3
where
 
1 vi vj 2 vk
ij = + ij ; rate of shear (19)
2 xj xi 3 xk
vk
= ; rate of expansion (20)
xk
 
1 vi vj 1
rij = =
ijk k ; rate of rotation (21)
2 xj xi 2

StressStrain relation: In a Newtonian uid, the viscous stress is proportional to

the velocity gradient. However, the stress cannot depend on rij , because this term
describes a local motion in which relative distances between uid particles do not
change. Therefore, in a homogeneous and isotropic uid, we must have

Tij = 2ij ij (22)

where and are the coecients of dynamic and bulk viscosities, respectively. In
many cases, these can be treated as constants (and we shall do so, in the interests of
simplicity of treatment).
 7

5. The NavierStokes equation

Adding the contribution of the force per unit volume, due to viscous stresses, the
equation of momentum balance is
dvi p Tij
= (23)
dt xi xi
where Tij is given by equation (22). This is the NavierStokes (NS) equation in its
most general form. At a solid boundary, the relative velocity between uid and solid
must vanish. Mass conservation is described by the continuity equation (1). However,
the entropy is not conserved, because viscous forces dissipate kinetic energy into heat.
Therefore equation (7) is no longer true.

Problems:
1. Molecular origins of viscosity.
2. Entropy (i.e. heat) production due to viscosity.

The NS equations are applicable to subsonic as well as supersonic ows. Many astro-
physical ows are supersonic. However, it is important to understand subsonic ows,
because they are (i) simpler than supersonic ows; (ii) ubiquitous in the air and water
that surrounds us. We saw earlier that subsonic ows could be considered as very
nearly incompressible. Our aim is to understand ows, rather than density stratica-
tion. Henceforth we only consider incompressible ows of a constant density uid.

The NS equation for an incompressible uid:

 
v p
+ (v ) v = + 2 v
t
v = 0
On solid boundaries, v = velocity of the boundary (24)
where = / is the kinematic viscosity. We note that equations (24) are complete
in themselves. The continuity equation is trivially satised and can be dropped. The
entropy equation was needed to specify the local thermodynamical state of the uid.
However, the pressure is now determined by the condition of incompressibility, rather
than thermodynamics.

Take dot product of v with equation (24) and integrate over space, to obtain the rate
at which the kinetic energy of the uid is dissipated:
 2   2
d 3 v 3 vi vj
dx = dx + (25)
dt 2 2 xj xi
 8

Problems
3. From equation (24), derive a Poisson equation for the pressure.
4. Flow down an inclined plane with gravity.
5. Poiseuille ow.

6. Viscous diusion of Vorticity

Take Curl of the NS equations (24):

d
+ (v ) = ( ) v + 2 (26)
dt t
In addition to advection and stretching of vortex lines, vorticity diuses through the
uid by viscous action.

The impulsively pulled plate: A uid at rest lls the region y > 0. The lower
boundary is suddenly jerked at time t = 0, and attains velocity xU0 (which condition,
we assume, is maintained for all time). If the uid was non-viscous, it would continue
to remain at rest, while the lower boundary slips past it. However, when = 0, the
uid will be set into motion, and this happens by the diusion of vorticity. For t > 0,
the velocity eld in the uid must be of the form v = xu(y, t). Hence the vorticity
eld is = z(y, t), where = u/y. In equation (26), the advective and vortex
stretching terms drop out, and we are left with a diusion equation for :

= 2 (27)
t
This initialvalue problem requires us to specify (y, 0+ ). We know that

U0 , if y = 0
u(y, 0+ ) = (28)
0, if y > 0
Hence
u
(y, 0+ ) = = U0 (y) ; vortex sheet at y = 0 (29)
y
and the required solution to equation (27) is
 
U0 y2
(y, t) = exp (30)
t 4t
The velocity eld is  y
u(y, t) = U0 dy  (y  , t) (31)
0
 9

After an interval of time, t, uid in the region 0 < y < y t has been set in
motion.

Boundary Layers: Consider ow past a thin plate, which occupies the region y =
0, x > 0. For x , the velocity eld is xU0 , where U0 > 0 is a constant. If the
uid were inviscid, it would slip past the plate, and the velocity eld would be xU0
everywhere outside of the plate. However, when = 0, the uid elements encountering
the front of the plate (at x = 0, y = 0) decellerate to zero velocity, because of the
no-slip boundary condition. The steep velocity gradient is responsible for the creation
of a sharp spike of vorticity. As the uid ows past the plate, this vorticity diuses
into the bulk of the uid. Over an interval of time t, a uid element (which is not in
contact with the plate) travels a distance x U0 t down the plate. From our experience
with the previous problem, we may guess that vorticity should have diused

a distance

y t perpendicular to the plate. The region, x > 0, y < y x/U0 is called
the boundary layer: at any x > 0, the uid velocity increases sharply, from zero at
y = 0 to about U0 for y y. For y > y, the ow is nearly unaected by the
presence of the plate.

References

Elementary to Intermediate:

Feynman Lectures II, 31-6, and Chapters 40, 41

Van Dyke: An Album of Fluid Flows
Acheson: Elementary uid dynamics
Lighthill: An informal introduction to theoretical uid mechanics
Choudhuri: The physics of uids and plasmas
Intermediate to Advanced:

Blandford and Thorne: Applications of classical physics

Landau and Lifshitz: Fluid mechanics