NETWORKING PAPER-1

Q-1

a) Write name of addresses used in TCP/IP protocol.

Ans: TCP/IP uses four types of addresses: IP address, MAC address, Port address, and
Domain name.

b) Define Computer Network.

Ans: A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and devices that share
resources and data using communication channels.

c) What are the types of transmission media?

Ans: Transmission media are of two types: Guided media (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial cable,
fiber optics) and Unguided media (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared).

d) What is wireless LAN?

Ans: Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a local area network that uses wireless communication to
connect devices within a limited area like a home or office.

e) Define HUB.
Ans: A hub is a network device that connects multiple computers in a LAN and broadcasts
data to all connected devices.

f) What is encryption?
Ans: Encryption is the process of converting data into a coded form to prevent
unauthorized access during transmission.

g) What is need for network security?

Ans: Network security is needed to protect data integrity, confidentiality, and availability
from threats like hacking, viruses, and data theft.
h) Define Intranet.
Ans: An intranet is a private network within an organization that uses internet protocols for
internal communication and information sharing.

i) What is bridge?
Ans: A bridge is a network device that connects and filters traffic between two or more
network segments to reduce traffic and improve performance.

j) What are the two types of standards?

Ans: The two types of standards are: De facto standards (developed through use) and De
jure standards (formalized by organizations).

Q-2

a) Difference between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless

Network Models

Connection-Oriented Network Model:

 In this model, a connection is first established between the sender and receiver before
data is transmitted.
 It ensures the reliable delivery of data with error checking, acknowledgment, and flow
control.
 Data is delivered in the same sequence in which it was sent.
 Suitable for applications where reliability is crucial, such as file transfers, emails, and
web browsing.
 Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).

Connectionless Network Model:

 In this model, data is sent without establishing a prior connection.

 There is no guarantee of delivery, order, or duplicate protection.
 It is faster and requires less overhead than connection-oriented models.
 Suitable for real-time applications like video streaming or online gaming.
 Example: UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
b) Explain TCP/IP Protocol in Detail

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of standardized rules

used for communication over a network, especially the internet. It enables different types of
computers to communicate with each other.

Layers of TCP/IP Model:

1. Application Layer:
o Provides services directly to user applications.
o Examples: HTTP (web), FTP (file transfer), SMTP (email).
2. Transport Layer:
o Ensures reliable data transmission between devices.
o Uses protocols like TCP (reliable, connection-oriented) and UDP (unreliable,
connectionless).
3. Internet Layer:
o Responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing data.
o IP (Internet Protocol) is used here for assigning logical addresses and selecting
routes for data.
4. Network Access Layer:
o Deals with the hardware aspect of networking such as physical transmission
and data formatting.
o Involves Ethernet, Wi-Fi, etc.

Key Features of TCP/IP:

 Scalable and robust protocol suite.

 Allows interconnection of heterogeneous networks.
 Supports both reliable (TCP) and fast (UDP) communication.
 Forms the backbone of modern internet communication.

c) Define Unguided Media. Explain Any One in Detail

Unguided Media:
Unguided media refers to wireless communication methods where data is transmitted through
the air using electromagnetic waves rather than through physical cables.

Types of Unguided Media:

1. Radio Waves
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared

Detailed Explanation – Radio Waves:

 Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with low frequency and long
wavelength.
  They can travel long distances and penetrate buildings, making them suitable for
mobile phones, radio broadcasting, and satellite communication.
 Radio waves are omni-directional, meaning they spread in all directions from the
source.
 They support both analog and digital signals and are suitable for both indoor and
outdoor communication.

Advantages:

 Good for mobile communication.

 Cost-effective for long-distance transmission.

Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to interference.
 Less secure compared to wired transmission.

d) Describe the Frame Format and Physical Layer of Ethernet

Ethernet Frame Format:

Ethernet frames are structured packets of data transmitted over Ethernet networks. Each
frame contains several fields:

1. Preamble: 7 bytes used to alert the receiving system and synchronize clocks.
2. Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): 1 byte that indicates the beginning of the frame.
3. Destination MAC Address: 6 bytes identifying the receiver.
4. Source MAC Address: 6 bytes identifying the sender.
5. Type/Length: 2 bytes indicating either the type of protocol (e.g., IPv4) or the length
of the data.
6. Data and Padding: 46–1500 bytes carrying the actual information.
7. Frame Check Sequence (CRC): 4 bytes used for error checking.

Physical Layer of Ethernet:

 The physical layer handles the actual transmission of bits over a physical medium like
copper wires or fiber optics.
 It defines the electrical signals, transmission rates, and types of connectors used.
 Ethernet typically uses twisted-pair cables and operates at different speeds: 10 Mbps
(Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), and beyond.
 It uses encoding techniques like Manchester encoding to synchronize data
transmission.

Functions:

 Bit-level transmission and reception.

 Physical topology and signaling.
 Establishing and terminating physical connections.
e) What is Cryptography? Explain Symmetric Key Cryptography

Cryptography:
Cryptography is the technique of protecting information by transforming it into an unreadable
format so that only authorized parties can read it. It ensures data confidentiality, integrity,
authentication, and non-repudiation.

Symmetric Key Cryptography:

 This method uses a single key for both encryption (converting plaintext into
ciphertext) and decryption (converting ciphertext back to plaintext).
 The same key must be shared between the sender and receiver before secure
communication can begin.

Working:

 The sender encrypts the data using a secret key and sends the encrypted data
(ciphertext) to the receiver.
 The receiver uses the same key to decrypt the data and retrieve the original message.

Examples of Symmetric Algorithms:

 DES (Data Encryption Standard)

 AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)
 RC4 (Rivest Cipher 4)

Advantages:

 Faster and more efficient than asymmetric encryption.

 Ideal for encrypting large amounts of data.

Disadvantages:

 Key distribution is a major challenge.

 If the key is compromised, the entire communication becomes vulnerable.

Q-3

Here are the **elaborated 4-mark answers** with proper formatting for
each question:

### **a) Explain Types of Security Services**

**Security services** are mechanisms used to ensure the protection of
data and communication in a network. They aim to prevent unauthorized
access, ensure data integrity, and maintain privacy.

**Types of Security Services:**

1. **Confidentiality:**

- Ensures that information is not accessed by unauthorized individuals.

- Achieved through encryption techniques.

2. **Integrity:**

- Ensures that data is not altered or tampered with during transmission.

- Techniques like hashing are used.

3. **Authentication:**

- Verifies the identity of users or systems before allowing access.

- Achieved through passwords, digital certificates, biometrics, etc.

4. **Non-repudiation:**

- Prevents denial of having sent or received a message.

- Digital signatures help achieve this.

5. **Access Control:**

- Determines who is allowed to access what resources in a network.

- Can be enforced through access control lists or role-based access.

### **b) Define ISO/OSI Reference Model. Explain Any One Layer in
Detail**
**Definition:**

The **ISO/OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model** is a

conceptual framework developed by ISO that standardizes the functions of
a telecommunication or computing system into **seven abstract layers**.
It helps in understanding and designing a network architecture.

**Layers of OSI Model:**

1. Physical

2. Data Link

3. Network

4. Transport

5. Session

6. Presentation

7. Application

**Explanation – Transport Layer (Layer 4):**

- Responsible for reliable delivery of data between two devices.

- Performs error control, flow control, and segmentation of data.

- Ensures complete data transfer using protocols like TCP (reliable) and
UDP (unreliable).

- Provides end-to-end communication and reassembly of data at the

destination.

**Key Functions:**

- Establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections.

- Error detection and recovery.

- Ensuring proper sequencing of data.

### **c) Difference Between Twisted Pair Cable and Coaxial Cable**

| **Aspect** | **Twisted Pair Cable** | **Coaxial

Cable** |

| **Structure** | Two insulated copper wires twisted together |

A central core conductor with insulating layer and metallic
shield |

| **Cost** | Less expensive and easy to install | More

expensive than twisted pair |

| **Data Transmission** | Suitable for short distance, lower speed |

Supports higher bandwidth and longer distances |

| **Interference** | More prone to EMI unless shielded (in STP) |

Better shielding, less affected by interference |

| **Use Cases** | LANs, telephone lines | Cable

TV, internet backbones |

### **d) Define Network Topology. Explain Any One in Detail**

**Definition:**

Network topology is the **arrangement of various elements (nodes, links,

devices)** in a computer network. It describes how devices are physically
or logically connected.

**Types:**

Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, Tree, Hybrid

**Explanation – Star Topology:**

- In a **star topology**, all devices are connected to a central hub or

switch.
- The hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

- Data from any device is first sent to the hub, which then forwards it to
the destination device.

**Advantages:**

- Easy to install and manage.

- Failure of one node does not affect the rest of the network.

**Disadvantages:**

- Failure of the central hub results in entire network failure.

- More cabling required compared to bus topology.

**Used in:** Most modern LANs, especially with Ethernet.

### **e) What is Wireless Transmission? Explain Any Two Media in

Detail**

**Definition:**

Wireless transmission refers to the method of transmitting data without

physical connections, using **electromagnetic waves**. It allows
communication over the air between devices.

**Two Types of Wireless Media:**

1. **Infrared Transmission:**

- Uses infrared light to transmit data over short distances (up to a few
meters).

- Requires a direct line of sight between devices.

- Used in TV remotes, wireless mouse/keyboard, and some data transfer

devices.
 - **Advantages:** Secure due to limited range, low cost.

- **Disadvantages:** Cannot penetrate walls, affected by sunlight or

obstructions.

2. **Microwave Transmission:**

- Uses high-frequency radio waves to transmit data over long distances.

- Requires line of sight between transmitting and receiving antennas.

- Commonly used in satellite communication, long-distance telephony,

and wireless backhaul.

- **Advantages:** Supports large bandwidth and long-range

communication.

- **Disadvantages:** Susceptible to weather conditions, expensive

equipment.

Q-4

a) What Are the Network Connectivity Devices? Explain Any

One in Detail

Network connectivity devices are hardware components used to connect computers,

printers, servers, and other devices within a network. They help in data communication,
traffic control, and network management.

Types of Connectivity Devices:

 Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Bridge
 Repeater
 Gateway
 Modem

Explanation – Switch:

 A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices within a local area
network (LAN).
 It operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
  Unlike a hub, which broadcasts data to all devices, a switch sends data only to the
intended recipient using MAC addresses.
 It improves network performance by reducing collisions and managing traffic
efficiently.

Key Features:

 Supports full-duplex communication.

 Increases security and speed.
 Commonly used in Ethernet LANs.

b) Explain Communication Modes in Detail

Communication modes define how data is transmitted between two or more devices over a
communication channel. There are three main modes:

1. Simplex Mode:
o Data flows in only one direction.
o The sender can send data, but the receiver cannot reply.
o Example: TV broadcasting, keyboard to CPU.
o Limitation: No feedback or acknowledgment possible.
2. Half-Duplex Mode:
o Data flows in both directions, but only one at a time.
o Sender and receiver take turns to communicate.
o Example: Walkie-talkies, CB radios.
o Limitation: Cannot send and receive simultaneously.
3. Full-Duplex Mode:
o Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
o Both sender and receiver can send and receive at the same time.
o Example: Telephone, video conferencing.
o Advantage: High efficiency and better speed.

c) Comparison Between Server-Based LAN and Peer-to-Peer LAN

Aspect Server-Based LAN Peer-to-Peer LAN

Centralized control via a No central server; all

Architecture
dedicated server devices are equal

High performance, suitable Lower performance, ideal for

Performance
for large networks small networks

Better security, managed by Weaker security; each user

Security
server controls access

Cost Higher cost (server hardware Lower cost, less hardware

 Aspect Server-Based LAN Peer-to-Peer LAN

& admin required) and maintenance

Data Centralized data storage and Data is stored individually

Management management on each device

Scalability Easily scalable Limited scalability

d) What is Copyright? Explain Its Application

Definition:
Copyright is a legal protection granted to the creators of original works, such as books,
software, music, videos, and artwork. It gives the creator exclusive rights to use, distribute,
and modify their work.

Duration:
Typically lasts for the lifetime of the creator plus several years (e.g., 60 years after death in
many countries).

Applications:

1. Software Protection:
o Copyright protects the source code and compiled code of software from
unauthorized copying or modification.
2. Media and Publishing:
o Protects books, music, movies, and videos from being used or distributed
without permission.
3. Web Content:
o Safeguards website content, including images, text, and graphics.
4. Educational Material:
o Ensures that study materials, lectures, and papers are not copied without
acknowledgment.

Importance:

 Encourages innovation and creativity.

 Provides financial incentives to content creators.
 Prevents plagiarism and intellectual property theft.

e) Explain Classful Addressing in Detail

Definition:
Classful addressing is a method of IP addressing used in early internet architecture where IP
addresses are divided into fixed classes (A to E) based on their leading bits and network-host
division.
Classes in Classful Addressing:

1. Class A:
o Starts with 0 (range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255)
o Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0
o Supports: 128 networks, 16 million hosts per network
o Used by large organizations
2. Class B:
o Starts with 10 (range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255)
o Default subnet mask: 255.255.0.0
o Supports: 16,384 networks, 65,534 hosts per network
o Used by medium-sized networks
3. Class C:
o Starts with 110 (range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255)
o Default subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
o Supports: 2 million networks, 254 hosts per network
o Used by small networks
4. Class D:
o Starts with 1110 (range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255)
o Used for multicasting
5. Class E:
o Starts with 1111 (range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255)
o Reserved for experimental purposes

Limitations of Classful Addressing:

 Inefficient use of IP addresses.

 Lack of flexibility in address allocation.
 Led to the development of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).

Q-5

a) Propagation Modes

Propagation modes refer to the way electromagnetic signals travel from one point to another
through the atmosphere or other media. These are essential in wireless communication
systems.

Types of Propagation Modes:

1. Ground Wave Propagation:

o Travels along the surface of the Earth.
o Suitable for low-frequency signals (below 2 MHz).
o Used in AM radio broadcasting.
 oCan follow the curvature of the Earth.
2. Sky Wave Propagation:
o Signals are reflected or refracted back to Earth by the ionosphere.
o Works for frequencies between 3 MHz and 30 MHz.
o Useful for long-distance communication such as international broadcasting.
3. Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation:
o Signals travel in a straight line between transmitter and receiver.
o Commonly used in microwave, satellite, and TV transmissions.
o Requires antennas to be positioned to avoid obstructions.

b) Intranet and Extranet

Intranet:

 A private network accessible only to an organization's staff.

 Used to share company information, documents, applications, and resources
internally.
 Benefits: Enhances communication, improves productivity, and ensures data security
within an organization.
 Example: Company portals, internal HR systems.

Extranet:

 A controlled private network that allows limited access to external users like
business partners, suppliers, or clients.
 Extends the intranet beyond the company boundaries.
 Benefits: Facilitates collaboration, supply chain management, and secure information
sharing with trusted outsiders.

Difference:

Featur
Intranet Extranet
e

Internal employees
Access External partners with permission
only

High (internal
Security High with external firewalls/VPNs
network)

Use Internal Business collaboration and data

Case communication sharing
c) Firewall

Definition: A firewall is a security system (hardware or software) that monitors and

controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.

Functions:

 Acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks
(like the Internet).
 Prevents unauthorized access, cyberattacks, and data leaks.
 Can filter traffic based on IP addresses, domain names, protocols, ports, and content.

Types of Firewalls:

1. Packet-Filtering Firewall: Examines packets and blocks or allows based on header

info.
2. Stateful Inspection Firewall: Tracks the state of active connections and makes
decisions based on context.
3. Proxy Firewall: Acts as a gateway between users and the internet, hiding internal
network details.
4. Next-Generation Firewall (NGFW): Combines traditional firewall with advanced
features like intrusion prevention and deep packet inspection.

Importance:

 Protects network resources.

 Ensures regulatory compliance.
 Prevents data breaches and intrusions.

NETWORKING PAPER-2

Q-1

a) What is Unguided Media? Explain Types of Unguided Media

Definition:
Unguided media refers to wireless transmission media where data is transmitted through the
air using electromagnetic waves. It does not require physical cables for signal
transmission.

Types of Unguided Media:

1. Radio Waves
o Frequency Range: 3 kHz to 1 GHz.
o Characteristics:
 Omni-directional.
 Can penetrate walls.
Suitable for long-distance communication.
o Applications: AM/FM radio, maritime communication, wireless keyboards.
2. Microwaves
o Frequency Range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
o Characteristics:
 Requires line-of-sight between transmitter and receiver.
 Affected by obstacles and weather (e.g., rain).
o Applications: Mobile phones, satellite communication, microwave links.
3. Infrared Waves
o Frequency Range: 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o Characteristics:
 Short-range communication.
 Cannot pass through walls.
 Requires line-of-sight.
o Applications: Remote controls, wireless mice and keyboards.

Advantages:

 Easy and quick deployment.

 Ideal for mobile communication.
 No physical infrastructure required.

Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to interference and noise.

 Security concerns due to open-air transmission.

b) What is Switch? How Does It Differ from Hub?

Definition of Switch:
A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices in a Local Area Network
(LAN) and uses MAC addresses to forward data only to the specific destination device.

Working:

 Learns MAC addresses of connected devices.

 Transfers data only to the correct recipient port.
 Reduces traffic and improves performance.

Difference Between Switch and Hub:

Feature Switch Hub

Layer of Data Link Layer (Layer 2, OSI Physical Layer (Layer 1,

Operation model) OSI model)

Data Sends data only to the Broadcasts data to all

 Feature Switch Hub

Transmission intended recipient connected devices

Stores MAC addresses and No learning capability,

Intelligence
makes smart decisions blind broadcasting

Less efficient, increases

Performance Efficient, reduces collisions
collisions

Bandwidth Dedicated bandwidth per Shared bandwidth among

Usage device all devices

Conclusion:
A switch is more efficient and secure than a hub, making it the preferred device in modern
networking.

c) What is Copyright? Explain Applications of Copyright

Definition:
Copyright is a legal right granted to the creator of original works, giving them exclusive
control over the use, distribution, reproduction, and modification of their work.

Purpose:

 To protect creative content.

 To prevent unauthorized use and piracy.
 To reward and recognize content creators.

Applications of Copyright:

1. Software Protection
o Source code and software programs are protected from duplication and
misuse.
2. Digital Media
o Protects movies, music, games, and videos from illegal downloads and
distribution.
3. Literature and Art
o Secures rights over books, poems, paintings, and photos.
4. Web Content
o Ensures blogs, website layouts, and digital articles are not plagiarized.
5. Educational Content
o Prevents unauthorized sharing or copying of e-learning modules and study
materials.

Importance:
  Encourages innovation and creativity.
 Grants legal rights and recognition to creators.
 Protects content from piracy and misuse.

d) Differentiate Between Connection-Oriented and

Connectionless Services
Connection-Oriented
Feature Connectionless Service
Service

A communication method
No connection setup before
where a connection is
Definition data transmission. Each packet
established before data is
is sent independently.
sent.

Reliable, provides delivery Unreliable, no guarantee of

Reliability
confirmation and sequencing. packet delivery or order.

Higher, due to connection Lower, no connection

Overhead
setup and control. management needed.

Flow &
Present, ensures accurate and Absent, packets may arrive out
Error
ordered delivery. of order or not at all.
Control

TCP (Transmission Control UDP (User Datagram Protocol),

Examples
Protocol), telephone call video streaming

File transfer, email, web Online games, VoIP, live

Use Case
browsing broadcasts

Conclusion:
Connection-oriented services offer reliable and secure communication, while connectionless
services are faster but less reliable, suitable for real-time applications.

Q-2

a) Explain Functions of Each Layer in ISO-OSI Reference Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a seven-layer architecture developed

by ISO to standardize network communication.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

 Function: Transmits raw binary data over a physical medium.

 Deals with electrical, mechanical, and procedural interfaces.
 Defines hardware devices like cables, switches, and voltages.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

 Function: Ensures reliable data transfer across the physical link.

 Handles framing, error detection/correction, and MAC addressing.
 Responsible for flow control and access control.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

 Function: Responsible for routing and logical addressing (IP address).

 Determines best path for data delivery.
 Manages packet forwarding and congestion control.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

 Function: Ensures end-to-end communication, reliability, and error recovery.

 Provides segmentation, reassembly, and flow control.
 Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (unreliable).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

 Function: Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications.

 Manages dialog control and synchronization.
 Useful in multimedia and file transfer services.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

 Function: Translates data between application and network formats.

 Handles encryption, compression, and data encoding.
 Ensures that data is in a readable format for the receiver.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

 Function: Interface between user applications and network services.

 Provides email, file transfer, remote login, browsing, etc.
 Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
b) What is Backbone Network? Explain Types of Backbone
Network

Definition:
A Backbone Network is the central, high-capacity network that connects various pieces of
a distributed network, including LANs and WANs, providing a path for data to travel across
multiple networks.

Functions:

 High-speed data transmission.

 Supports multiple network segments.
 Connects different parts of large organizational networks.

Types of Backbone Networks:

1. Distributed Backbone
o Each building or floor has its own backbone connected to a central backbone.
o Easy to manage and scale.
o Ideal for large campuses.
2. Collapsed Backbone
o Centralized switch/router connects all network segments.
o Easier to maintain, but single point of failure.
3. Parallel Backbone
o Multiple connections between core devices.
o Provides redundancy and fault tolerance.
4. Serial Backbone
o Devices are connected in series.
o Simple and cheap but not scalable.

Use Case:
Used in university campuses, corporate buildings, and data centers to ensure fast
communication between subnetworks.

c) State Advantages and Disadvantages of LAN, With Uses

Definition:
A Local Area Network (LAN) connects computers and devices within a small geographical
area such as homes, offices, or schools.

Advantages of LAN:

 High Data Transfer Speed: Fast communication between devices.

 Resource Sharing: Share printers, files, and internet among users.
 Cost-Effective: Reduces hardware and software costs.
 Centralized Data Management: Easy backup and maintenance.
 Improved Communication: Supports emails, chats, and messaging.
Disadvantages of LAN:

 Limited Coverage Area: Restricted to a single location.

 Initial Setup Cost: Cabling and hardware may be expensive.
 Security Concerns: Data may be accessed by unauthorized users if not protected.
 Network Dependency: Failure in network affects all connected devices.

Uses of LAN:

 Office automation and file sharing.

 School or college labs.
 Internet café management.
 Smart home device interconnection.

d) Explain Ground Wave Propagation (Without Diagram)

Definition:
Ground wave propagation refers to the transmission of radio signals that travel along the
surface of the Earth.

Characteristics:

 Operates at low frequencies (below 2 MHz).

 Signal follows the curvature of the Earth.
 Ideal for short to medium-range communication.

Working:

 The wave induces currents on the surface and interacts with the Earth, allowing it to
bend and follow the terrain.
 Works well over conductive surfaces like seawater.

Applications:

 AM radio broadcasting.
 Military and maritime communication.
 Navigation systems.

Advantages:

 Reliable communication over large areas without satellite or line-of-sight.

 Signal can travel even in poor weather conditions.

Disadvantages:

 Limited bandwidth and data rate.

 Signal attenuation over long distances.
Q-3

a) Define Computer Network? Explain Goals of Computer

Network

Definition of Computer Network:

A computer network is a system of interconnected devices (computers, servers, printers,
routers, etc.) that communicate with each other to share resources and information. These
devices are connected via wired or wireless mediums such as cables, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth.

Goals of Computer Network:

1. Resource Sharing:
o Allows users to share hardware (e.g., printers, storage devices) and software
(applications, databases) efficiently within the network.
2. Communication:
o Facilitates communication between users through email, instant messaging,
video calls, and collaborative tools.
3. Data Security:
o Ensures the protection of data from unauthorized access or tampering using
firewalls, encryption, and access controls.
4. Cost Efficiency:
o Reduces costs by enabling resource sharing and centralized management of
data, applications, and systems.
5. Scalability:
o Allows the network to grow as required, adding new devices or services
without major disruptions.
6. Reliability:
o Ensures continuous operation of critical systems and provides fault tolerance
through redundancy (e.g., multiple data paths).

b) What is Attack? Explain Various Types of Attack

Definition of Attack:
An attack refers to any attempt to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to a
computer network or system. Attacks can be directed at the network infrastructure, devices,
or the data being transmitted.

Types of Attacks:

1. Denial of Service (DoS) Attack:

 o Objective: Overwhelm the target system with traffic, making it unavailable to
legitimate users.
o Example: Flooding a website with requests so that it crashes.
2. Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack:
o Objective: Intercept and alter communication between two parties without
their knowledge.
o Example: Eavesdropping on email communication and altering the content.
3. Phishing:
o Objective: Tricking individuals into revealing sensitive information, such as
usernames, passwords, or credit card numbers.
o Example: Fake emails pretending to be from banks asking for account details.
4. Malware:
o Objective: Malicious software that disrupts, damages, or gains unauthorized
access to a network or system.
o Example: Viruses, worms, and ransomware.
5. SQL Injection:
o Objective: Exploit vulnerabilities in an application's database layer to execute
arbitrary SQL code.
o Example: Gaining unauthorized access to a website's database.
6. Brute Force Attack:
o Objective: Attempt to gain access to a system by systematically trying all
possible passwords or keys.
o Example: Trying different password combinations until the correct one is
found.

c) What is Gateway? Explain Various Levels of Gateways

Definition of Gateway:
A gateway is a network device that acts as a bridge between two different network
architectures or protocols, allowing data to flow between them. It often performs protocol
translation and can be a combination of hardware and software.

Levels of Gateways:

1. Network Layer Gateway (Layer 3):

o Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
o Routes data packets between different networks, translating network protocols
(e.g., from IPv4 to IPv6).
o Example: Routers that connect different IP networks.
2. Transport Layer Gateway (Layer 4):
o Operates at the transport layer (Layer 4) and handles the transmission of data
between networks.
o Translates transport protocols (e.g., TCP to UDP).
o Example: Gateways used for VPN connections or proxy servers.
3. Application Layer Gateway (Layer 7):
o Works at the application layer (Layer 7) and allows different application
protocols to communicate.
 oTypically used in web servers, email gateways, and firewalls to translate
HTTP, SMTP, or FTP protocols.
o Example: Email gateway that translates different email protocols (POP,
IMAP, SMTP).
4. Protocol-Specific Gateway:
o Focused on specific protocols, such as a voice gateway that translates between
different voice communication protocols (e.g., between VoIP and traditional
telephone systems).

Function:
Gateways enable communication between different networks (e.g., between a corporate LAN
and the internet) by handling protocol conversion, routing, and addressing.

d) What is VLAN? What are the Features of VLAN

Definition of VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network):

A VLAN is a logical partition of a physical network into multiple broadcast domains,
allowing network administrators to group devices by function, department, or application,
regardless of their physical location.

Features of VLAN:

1. Segmentation:
o VLANs segment a large network into smaller, more manageable sections to
reduce congestion and increase security.
2. Broadcast Control:
o Limits the scope of broadcast traffic to a specific VLAN, reducing
unnecessary network traffic and improving efficiency.
3. Security:
o VLANs can isolate sensitive data traffic, ensuring that only authorized users
within the same VLAN can access certain resources.
4. Flexibility:
o Devices in different physical locations can be grouped into the same VLAN,
offering flexibility in network management without needing physical
reconfiguration.
5. Improved Performance:
o By minimizing unnecessary broadcast traffic, VLANs help improve the
overall network performance.
6. Simplified Network Management:
o VLANs simplify network management by grouping similar devices together,
making it easier to apply policies and troubleshoot network issues.

Conclusion:
VLANs help enhance the performance, security, and scalability of a network by logically
separating traffic within a single physical infrastructure.
Q-4

a) Define Computer Network? Explain Goals of Computer

Network

Definition of Computer Network: A computer network is a system of interconnected

devices (such as computers, servers, routers, printers, etc.) that communicate with each other
to share resources and information. These devices can be linked using physical media (such
as cables) or wireless technologies (such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth).

Goals of Computer Network:

1. Resource Sharing:
o A network allows sharing of resources like printers, files, storage devices,
and internet connections, reducing redundancy and overall cost.
2. Communication:
o Networks facilitate communication through different mediums such as email,
chat systems, voice calls, and video conferencing.
3. Data Security:
o Ensures that information exchanged over the network is protected from
unauthorized access using encryption, firewalls, and access controls.
4. Cost-Effectiveness:
o Centralized resource management lowers the cost of purchasing hardware and
software for each individual machine. It also cuts down on maintenance costs.
5. Scalability:
o As organizations grow, networks can easily scale to accommodate additional
devices or users without major disruptions to existing infrastructure.
6. Reliability:
o Networks provide fault tolerance, ensuring continuous service even if a
component fails. Redundant paths and backup systems ensure high
availability.

b) What is Attack? Explain Various Types of Attacks

Definition of Attack: An attack is any attempt to compromise the integrity, confidentiality,

or availability of a system, application, or network. Attacks can be carried out through
malicious actions such as unauthorized access, data theft, or service disruption.

Types of Attacks:

1. Denial of Service (DoS) Attack:

o Objective: Overwhelm the target system with traffic to make it inaccessible to
legitimate users.
o Example: Flooding a website with traffic to crash it.
 2. Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack:
o Objective: Intercept and potentially alter communication between two parties
without their knowledge.
o Example: Eavesdropping on email communication, or altering a message sent
from one party to another.
3. Phishing:
o Objective: Trick users into revealing personal or sensitive information such as
usernames, passwords, or credit card details.
o Example: Fraudulent emails posing as legitimate organizations, asking users
to click on malicious links.
4. Malware (Malicious Software):
o Objective: Install harmful software (e.g., viruses, worms, ransomware) on a
target system to disrupt operations, steal data, or cause other harm.
o Example: Ransomware encrypting files and demanding payment for
decryption.
5. SQL Injection:
o Objective: Exploit vulnerabilities in a web application's database layer to
execute arbitrary SQL commands and access unauthorized data.
o Example: Accessing sensitive user information from a website’s backend
database.
6. Brute Force Attack:
o Objective: Attempt to guess passwords or cryptographic keys by trying every
possible combination.
o Example: Trying multiple password combinations to gain unauthorized access
to an account.

c) What is Gateway? Explain Various Levels of Gateways

Definition of Gateway: A gateway is a device or software that acts as a translator between

different network architectures or communication protocols. It facilitates communication
between systems that may otherwise use incompatible communication protocols.

Levels of Gateways:

1. Network Layer Gateway (Layer 3):

o Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
o Responsible for routing packets between different networks and performing
protocol conversion (e.g., IPv4 to IPv6).
o Example: Routers that forward data packets across networks based on IP
addresses.
2. Transport Layer Gateway (Layer 4):
o Works at the transport layer (Layer 4) to manage the flow of data between
network systems.
o Can translate different transport protocols (e.g., TCP to UDP) and handle
end-to-end communication.
o Example: VPN gateways that support secure tunneling between networks.
3. Application Layer Gateway (Layer 7):
 oOperates at the application layer (Layer 7) and facilitates communication
between different application protocols.
o It often provides protocol-specific functions, such as email relay or web proxy
services.
o Example: HTTP Proxy Gateway that forwards HTTP requests from clients to
web servers.
4. Protocol-Specific Gateway:
o Dedicated to translating and handling communication between specific
protocols. For instance, voice gateways that convert VoIP signals into
traditional telephony signals (analog-to-digital conversion).

Function of Gateways:

 Gateways are necessary for connecting networks with different communication

protocols, such as when connecting a local network to the internet or integrating
different communication technologies.

d) What is VLAN? What Are the Features of VLAN

Definition of VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network): A VLAN is a logical grouping of

devices within a physical network that is segmented based on specific criteria like function,
department, or application, regardless of their physical location. VLANs help improve
network management and security by isolating traffic.

Features of VLAN:

1. Segmentation of Network:
o VLANs divide a large network into smaller, isolated broadcast domains,
reducing unnecessary network traffic and improving performance.
2. Broadcast Control:
o Limits broadcast traffic to the devices within a particular VLAN, ensuring
that broadcasts (e.g., ARP requests) do not affect the entire network.
3. Security:
o By isolating sensitive devices or departments into separate VLANs, security
risks can be minimized. For example, accounting and HR systems can be in
different VLANs to protect sensitive data.
4. Flexibility:
o Devices can be added to a VLAN irrespective of their physical location in the
network. This makes it easier to manage network resources without needing to
physically reconfigure the network.
5. Performance Optimization:
o VLANs help reduce the size of broadcast domains, which improves the
overall network performance by minimizing network congestion.
6. Simplified Network Management:
o Centralized management of VLANs simplifies network configuration and
maintenance. Policies can be applied to groups of devices without the need for
re-cabling.
Conclusion: VLANs are useful in large networks to improve security, performance, and
manageability, and allow network administrators to logically group devices.

Q-5

a) Define Computer Network? Explain Goals of Computer

Network

Definition of Computer Network: A computer network is a collection of devices

(computers, servers, routers, etc.) connected together to share resources, exchange data, and
communicate. Networks can be connected through wired or wireless mediums, such as
Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi.

Goals of Computer Network:

1. Resource Sharing:
o Allows sharing of physical and software resources across the network,
including printers, storage, applications, and internet access.
2. Communication:
o Facilitates communication among networked devices through emails, chats,
video conferencing, and other tools.
3. Data Security:
o Ensures protection of data by implementing security mechanisms like
encryption, firewalls, and access controls to guard against unauthorized
access.
4. Cost-Effectiveness:
o Reduces costs by centralizing resources and eliminating the need for separate
hardware/software for each user or department.
5. Scalability:
o Networks can be easily expanded as new devices are added, allowing growth
without a significant reconfiguration.
6. Reliability:
o A well-designed network ensures high availability and fault tolerance through
redundancy and backup solutions to keep the system operational at all times.

b) What is Attack? Explain Various Types of Attacks

Definition of Attack: An attack refers to any action that aims to disrupt or gain
unauthorized access to computer systems, networks, or devices. It can lead to data breaches,
service interruptions, or data manipulation.

Types of Attacks:
 1. Denial of Service (DoS) Attack:
o Objective: Overwhelm a system or network with traffic, causing it to become
slow or unresponsive.
o Example: Flooding a website with too many requests, causing it to crash.
2. Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack:
o Objective: Intercept and alter communication between two parties without
their knowledge.
o Example: An attacker intercepting and modifying data between a user and a
website, such as changing transaction details.
3. Phishing:
o Objective: Deceive individuals into providing sensitive information like
usernames, passwords, or financial details.
o Example: Fake emails that appear to come from banks, asking users to click
on malicious links.
4. Malware (Malicious Software):
o Objective: Use malicious software such as viruses, worms, or ransomware to
damage or steal information.
o Example: Ransomware encrypting files and demanding payment for
decryption.
5. SQL Injection:
o Objective: Inject malicious SQL queries into a website's database to access or
manipulate its data.
o Example: An attacker submitting malicious SQL code via a form on a website
to retrieve sensitive information from the database.
6. Brute Force Attack:
o Objective: Attempt to crack passwords or encryption keys by trying all
possible combinations until the correct one is found.
o Example: Using software to guess login credentials by systematically trying
different password combinations.

c) What is Gateway? Explain Various Levels of Gateways

Definition of Gateway: A gateway is a device or software that connects two different

networks or systems, allowing data to pass between them, often translating between different
protocols. It plays a crucial role in communication across disparate network types.

Levels of Gateways:

1. Network Layer Gateway (Layer 3):

o Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
o Responsible for routing data between different networks and translating
network protocols (e.g., IPv4 to IPv6).
o Example: Routers that forward data packets based on IP addresses.
2. Transport Layer Gateway (Layer 4):
o Works at the transport layer (Layer 4) to manage end-to-end communication
and translate between different transport protocols (e.g., TCP to UDP).
 oExample: Gateways used in VPN connections that secure communication
between networks.
3. Application Layer Gateway (Layer 7):
o Operates at the application layer (Layer 7) and facilitates communication
between different application protocols.
o Often used to relay specific types of data (e.g., web requests, emails).
o Example: An email gateway that handles different email protocols such as
SMTP, POP3, and IMAP.
4. Protocol-Specific Gateway:
o Focuses on specific types of communication protocols, such as voice
gateways that connect voice communication systems (e.g., VoIP) to
traditional telephone networks.

Function of Gateways: Gateways enable data exchange across different network

technologies, allowing the integration of diverse communication protocols.

d) What is VLAN? What Are the Features of VLAN

Definition of VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network): A VLAN is a logical subdivision of a

network into smaller broadcast domains, regardless of the physical location of the devices. It
allows network administrators to group devices based on functions or departments, improving
performance and security.

Features of VLAN:

1. Segmentation:
o VLANs segment a network into smaller, more manageable sections,
minimizing network traffic and improving performance.
2. Broadcast Control:
o Broadcast traffic is limited to devices within the same VLAN, reducing
unnecessary traffic and improving overall network efficiency.
3. Security:
o VLANs enhance security by isolating sensitive or critical devices, ensuring
that they are not easily accessible from other parts of the network.
4. Flexibility:
o Devices in different physical locations can be grouped into the same VLAN,
providing flexibility in network design and management.
5. Improved Performance:
o By limiting broadcast traffic, VLANs reduce network congestion, thus
enhancing performance and response time.
6. Simplified Management:
o VLANs allow for easier management of network policies and troubleshooting
since devices with similar functions or requirements can be grouped together.

Conclusion: VLANs are used in enterprise networks to improve security, performance, and
scalability, allowing for efficient traffic management and reducing the risk of congestion.
NETWORKING PAPER-3

Q-1

a) What is Proxy Server?

A proxy server acts as an intermediary between a client and a destination server. It filters
requests, caches data, and can provide anonymity for the client. It improves security and
performance by managing and controlling the flow of data between the client and the server.

b) What is Bridge?

A bridge is a device that connects two or more network segments to function as a single
network. It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and filters traffic
based on MAC addresses, reducing collisions and controlling data flow between segments.

c) What is HTTP?

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is a protocol used to request and transfer web pages
over the internet. It defines the rules for requesting resources from a web server and
delivering them to a client, such as a web browser.

d) What is Standard?

A standard is a set of agreed-upon rules or specifications that ensure the compatibility and
interoperability of products, services, or systems. Standards are often established by
organizations like ISO or IEEE.

e) What is NIC?

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that enables a computer or

device to connect to a network. It provides the interface for data transmission through wired
or wireless connections and manages network communication.
f) Define Computer Network

A computer network is a system of interconnected devices (computers, printers, routers)

that communicate with each other to share resources like files, printers, or internet access. It
allows devices to exchange information over wired or wireless media.

g) What are the Types of Twisted Pair Cable?

The two main types of twisted pair cables are:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Most common, without additional shielding, used
for networking and telecommunication.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Includes shielding to reduce interference from
external sources, often used in industrial environments.

h) What is Plaintext and Ciphertext?

 Plaintext is the original, unencrypted data that can be read without any special
processing.
 Ciphertext is the encrypted form of the data that appears as a random string of
characters, and requires decryption to return to its readable form.

i) What is Piconet?

A Piconet is a small Bluetooth network consisting of one master device and up to seven
active slave devices. It allows short-range communication, usually within a 10-meter radius.

j) What is Addressing?

Addressing is the process of assigning unique identifiers, such as IP addresses or MAC

addresses, to devices in a network. These addresses ensure that data is correctly routed to the
intended device.

Q-2
a) What is Networking? Explain Different Types of Network

Networking refers to the practice of interconnecting multiple devices (such as computers,

printers, servers, etc.) to share resources, exchange data, and communicate over a medium
(such as cables or wireless signals). It allows devices to work together and access shared
resources like internet connections, files, and printers.

Different Types of Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

o A LAN is a network that spans a small geographical area, like a home,
office, or campus. It is usually high-speed and low-cost, allowing for sharing
of resources such as files, printers, and internet access.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network):
o A WAN covers a large geographical area, such as cities, countries, or
continents. It connects multiple LANs and allows for long-distance
communication. The internet is the largest example of a WAN.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
o A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically covering a
city or a large campus. It is used to connect multiple LANs within a specific
geographical area.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
o A PAN is a small network that connects personal devices such as
smartphones, laptops, tablets, and wearables, typically within a 10-meter
range.
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network):
o A VPN creates a secure, encrypted connection over a public network (like
the internet), allowing users to connect to a private network remotely. It
ensures privacy and security for the transmitted data.

b) Compare ISO/OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP

ISO/OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model

Developed by the ISO

Developed by the US Department
(International Standard
of Defense.
Organization).

Consists of 7 layers: Physical, Data Consists of 4 layers: Network

Link, Network, Transport, Session, Interface, Internet, Transport,
Presentation, Application. Application.

The Session and Presentation

The Transport Layer in TCP/IP
layers are separate, whereas in
includes protocols like TCP and
TCP/IP, these are combined into the
UDP.
Application layer.
 ISO/OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model

Focuses more on standardizing and TCP/IP is more practical and used for
clarifying networking processes and real-world internet communication,
their interaction at each layer. heavily used in internet protocols.

TCP/IP is a functional model,

Each layer is highly defined, and the
designed for real-world application
OSI model is more of a conceptual
with protocols like IP, TCP, and
framework.
UDP.

c) Explain Fiber Optic Cable in Detail

Fiber optic cable is a type of network cable used to transmit data in the form of light signals.
It is made up of thin strands of glass or plastic fibers, each designed to carry light signals over
long distances.

Working Principle:

 Fiber optic cables use total internal reflection to guide light through the core of the
fiber, allowing signals to travel without significant loss. The signal is transmitted as
light pulses which represent data, making it much faster and more efficient than
traditional copper cables.

Types of Fiber Optic Cables:

1. Single-mode fiber (SMF):

o Has a small core size, typically 8 to 10 microns in diameter. It is designed to
carry light over long distances with a single light ray.
o Typically used for long-distance communication (e.g., internet backbone or
telecom networks).
2. Multi-mode fiber (MMF):
o Has a larger core size (about 50 to 100 microns in diameter) and can carry
multiple light signals simultaneously.
o Best suited for shorter distances, such as within buildings or campuses.

Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable:

 High bandwidth and low attenuation lead to faster data transmission over long
distances.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI), ensuring clearer signals.
 Security: Difficult to tap into without detection.
d) What is AP? Explain BSS and ESS in Detail

Access Point (AP) is a networking device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi. It acts as an interface between wireless devices (like laptops,
smartphones) and the wired network infrastructure, enabling communication through radio
frequencies.

BSS (Basic Service Set):

 A BSS is the simplest configuration of a wireless network. It consists of a single

Access Point (AP) and its associated devices (clients).
 In a BSS, the AP acts as the central communication point for all devices within its
range, and devices communicate only with the AP.

ESS (Extended Service Set):

 An ESS is a network of multiple BSSs connected together to form a larger wireless

network. It typically uses a single network name (SSID) to allow devices to roam
seamlessly between APs without losing connection.
 In an ESS, the backbone infrastructure allows the communication between different
APs, providing extended coverage and capacity.

Key Difference:

 BSS is a standalone setup with a single AP, while ESS involves multiple BSSs and is
typically used for larger areas like offices, campuses, or buildings.

e) What is Cryptography? State Objective of Cryptography

Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for securing communication and data
from adversaries. It involves methods like encryption and decryption to ensure that data is
kept confidential and can only be read by authorized parties.

Objectives of Cryptography:

1. Confidentiality:
o Ensures that only authorized users can read the data. For example, encrypting
sensitive data ensures it remains confidential.
2. Integrity:
o Verifies that the data has not been altered during transmission. Cryptographic
hash functions are used to ensure that the data remains intact.
3. Authentication:
o Verifies the identity of the users or systems involved in the communication.
Public-key cryptography ensures that users are authenticated before
exchanging sensitive information.
4. Non-repudiation:
 o Prevents the sender from denying the transmission of data. Digital signatures
are commonly used to guarantee that a message was sent by a particular party.

Conclusion: Cryptography ensures that data is secure from unauthorized access, maintains
data integrity, and verifies the identity of users involved in communication.

Q-3

a) What is Backbone Network? Explain Types of Backbone

Architecture

Backbone Network: A backbone network refers to a central, high-capacity network that

serves as the primary conduit for data traffic in a larger network. It interconnects different
local area networks (LANs) and provides the pathway for data transmission across wide
geographical areas, ensuring efficient communication.

Types of Backbone Architecture:

1. Point-to-Point Backbone:
o A point-to-point backbone connects two locations with a dedicated link. It is
simple and cost-effective for connecting two distant LANs or branches.
o Suitable for small networks where only two sites need to communicate.
2. Collapsed Backbone:
o In a collapsed backbone architecture, all network traffic passes through a
central hub or router that serves as the backbone. It is typically used for
smaller networks where a centralized point can handle all communication.
o A single switch or router typically manages all traffic.
3. Distributed Backbone:
o A distributed backbone uses multiple interconnected backbone devices
(routers, switches) to create a more scalable and redundant architecture. It is
used in larger networks with multiple segments, offering improved
performance and fault tolerance.
o Suitable for larger organizations with multiple data centers or buildings.
4. Dual Backbone:
o A dual backbone involves two separate, redundant backbones to ensure
network availability. Traffic can be routed through either backbone in case of
failure, providing greater reliability and fault tolerance.
b) Difference Between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Services
Connection-Oriented
Feature Connectionless Service
Service

Involves establishing a
Definitio No dedicated connection is
dedicated connection before
n established before data transfer.
data transfer.

Provides reliable data delivery

Reliabilit Offers unreliable delivery, no
with error-checking and
y guarantee of data arrival.
correction.

Data is sent in a sequence, Data packets may arrive out of

Data
and packets are guaranteed to order, with no guarantee of
Transfer
arrive in order. delivery.

Example TCP (Transmission Control UDP (User Datagram

s Protocol) Protocol)

Higher, due to connection

Overhea Lower, as there is no connection
establishment and
d setup or management.
management.

Used in applications that

Used in applications where
require reliable
Use speed is crucial, and slight loss
communication, like file
Cases of data is acceptable, like live
transfer, web browsing, and
streaming or gaming.
email.

c) What is Hub? Explain Types of Hub

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a network,
allowing them to communicate with each other. It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of
the OSI model and broadcasts incoming data packets to all connected devices, regardless of
the destination.

Types of Hubs:

1. Active Hub:
o An active hub amplifies the signals and regenerates them before broadcasting
to all connected devices. It is powered and can extend the distance over which
signals can travel. It can also perform basic error-checking and retransmitting
of signals.
2. Passive Hub:
 o A passive hub simply acts as a connector without amplifying or regenerating
the signal. It does not require power and relies entirely on the connected
devices to transmit signals. It is less efficient than active hubs and is used in
smaller, less demanding networks.
3. Intelligent Hub:
o An intelligent hub is a more advanced version of an active hub. It can
perform additional tasks such as managing network traffic, monitoring
performance, and handling security features. It has built-in software for
managing the network.
4. USB Hub:
o A USB hub is designed specifically for USB devices. It allows multiple USB
devices to be connected to a single USB port on a computer or other device. It
is widely used in home and office environments to connect multiple
peripherals.

d) What is Wireless Transmission? Explain Any One Media in

Detail

Wireless Transmission: Wireless transmission refers to the transfer of data over a network
without using physical cables. It involves transmitting electromagnetic signals, such as radio
waves or microwaves, through the air. Wireless transmission is used in various types of
communication, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, satellite communication, and mobile networks.

One Media - Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity):

 Wi-Fi is a widely used wireless communication technology that allows devices like
laptops, smartphones, and tablets to connect to the internet or a local network without
physical cables.
 Frequency Bands: Wi-Fi operates primarily in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency
bands, providing different ranges and speeds. The 5 GHz band offers faster speeds but
shorter range compared to the 2.4 GHz band.
 Wi-Fi Standards: The most common Wi-Fi standards are 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax,
which define the frequency bands, data rates, and modulation techniques used for
wireless communication.
 Range and Speed: Wi-Fi typically offers a range of up to 100 meters in open space
and speeds ranging from 54 Mbps (802.11g) to 9.6 Gbps (802.11ax, Wi-Fi 6).

e) Draw TCP/IP Model and State the Function of Each Layer

The TCP/IP Model is a simplified version of the OSI model that is used for internet
communication. It consists of 4 layers:

1. Application Layer:
 o Provides network services to end-users and defines protocols for
communication between applications. Example protocols: HTTP, FTP,
SMTP.
2. Transport Layer:
o Ensures reliable data transmission between devices. It handles error detection,
correction, and data flow control. Main protocols: TCP (for reliable
communication) and UDP (for faster, less reliable communication).
3. Internet Layer:
o Responsible for logical addressing and routing of data across the network. The
primary protocol is IP (Internet Protocol), which defines addressing schemes
and packet routing.
4. Network Interface Layer:
o Deals with the physical and data link aspects of communication. It defines
how data is transmitted over the physical medium, using protocols like
Ethernet or Wi-Fi. It corresponds to the Data Link and Physical Layer in
the OSI model.

Q-4

a) What is Security Services? Explain Security Mechanisms to

Provide the Services

Security Services refer to the protections and measures put in place to ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data and network resources. These services aim
to secure communication and safeguard the network from unauthorized access, attacks, and
data loss.

Security Mechanisms:

1. Confidentiality: Ensures that sensitive information is only accessible to authorized

users.
o Security Mechanism: Encryption (e.g., AES, RSA) is used to convert
readable data (plaintext) into an unreadable format (ciphertext) to protect it
during transmission.
2. Integrity: Guarantees that data is not altered during transmission.
o Security Mechanism: Hashing (e.g., SHA-256) ensures the integrity of the
data by generating a fixed-size string based on the original data. Any alteration
in the data changes the hash, allowing detection of tampering.
3. Authentication: Verifies the identity of the entities involved in communication.
o Security Mechanism: Digital Signatures and Public Key Infrastructure
(PKI) are used to authenticate users and systems by verifying their identity.
4. Non-repudiation: Ensures that a sender cannot deny having sent the message.
o Security Mechanism: Digital Signatures and Audit Trails are used to track
actions and guarantee that a transaction or communication was indeed sent or
performed by the authorized entity.
 5. Access Control: Limits access to network resources based on user identity and
security clearance.
o Security Mechanism: Firewalls and Access Control Lists (ACLs) are used
to regulate network traffic and restrict access to authorized users only.

b) What is Topology? Explain Difference Between Bus and Star

Topology

Topology refers to the arrangement or layout of devices, cables, and data transmission paths
in a network. It defines how devices are connected and how data flows through the network.

Bus Topology:

 Bus topology is a type of network where all devices are connected to a single central
cable (the bus). Data sent by one device is transmitted to all other devices, but only
the destination device accepts the data.
 Advantages: Easy to install, requires less cable.
 Disadvantages: If the central cable fails, the entire network goes down. It has limited
scalability.

Star Topology:

 Star topology involves a central hub or switch to which all devices are connected.
Data sent from any device is directed to the hub, which then forwards it to the correct
destination device.
 Advantages: Easy to install and manage, failure of one device does not affect others.
 Disadvantages: If the hub fails, the entire network is disrupted.

Characteris
Bus Topology Star Topology
tic

Structure Single central cable Central hub or switch

Cable
Less cable required More cable needed
Usage

Failure Central cable failure affects the Hub failure affects the
Impact entire network network

Scalability Limited scalability Easy to scale

c) Explain Ground Wave Propagation Method in Detail

Ground Wave Propagation refers to the method of radio wave propagation where the waves
travel along the Earth's surface. It is used for medium and long-range communication,
particularly for low-frequency radio signals.
Characteristics of Ground Wave Propagation:

1. Travel Along the Ground: The radio waves travel directly along the Earth's
surface, following the curvature of the Earth. This enables the signal to reach
distances beyond the horizon.
2. Low Frequencies: Typically, lower-frequency signals (like AM radio signals) are
suited for ground wave propagation because they follow the Earth's curvature better.
3. Limited Range: Ground waves generally work well for ranges up to 300 km but are
more effective at shorter distances.
4. Signal Attenuation: As the signal travels, it weakens due to terrain and obstacles.
The earth’s surface acts as a conductor, and the waves may refract or diffract around
obstacles like hills and buildings.

Uses of Ground Wave Propagation:

 Used for AM radio broadcasting and communication over short to medium

distances, such as maritime communication or military applications.

d) Explain Different Types of Addresses

In networking, various addresses are used to identify devices on a network. These include:

1. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address):

o A unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications at the
data link layer (Layer 2).
o Typically used to ensure that data is delivered to the correct hardware device
on a local network.
o Format: 48-bit (e.g., 00:14:22:01:23:45).
2. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address):
o An address used to identify devices on a TCP/IP network at the network
layer (Layer 3). It ensures that data can be routed between different networks.
o IPv4 (32-bit) or IPv6 (128-bit) formats. For example, IPv4 format:
192.168.1.1.
3. Port Address:
o Port numbers are used at the transport layer (Layer 4) to identify specific
applications on a device (e.g., HTTP uses port 80, HTTPS uses port 443).
4. Logical Address:
o The IP address is also referred to as a logical address because it can change
depending on the network to which a device is connected (e.g., a device
moving between different networks).
5. Broadcast Address:
o A broadcast address is used to send data to all devices on a network. The
broadcast address is used in communication to deliver data to every device
within the local network.
e) What are the Objectives of Wireless LAN?

The objectives of a Wireless LAN (WLAN) are to provide wireless connectivity between
devices in a local area while ensuring performance, security, and ease of use. The primary
objectives are:

1. Mobility: Allows users to connect to the network from anywhere within the coverage
area, enabling movement without losing network connectivity (e.g., laptops,
smartphones).
2. Flexibility and Scalability: Enables the addition of new devices without the need for
physical cabling. It is easy to expand and reconfigure without major infrastructure
changes.
3. Cost Efficiency: Wireless LANs reduce the cost of wiring and infrastructure
compared to traditional wired networks, especially in buildings where running cables
is expensive or difficult.
4. Convenience: Facilitates easy access to network resources from multiple devices like
laptops, tablets, and smartphones. It supports both high-speed internet access and
resource sharing.
5. Reduced Clutter: Eliminates the need for extensive cabling, making it ideal for areas
with space constraints or where physical wiring is impractical.
6. Integration: Can be easily integrated with other technologies like Bluetooth and Wi-
Fi to extend functionality, enabling diverse connectivity options for devices.

Q-5

a) Repeaters

Repeaters are network devices used to amplify or regenerate signals in order to extend the
range of communication over long distances. They are commonly used in networks where
signal attenuation occurs due to distance, especially in wireless or wired communication
systems.

 Function: Repeaters receive a weak or degraded signal, amplify or regenerate it, and
then retransmit it to its destination. This process helps to preserve the integrity and
strength of the signal over long distances.
 Usage: They are typically used in long-distance transmission mediums such as fiber
optic cables, coaxial cables, and wireless communication systems.
 Example: Used in Wi-Fi networks to extend coverage in larger areas, in
telecommunication systems to enhance signal strength across vast distances.

b) Modes of Communication

Communication modes define the direction of data flow between devices in a network.
There are three primary modes of communication:
 1. Unidirectional (Simplex):
o In simplex mode, data flows in one direction only. The sender transmits data,
and the receiver only receives it, without any feedback or communication in
the reverse direction.
o Example: Radio broadcasts, where the station sends data, and listeners only
receive it.
2. Bidirectional (Half-Duplex):
o In half-duplex mode, data can travel in both directions, but not at the same
time. Only one device can transmit at a time, while the other device must wait
for the transmission to finish before sending its data.
o Example: Walkie-talkies, where one person speaks while the other listens
and vice versa.
3. Bidirectional (Full-Duplex):
o In full-duplex mode, data flows in both directions simultaneously. Both
devices can send and receive data at the same time, allowing continuous two-
way communication.
o Example: Telephone calls, where both parties can speak and hear at the same
time.

c) Coaxial Cable Structure

A coaxial cable (or coax) is a type of electrical cable used for transmitting data, video, and
audio signals. It has a unique design that helps in shielding and protecting the signal from
external interference.

 Core: The inner conductor is made of copper or aluminum and is responsible for
carrying the electrical signal. It is typically a solid wire or a braided conductor.
 Insulation: Surrounding the core is a layer of insulating material that prevents signal
leakage and reduces interference from outside sources.
 Shielding: The insulation is followed by a metal shield (usually a copper or
aluminum foil or braided mesh) that protects the signal from electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and crosstalk from adjacent cables.
 Outer Jacket: The outermost layer is made of plastic or PVC which serves to protect
the inner components from physical damage and environmental factors.

Advantages:

 High bandwidth: Coaxial cables are capable of transmitting large amounts of data
and are widely used in broadband internet, TV systems, and CCTV networks.
 Resistant to interference: Due to the shielding, coaxial cables are resistant to
external electromagnetic interference, making them reliable for high-quality signal
transmission.

NETWORKING PAPER-4

Q-1
a) What is Protocol?

A protocol is a set of rules or standards that define how data is transmitted and received
over a network. It ensures that devices can communicate with each other efficiently, securely,
and correctly. Examples include HTTP, TCP/IP, and FTP.

b) What is Cladding?

Cladding is a protective layer surrounding the core of an optical fiber. It has a lower
refractive index than the core, which causes the light signals to be reflected back into the
core, allowing them to travel along the fiber without escaping.

c) What is Proxy Server?

A proxy server is an intermediary server that sits between a client and the internet. It acts as
a gateway, forwarding requests from clients to external servers and then relaying the
responses back, offering benefits like anonymity and security.

d) What is Meant by Classless Addressing?

Classless Addressing refers to an IP address scheme where the network address is not
restricted by predefined class boundaries (A, B, C). This is achieved using CIDR (Classless
Inter-Domain Routing), which allows more efficient IP address allocation.

e) What is Transmission Media?

Transmission media are the physical pathways through which data travels in a network.
Common types include twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optics for wired
connections, and radio waves and microwaves for wireless communication.

f) What is Internetwork?

An internetwork refers to a collection of multiple interconnected networks that can

communicate with each other. The internet itself is the largest example of an internetwork,
where many smaller networks are linked together globally.
g) Define Steganography?

Steganography is the technique of hiding data within other non-suspicious data, such as
embedding a secret message inside an image or audio file. Unlike encryption, its goal is to
conceal the existence of the message.

h) What is Hub?

A hub is a simple networking device that connects multiple devices in a network. It works at
the physical layer and broadcasts data received from one device to all other devices
connected to it, without checking the destination.

i) What is Standard Ethernet?

Standard Ethernet refers to the traditional Ethernet networking protocol used in LANs. It
typically operates at speeds of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or 1 Gbps and uses CSMA/CD for
managing data access in the network.

j) What is Firewall?

A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on security rules. It acts as a barrier between an internal network and
external sources, such as the internet, to prevent unauthorized access.

Q-2

a) What is Computer Network? Explain Goals of Computer

Network.

A computer network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, and other devices

that are connected together to share data and resources. These devices communicate with
each other through various communication channels such as wired or wireless mediums.

Goals of Computer Network:

1. Resource Sharing: Computer networks enable multiple devices to share resources

like printers, files, applications, and even internet connections. This reduces costs and
increases efficiency in resource management.
 2. Data Communication: Networks allow for the exchange of data between devices at
various speeds and in various formats (text, audio, video, etc.). This facilitates the
efficient transfer of information in a business, school, or personal environment.
3. Scalability: Networks can be easily expanded to add more devices as required. It
allows the seamless connection of new systems to an existing infrastructure without
significant reconfiguration.
4. Security: A well-designed network provides security mechanisms like firewalls,
encryption, and access control to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of the data
being transmitted.

b) Explain Function of Each Layer in the ISO-OSI Reference

Model.

The ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework

that defines seven layers, each responsible for different aspects of data communication. These
layers are:

1. Layer 1: Physical Layer: This layer deals with the transmission of raw bits over a
physical medium like cables or wireless signals. It defines the hardware elements
involved in the transmission and reception of data.
2. Layer 2: Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for establishing a reliable link
between two directly connected nodes, handling error detection and correction. It uses
MAC addresses for communication between devices in the same network.
3. Layer 3: Network Layer: This layer manages the addressing and routing of data
between devices across different networks. It is responsible for logical addressing
(e.g., IP addresses) and routing packets from source to destination.
4. Layer 4: Transport Layer: This layer ensures reliable data transfer between two
devices. It handles flow control, error correction, and retransmission of lost data. Key
protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
5. Layer 5: Session Layer: The session layer manages sessions between applications,
ensuring proper opening, closing, and managing of communication sessions. It is
responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections.
6. Layer 6: Presentation Layer: This layer translates data between the application layer
and lower layers. It is responsible for data encoding, encryption, compression, and
translation into a format that can be understood by the receiving application.
7. Layer 7: Application Layer: The top layer interacts directly with the end user and
provides network services to the application. It handles high-level protocols like
HTTP, FTP, and SMTP, enabling communication between applications.

c) What is Wireless Transmission? Explain Any One Media in

Detail.

Wireless transmission refers to the transfer of data over a distance without the use of
physical cables. Instead, radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals are used to transmit
information. Wireless transmission is commonly used in communication systems such as Wi-
Fi, mobile networks, and satellite communications.

One commonly used wireless transmission medium is Radio Waves:

 Radio Waves: These are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from 1
millimeter to 100 kilometers. They are widely used in wireless communication
technologies like radio broadcasting, cellular communication, and Wi-Fi networks.
 Characteristics: Radio waves can travel long distances and penetrate obstacles like
walls, making them ideal for mobile communication. However, they can be affected
by environmental factors such as interference, signal degradation, and path loss.
 Usage: In Wi-Fi networks, radio waves are used to transmit data between routers and
devices. For cellular networks, they enable voice and data services for mobile
phones.

d) Explain IEEE Standard 802.11 (WLAN) in Detail.

The IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) for implementing Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). These
standards define the specifications for wireless communication in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
frequency bands.

 Key Features:
o Data Rates: IEEE 802.11 provides varying data rates, from 1 Mbps (older
versions) to 1 Gbps (in newer standards such as 802.11ac and 802.11ax).
o Compatibility: It supports different modulation techniques (e.g., OFDM
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)) for better performance and
reliability.
o Security: 802.11 standards support encryption mechanisms like WEP (Wired
Equivalent Privacy), WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), and WPA2, ensuring
data privacy and preventing unauthorized access.
o Roaming: The standard allows devices to move freely between access points
(APs) within the same network, maintaining seamless connectivity.
 Variants:
o 802.11a: Operates in the 5 GHz band with data rates up to 54 Mbps.
o 802.11b: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band with data rates up to 11 Mbps.
o 802.11g: Also operates in the 2.4 GHz band but with speeds up to 54 Mbps.
o 802.11n: Operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands with speeds up to 600
Mbps.
o 802.11ac: Operates in the 5 GHz band with speeds up to 1.3 Gbps.

e) What is an Attack? Explain Various Types of Attacks.

An attack in network security refers to any deliberate attempt to compromise the

confidentiality, integrity, or availability of a system, network, or its data. Attacks can be
carried out by malicious actors, including hackers, cybercriminals, and insiders.
Types of Attacks:

1. Denial of Service (DoS): This type of attack is aimed at making a system or network
resource unavailable to its users by overwhelming it with a flood of traffic. A
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack involves multiple compromised
systems sending traffic to the target, making it difficult to stop.
2. Man-in-the-Middle (MitM): In a MitM attack, the attacker intercepts and possibly
alters the communication between two parties who believe they are directly
communicating with each other. This can be used to steal sensitive information like
passwords.
3. Phishing: This attack involves deceptive emails or websites designed to trick users
into revealing personal information, such as usernames, passwords, and credit card
details. It often involves masquerading as a trustworthy entity, such as a bank or
service provider.
4. SQL Injection: This attack exploits vulnerabilities in web applications that use SQL
databases. Attackers insert malicious SQL code into input fields to gain unauthorized
access to database information or manipulate the database.
5. Ransomware: In a ransomware attack, malicious software encrypts a victim's files
and demands a ransom to unlock them. It can cause significant data loss and financial
damage.

Q-3

a) What is Bridge? Explain Types of Bridges.

A bridge is a network device used to connect and filter traffic between two or more network
segments, operating at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. It helps improve
network efficiency by segmenting traffic and reducing network collisions. Bridges can
connect networks with the same or different technologies and protocols.

Types of Bridges:

1. Transparent Bridge:
o This type of bridge automatically learns the MAC addresses of devices on
either side of the bridge. It operates transparently, meaning no changes are
needed in the devices’ configurations.
o Example: It is used in Ethernet networks to divide collision domains.
2. Source-Route Bridge:
o It is used primarily in Token Ring networks. In this type of bridge, the source
device specifies the route that data should take across the network.
o Example: A source-route bridge is used when a Token Ring network needs to
communicate with Ethernet devices.
3. Translation Bridge:
o It is used to connect networks that operate on different protocols or
architectures. For instance, it can connect Ethernet to Token Ring or
different types of Ethernet networks.
 o Example: Used to connect networks running different networking protocols or
standards.

b) Explain Different Modes of Communication with Sketch.

There are three primary modes of communication in a network:

1. Unidirectional (Simplex):
o In simplex mode, data flows in only one direction. The sender transmits, and
the receiver only receives without sending any feedback.
o Example: Radio broadcasting where data flows from the station to the
listener.
2. Bidirectional (Half-Duplex):
o In half-duplex mode, data flows in both directions, but not at the same time.
One device sends, and the other device must wait before sending its data.
o Example: Walkie-talkies where one person speaks, and the other listens, and
vice versa.
3. Bidirectional (Full-Duplex):
o In full-duplex mode, data flows simultaneously in both directions. Both
devices can send and receive data at the same time.
o Example: Telephone communication, where both parties can talk and listen
at the same time.

Sketch:

 Simplex: → (one-way)
 Half-Duplex: ↔ (two-way, but not simultaneous)
 Full-Duplex: ↔↔ (two-way, simultaneous)

c) Explain TCP/IP Protocol in Detail.

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of protocols that

defines how data is transmitted over a network. It is the foundation of the Internet and
modern networks, operating across different layers to ensure reliable communication between
devices.

Key Components of TCP/IP:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

o TCP ensures reliable communication between devices by establishing a
connection before data is sent. It divides the data into smaller packets,
retransmits lost packets, and ensures the data arrives in order.
2. Internet Protocol (IP):
 oIP handles logical addressing (i.e., assigning IP addresses) and routing data
packets to their destination. It is responsible for addressing and determining
the best path for the data to travel.
3. Other Protocols in the TCP/IP Suite:
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A connectionless protocol that is used when
speed is more critical than reliability, such as in real-time applications.
o HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages
from servers to clients.
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files over a network.
o DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names to IP addresses.

TCP/IP Model Layers:

1. Application Layer: Handles end-user applications and services (HTTP, FTP, etc.).
2. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer (TCP, UDP).
3. Internet Layer: Handles logical addressing and routing (IP).
4. Link Layer: Deals with physical addressing and transmission media (Ethernet, Wi-
Fi).

d) What is Guided Media? Explain Any One in Detail.

Guided media refers to physical transmission mediums that guide the data signals along a
specific path. These include cables and fibers that provide a dedicated route for data to travel,
ensuring the signal does not spread out randomly.

Types of Guided Media:

1. Twisted Pair Cables (e.g., Cat 5, Cat 6)

2. Coaxial Cables
3. Fiber Optic Cables

Fiber Optic Cable:

 Structure: A fiber optic cable consists of a core made of glass or plastic fibers,
which carry the light signals, and a cladding layer that reflects the light back into the
core, preventing loss of signal. The entire cable is often protected by an outer jacket.
 Advantages:
o High bandwidth: Can transmit large amounts of data at high speeds.
o Long-distance transmission: Less signal degradation compared to other
cables.
o Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Uses: Fiber optics are commonly used in high-speed internet connections, backbone
connections in networks, and telecommunications.
e) What is Fast Ethernet? Explain Categories of Fast Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet refers to Ethernet standards that provide speeds of up to 100 Mbps, as
opposed to the original Ethernet standard, which operated at 10 Mbps. Fast Ethernet uses
IEEE 802.3u to define transmission speeds, formats, and protocols.

Categories of Fast Ethernet:

1. 100BASE-TX:
o This is the most common type of Fast Ethernet and uses twisted pair cables
for data transmission. It supports 100 Mbps speeds over distances up to 100
meters.
o Uses Cat 5 or higher cables.
2. 100BASE-FX:
o This version of Fast Ethernet uses fiber optic cables for higher bandwidth and
longer distance transmission. It supports distances of up to 2 kilometers for
single-mode fiber.
o Mainly used in backbone networks where high-speed connections are
essential.
3. 100BASE-T4:
o This type of Fast Ethernet operates over four twisted pair cables and supports
speeds of 100 Mbps. It is designed to work on lower-quality cables, such as
Cat 3.
o This category is less common but can be found in some legacy systems.

Q-4

a) What is Topology? Explain Types of Topology.

Topology in networking refers to the arrangement of network devices (like computers,

printers, and other resources) and how they are connected to each other. It defines the
physical or logical layout of the network, determining how data flows between devices.

Types of Network Topology:

1. Bus Topology:
o In bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable, known as
the bus. Data sent from one device travels along the bus and is received by all
devices. However, only the device with the matching address accepts the data.
o Advantages: Easy to install, cost-effective for small networks.
o Disadvantages: Data collisions can occur, and the failure of the central bus
can bring down the entire network.
2. Star Topology:
 oIn star topology, all devices are connected to a central device, such as a hub
or switch. The central device acts as a mediator between the devices.
o Advantages: Easy to add new devices, failure of one device doesn’t affect the
others.
o Disadvantages: The failure of the central device causes the entire network to
fail.
3. Ring Topology:
o In ring topology, devices are connected in a closed loop. Data travels in one
direction around the ring until it reaches the destination.
o Advantages: Can offer faster data transmission than bus topology, suitable for
large networks.
o Disadvantages: A failure in one device can disrupt the entire network.
4. Mesh Topology:
o In mesh topology, each device is connected to every other device. This
topology provides multiple paths for data transmission.
o Advantages: Very reliable, if one connection fails, data can take another
route.
o Disadvantages: Expensive to implement and maintain due to a large number
of connections.
5. Tree Topology:
o Tree topology is a hybrid of star and bus topologies. It consists of groups of
star-configured networks connected to a central bus.
o Advantages: Scalability, easier to manage and troubleshoot.
o Disadvantages: More complex and expensive to install.

b) What is Addressing? Explain Different Types of Addresses.

Addressing refers to the system of assigning unique identifiers to devices on a network.

These addresses are used to route data to the correct device during communication.

Types of Addresses:

1. MAC Address (Media Access Control):

o A MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for
communication on the Data Link Layer. It is usually burned into the device
by the manufacturer.
o Format: 48 bits (6 bytes), written as xx:xx:xx:xx:xx:xx.
o Usage: Used by switches to forward data within a local network.
2. IP Address (Internet Protocol):
o An IP address is a logical address assigned to each device on a network,
enabling devices to locate each other and communicate across networks
(usually the Network Layer).
o Version 4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o Version 6: 128-bit address (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
3. Subnet Address:
 oA subnet address is used to divide an IP network into smaller subnetworks
(subnets). It helps in routing and controlling network traffic.
o Usage: This address identifies a specific subnet within a larger network.
4. Broadcast Address:
o A broadcast address sends data to all devices on a network or subnet. For
IPv4, the broadcast address is typically the last address in a network (e.g.,
255.255.255.255 for local networks).
5. Loopback Address:
o The loopback address (127.0.0.1) refers to the device itself, commonly used
to test if the local network stack is functioning properly.

c) Explain Propagation Method.

Propagation in networking refers to the way data signals travel across a medium (such as
cables or air) from one device to another. There are several methods through which signals
propagate, and the type of medium affects how the signal moves.

Propagation Methods:

1. Ground Wave Propagation:

o Ground wave propagation involves the signal traveling along the Earth's
surface. It is most effective in low-frequency signals (e.g., AM radio).
o Characteristics: Can travel long distances over the ground, affected by terrain
and weather conditions.
2. Skywave Propagation:
o Skywave propagation occurs when radio waves are reflected from the
ionosphere back to the Earth. This is commonly used for long-distance
communication, such as shortwave radio.
o Characteristics: Signals can travel much greater distances than ground waves,
but the path is not fixed and can vary with atmospheric conditions.
3. Line-of-Sight Propagation:
o Line-of-sight (LOS) propagation occurs when the signal travels directly
from the transmitter to the receiver without obstruction. It is commonly used
in microwave and satellite communication.
o Characteristics: The signal travels in a straight line and requires no obstacles
in between. It is affected by terrain and obstructions like buildings or
mountains.

d) What is Copyright? Explain Applications of Copyright.

Copyright is a legal protection granted to the creators of original works such as literary,
musical, artistic, and other intellectual properties. It gives the creator exclusive rights to
reproduce, distribute, and display their work.

Applications of Copyright:
 1. Literary Works:
o Copyright protects novels, articles, scripts, and other written works. Authors
have exclusive rights to publish and distribute their work.
2. Music and Sound Recordings:
o Musicians and composers can control how their music is reproduced,
distributed, and performed. Copyright protects song lyrics, musical
compositions, and sound recordings.
3. Software:
o Copyright laws also apply to software programs, allowing developers to retain
the rights to their code and prevent unauthorized use or redistribution.
4. Artistic Works:
o Copyright protects paintings, sculptures, photographs, and other artistic works,
ensuring that the creators can control the use and reproduction of their
artwork.
5. Motion Pictures:
o Filmmakers have copyright over movies, ensuring that they control
distribution, display, and reproduction of the film.

e) What is Bluetooth? Explain Its Architecture.

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology designed to replace cables in

devices like headphones, mobile phones, and computers. It uses radio frequency to
transmit data over short distances (typically up to 100 meters).

Bluetooth Architecture:

1. Bluetooth Core Protocols:

o Radio Layer: Handles the physical aspects of Bluetooth communication, such
as frequency hopping and signal transmission.
o Baseband Layer: Manages device addressing and the establishment of
communication links between devices.
o Link Manager Protocol (LMP): Responsible for device pairing, security, and
link management during communication.
2. Bluetooth Profiles:
o Profiles are standardized specifications for how Bluetooth devices interact
with each other for specific tasks. Examples include HFP (Hands-Free
Profile) for car kits and A2DP (Advanced Audio Distribution Profile) for
audio streaming.
3. Bluetooth Devices:
o Master: The device that controls the communication and initiates connection
(e.g., a smartphone).
o Slave: Devices that respond to the master’s communication request (e.g.,
headphones, smartwatches).
4. Piconet and Scatternet:
o Piconet: A small network formed by one master device and up to seven active
slave devices.
o Scatternet: When multiple piconets are interconnected, forming a larger
network. A device can serve as a master in one piconet and a slave in another.
Q-5

a) Switch

A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices in a network, such as

computers, printers, and servers, and operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI
model. It uses MAC addresses to forward data frames only to the specific device on the
network, rather than broadcasting the data to all devices. This helps reduce network
congestion and enhances performance compared to hubs.

Functions of a Switch:

 Frame forwarding: A switch forwards data only to the device that needs it, based on
the MAC address.
 Collision domain segmentation: Each port on a switch creates its own collision
domain, preventing data collisions.
 Learning: Switches maintain a MAC address table, which they use to learn the
addresses of devices on the network and map them to specific ports.
 Full-duplex communication: Allows devices to send and receive data
simultaneously, increasing overall network speed.

b) Virtual LAN (VLAN)

A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical grouping of devices within a network, irrespective of

their physical locations. VLANs allow network administrators to segment a network into
smaller, isolated sub-networks, improving security and traffic management.

Features of VLAN:

1. Segmentation: VLANs can group devices based on function, department, or any

other criterion, rather than physical location.
2. Security: Devices in different VLANs cannot communicate with each other unless
explicitly allowed, which enhances security.
3. Traffic management: VLANs help in managing broadcast traffic more efficiently by
limiting the scope of broadcast packets to the devices within the same VLAN.
4. Scalability: VLANs make it easier to scale a network, as devices can be grouped
logically without needing physical reconfiguration.

Types of VLANs:

 Data VLAN: Used for user data traffic.

 Voice VLAN: Dedicated to voice communications (e.g., VoIP).
 Management VLAN: Used for network management and control.
  Native VLAN: The VLAN associated with untagged frames.

c) Types of Network

There are several types of networks that differ in size, purpose, and geographical coverage.
Here are the primary types:

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

o Description: A LAN is a network of devices within a limited geographical
area, such as a home, office, or campus.
o Characteristics: Typically, LANs use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi for
connectivity and have high data transfer speeds (10 Mbps to 10 Gbps). They
allow devices to share resources like printers and files.
o Example: A network connecting computers within an office.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network):
o Description: A WAN covers a much larger geographic area than a LAN, often
spanning cities, countries, or even continents.
o Characteristics: WANs use public or private communication links, such as
leased lines, satellite links, or VPNs. Data transfer speeds can vary and are
generally slower than LANs.
o Example: The internet is a global WAN.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
o Description: A MAN is a network that covers a larger area than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN, typically spanning a city or large campus.
o Characteristics: It is often used by cities or large organizations to connect
several LANs.
o Example: A city-wide network connecting public services like libraries,
government buildings, and universities.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
o Description: A PAN is a small network designed for personal use, connecting
devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and other personal gadgets.
o Characteristics: PANs usually operate within a very small range (up to 10
meters) and often rely on Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.
o Example: A network connecting a smartphone to a laptop via Bluetooth.