Interference

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4. OPTICS-I
• Interference by division of amplitude, Stoke’s Relation
• Interference in thin film of constant thickness due to reflected; origin of colours in thin film;
• Interference in Wedge shaped film;
• Formation of Newton’s rings
• Applications of interference - Determination of thickness of very thin wire or foil; determination of refractive index
of liquid; wavelength of incident light; radius of curvature of lens; testing of surface flatness; Anti-reflecting and
Highly reflecting films.

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 Thin Film Interference

Soap Diesel Thin

Bubble Film
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 Anti Reflection Coating

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 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT

 “When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude/intensity in

the region of superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves.
This modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of
superposition is called interference.”

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 Addition and Subtraction of Waves

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 Addition and Subtraction of Waves

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 Constructive and Destructive Interference

Constructive Interference
• CONDITION FOR MAXIMA AND MINIMA:
 Maximum intensity of light is observed at a point where the
phase difference between the two waves reaching the point is
a whole number multiple of 2π
or

the path difference between the two waves is a whole number

multiple of wavelength (λ).
 _______________________________________________ Destructive Interference

 Minimum intensity of light is observed at a point where the

phase difference between the two waves reaching the point is
an odd number multiple of π
or the path difference between the two waves is an odd number
multiple of half wavelength (λ/2).

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 Constructive and Destructive Interference

Constructive Interference
• Relation between Phase Difference and Path Difference
 If the path difference between the two waves is λ, the
corresponding phase difference is 2π
 Hence, for path difference x, the phase difference δ = 2πx/λ
Or
• Phase difference, δ = (path difference) * (2π/λ)

Destructive Interference

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 Constructive and Destructive Interference

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 Conditions for Sustained Interference of Light Waves

 Two sources should continuously emit waves of same wavelength or

frequency.

 The amplitudes of the two interfering waves should be equal or

approximately equal.

Two sources should be very narrow

Two sources emitting set of interfering beams must be placed very close

The sources of light must be coherent sources.

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 COHERENT SOURCES
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of the same
frequency, nearly the same amplitude and always have a constant phase
difference between them.
Therefore, two sources must emit radiations of the same wavelength/color.

 In practice, it is impossible to have two independent sources which are

coherent
For experimental purposes two virtual sources formed from a single source can
act as coherent sources.

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 GENERATION OF COHERENT SOURCES

There are two ways to generate coherent sources

a) Division of Wavefront

b) Division of Wave amplitude

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 Division of Wavefront
 The wavefront originating from a source of light is divided into
two parts which serves the purpose of coherent sources.
These two parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances
and reunite at some angle to produce interference bands.
 E.g. Youngs’s double slit experiment and Fresnel biprism.

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 Young’s Interference Experiment (Not in Syllabus)

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Thin Film:

Reflected ray

100%
Incident ray 4% 3.65% 0.005%

Thin
Film

92%

Figure 5
Transmitted ray

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 Division of Wave Amplitude

The amplitude of the beam is divided into two parts by partial reflection or

refraction methods.

The waves corresponding to the divided parts travel different paths and hence

produce interference.

E.g. Interference due to thin films, wedge shaped film interference, Newton’s rings.

Thin film
Interference
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When light is reflected from rarer medium, there is no phase change
for either the reflected or the transmitted light

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 Change of Phase on Reflection (Stoke’s Relation):
According to Stokes, When a light wave is reflected at the surface of an optically denser medium, it
suffers a phase change of  i.e. a path difference of /2.
It should be remembered that no such phase change is introduced if the reflection takes place from the
denser surface of rarer medium.

A
A
B
B att’
Medium I ar2
ar
M1 M2
O
M1 M2
Medium II O
art
at
C atr’

Figure: 3 (a)
D C
C

Figure: 3 (b)
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Let r and t be the fractions of amplitude reflected and transmitted when the ray is
traveling from denser to rarer medium. Now on reversing CO, we get a reflected wave
OD of amplitude atr and transmitted wave OA of amplitude att. As there was no wave
originally along OD, hence OD should be zero, i.e.

---------------------------------(1)

Along OA , there should be a wave of amplitude a i.e.,

----------------------------------(2)
from equation (1), we get, -----------------------------------------(3)
and from equation (2), we get , -------------------------------(4)

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 from equation (1), we get, -----------------------------------------(3)
and from equation (2), we get , -------------------------------(4)
The negative sign in equation (3) indicates a phase change of  either at reflection from rarer
to denser medium or at reflection from denser to rarer medium.
In Lloyd’s mirror experiment, where the interference takes place between direct waves from
the source and reflected waves from optically denser medium (glass), it is observed that
central fringe is dark instead of bright. This is possible only when light suffers a phase change
of  on reflection at the mirror. This shows that a phase change of  is introduced when the
reflection takes place at the surface of denser medium.

These equations (eq.(3) and (4)) are known as Stokes Relation.

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 ar2 1 atrt’ 2 atr3t’ 3 Medium I
ar 1
att’

art atr2 2

atr' Medium II
at
atr
atr3

Figure: 4
att’ atr2t’

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After the several reflections at the surface of the denser medium shown in Figure (3) , the
amplitudes of reflected waves are ar , atrt, atr3t , atr5t,…. etc. The ray 1 is reflected at the
surface of a denser medium. It undergoes a phase change of . The rays 2, 3, 4 etc. are all
in phase but out of phase with ray 1 by . The resultant of 2, 3, 4 etc. is given by
3 t + atr5 t +………………

A = attr [1 + r2 + r4 +………]
As r is less than one, the terms inside the
brackets form a geometric series.

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 ( )
From Eq. (4) we get,
( )
Thus, the resultant amplitude of 2, 3, 4,… etc. is equal in magnitude of the
amplitude of ray 1 but out of phase with it. Therefore, the minima of all
reflected system will be of zero intensity.
ar2 1 atrt’ 2 atr3t’ 3 Medium I
ar 1
att’

art atr2 2

atr' Medium II
at
atr
atr3

Figure: 4
att’ atr2t’

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Thin Film:

Reflected ray

100%
Incident ray 4% 3.65% 0.005%

Thin
Film

92%

Figure 5
Transmitted ray

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 Interference in Thin Films of Uniform Thickness:
R1
R2

T2

T1
(a) Interference due to reflected light:
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 Interference in Thin Films of Uniform Thickness:
N
Ai R1
R2

M
i i

i
N’
G H
B D

t
r r r

E
G1 H1
C

i
L

T2
Figure 6

12:23:06 T1
In the figure ABN = i, angle of incidence and r the angle of
refraction. From the geometry of the figure BDM = i .
The optical path difference between the two reflected light rays
(BR1 and DR2) is given by
 = Path (BC+CD) in film - path BM in air

From Figure 6 we have

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∴ 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) = ……………………………………(1)

and 𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝐷 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 2𝐵𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 (∵ 𝐵𝐷 = 2𝐵𝑁 )

= 2𝑡 ⋅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 (∵ 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐶𝑁 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑟)

∴ 𝐵𝑀 = 2𝑡 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖

= ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 (∵ = 𝜇)……………..(2)
Therefore the optical path difference between the ray is
𝛥= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟)

𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟………………………………………(3)

It should be remembered that a ray reflected at a denser surface

phase change of  which is equivalent to a path difference /2.
Thus the effective path difference between the two reflected rays is 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 ± 𝜆⁄2.

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CASE I: When the film is exceedingly thin as compared to wavelength of light, 2t cos r can be
neglected and the net path difference is /2. The two rays will produce destructive interference and
the film will appear dark.
CASE II : When the thickness is increased so that 2t cos r can not be neglected, the film will
appear bright if the path difference

(4)

The film will appear dark if the path difference

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……………….(5)
(b) Interference due to transmitted light:
The transmitted rays CT1 and ET2 are also derived from the same incident ray AB (Figure 5).
When they interfere, they can give interference pattern in transmitted system.
To find the path difference between CT1 and ET2. Draw a perpendicular EL on CT1.
Path difference  = (CD+DE) – CL
It can be calculated by the same way as in reflected system and it is found that path difference,
.
It should be remember that inside the film,
the reflection at different points take place
at the surface backed by rarer medium (air)
thus no abrupt change of  takes place in this case.

Therefore
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the effective path difference is .
Case I: When the thickness of the film is very small compared to wavelength so that
2t cos r can be neglected and the path difference between two rays will be zero i.e.
The two rays will be in the same phase and they will reinforce on each other.
This will be the case of constructive interference and so the pattern will appear bright.
CASE II: If t can not be neglected as compared to  , We will have
(a)(Maxima)The condition for brightness as
Path difference = 2t cos r = n

(b) (Minima)The condition for darkness will be

Path Difference =
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 N=6

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 Variable Thickness (Wedge shaped) films
Film with zero thickness at one end, progressively
increasing to a particular thickness at the other end.
Wedge angle very small, fraction of a degree.

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When a parallel beam of monochromatic light illuminates
the wedge from above, the reflected rays interfere with each
other.

 Path difference between the reflected rays from the lower

and upper surfaces of the air film varies along its length due
to variation in film thickness.

Alternate bright and dark fringes are formed on its top

surface.
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 R1
R2
F

900 X

i
D

N
A i t

r +
B r E

O  X
I
 C

r +

Figure 8

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P
 R1
R2
F

900 X

i
D

N
A i t

r +
B r E

O  X
I
 C

r +

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P
The interfering rays BR1 and DR2 are not parallel but diverge from each other. To calculate the path
difference between two interfering rays, draw DF perpendicular to BR1. The optical path difference 
given by,
𝛥 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝐵𝐹
= 𝜇(𝐵𝐸 + 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝐵𝐹 ……………………………………………(1)
R1
R2
F

900 X
D
i
r

N t
A i
B r +
r
 E
O C X
I

r +

Figure 8

P
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 BQN = XOX = 
= 𝝁(𝑩𝑬 + 𝑬𝑪 + 𝑪𝑫) − 𝑩𝑭
Extend BC further to point P such that CP = CD.
Draw a perpendicular DE to BC such that BE = EC
also draw a perpendicular DP to OX at I such that DI=IP. R1
R2
F
We have  CBQ = BDE = r
900 X
D
We can rewrite Eq.(1) as follows; i
r

N t
A i
B r +

In DEP , r
E

And DP = 2 DI = 2t O  X
C I

……………………………………(2) r +

Figure 8
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P
Due to the reflection at B, an additional path change of /2 occurs for the ray BR1.
Hence the total path difference between the interfering rays is

Here we are using

For maxima we have the condition for constructive interference,

For minima we have the condition for

destructive interference,

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 Variable Thickness (Wedge shaped) films
Film with zero thickness at one end, progressively
increasing to a particular thickness at the other end.
Wedge angle very small, fraction of a degree.

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 Spacing between two consecutive dark bands:-

For the wedge shaped film, we have for the nth minima.
…………………………..(3)
For normal incidence and air film
r = 0 and  = 1,
………………………………………….(4)
Consider the nth dark band produced at a distance xn from the edge of the wedge.
Pn+1

Putting the value of t in Eq.(4), we get, P

n
t

Qn Qn+1
th
Let (n+1) minima be obtained at a distance xn
xn+1

xn+1 from the thin edge.

 we have
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………….(5)
From Eq.(4) and (5) we have,

The spacing between two consecutive dark bands is

(β = fringe width)

Pn+1

Pn

(since sin   is small) t


Qn Qn+1
xn

For a film of R.I. , the fringes spacing is . xn+1

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When two glass plates are kept inclined to each other, a wedge-shaped air film is
formed and bright and dark fringes are observed when the plates are illuminated by
monochromatic light.
For maxima we have the condition for constructive interference,

For minima we have the condition for

destructive interference,

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Experimental Arrangement for observing Newton’s Ring

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 Newton’s Ring

If a glass plate and a plano convex lens is used, again a wedge-shaped air film
is formed but with circular geometry.

The illumination by monochromatic light will produce bright and dark rings.
This phenomenon was explained by Newton and hence known as Newton’s
rings.

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A plano convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate;
an air film with gradually increasing thickness is produced between the two
surfaces.

 At the point of contact of the lens and plane surface, the thickness of the film
is zero and becomes maximum at the edge of the lens and plane surfaces.

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 Explanation of the formation of the rings
• Monochromatic ray 1 of light
falls normally on the lens-plate
system at the point A.

• At the point B on the glass-air

boundary, the light gets
partially reflected out as ray 1’
without any phase change.

• The remaining part is

refracted along BC and
reflected at the point C with a
phase change of π radians and
emerges out as ray 1’’.
12:23:06
 Explanation of the formation of the rings

• Newton’s rings are formed due to

interference between the two rays 1’ and 1’’ as a
result of reflection from the top and bottom
surfaces of the air film formed between the lens
and the plate.

• The two reflected rays are derived from the same

ray 1 and hence produce interference.

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 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 ⋅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃) ± 𝜆 2

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For a very small wedge angle θ, and for normal
incidence, r = 0, the path difference between the
two reflected waves 1’and 1’’is [2μt +λ/2]

At the point of contact t = 0, so the path

difference is (λ/2).

This is the condition for minimum intensity and

hence the central spot is dark.

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To show of the rings is proportional to square root of λ and R

Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens.

Point C is the point of contact between plate

AB and lens GCH

Regions GCA and HCB is the wedge-shape

circular air film.

Newton’s rings are formed due to this air film.

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To show of the rings is proportional to square root of λ and R

Let r be the radius of Newton’s rings

corresponding to constant film thickness t,
the locus of which forms a locus of points
of a circle with center on point C.

Consider Δ O IF,
(OF) 2 = (OI)2 + (IF)2
R 2 = (R-t)2 + r2
r2 = 2Rt – t2
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• [ t <<< R and hence t2 can be neglected compared to 2Rt]

• r2 = 2Rt
• Now if Dn is the diameter of the nth ring,
• Dn /2 = r
• 2t= r2 / R 2t= Dn2 / 4R

• Path difference = 2μt +λ/2

• (μ=1)
• = 2t ± λ/2
•
• Path difference  = Dn2/4R ± /2
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 Path difference  = Dn2/4R ± /2
Diameter of bright rings: Diameters of dark rings:

As  = n  As  = (2n±1) /2
Dn2/4R ± /2 = (2n±1) /2
Dn 2/4R + /2 = n 
Dn2 = 4 n  R ……..where n = 1, 2, 3….
Dn2 = 2(2n-1)  R
 Dn  n
Dn  (2n−1)
 i.e. diameters of dark rings are
 i.e. diameters of bright rings are
proportional to squareroot of natural
proportional to square root of odd
numbers.
natural numbers.

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 Application of Newton’s Ring Experiment
TO DETERMINE WAVELENGTH
OR
RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF LENS:
Let the diameter of nth and ( n+m )th dark rings are Dn and Dn+m

Dn2 = 4nλR and Dn+m2 = 4(n+m)λR [ For air μ = 1]

 Dn+m2 - D 2 = 4(n+m)λR - 4nλR = 4mλR

n

 λ = [Dn+m2 - Dn2]/ 4mR and R = [Dn+m2 -Dn2]/ 4mλ

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 b) TO DETERMINE THE REFRACTIVE INDEX ( μ) OF A
LIQUID

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Conclusion:

For Bright Rings For Dark Rings

Dn Dn α 𝒏
α 2n−1 Dn α λ
Dn α λ Dn α 𝑹
Dn α 𝑹
 Also the diameter of bright and dark rings is proportional to √2n-1 and √n
respectively.
 Therefore the diameter of the bright rings reduces faster than dark rings.
 So as the order of rings increases, thinner and sharper rings are obtained.
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 NEWTON’S RINGS WITH WHITE LIGHT
If we use white light like a mercury source,
colored rings are obtained.

In this case, the diameters of different rings are

different for different colors as it depends on
√λ.

So the first few colored rings are seen clearly,

after which overlapping of colors occurs and
the rings cannot be seen distinctly.

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 S3
Eye

S2

S
S1

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 Thin Film Interference

Soap Diesel Thin

Bubble Film
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 Thin Film Interference

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 COLOURS IN THIN FILMS
When a thin film is exposed to white light source, different colors are
observed.

These rays will interfere and produce colors.

The bright and dark appearance of the reflected light depends upon μ, t
and r.

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 COLOURS IN THIN FILMS
• For white light if t and r are made constant, μ varies with
the wavelength.

• At a fixed point of the film and for a fixed position of the eye, the
interfering rays of only certain wavelengths will have a path difference
satisfying the conditions of a bright fringe. Hence only these
wavelengths will be present. S

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 COLOURS IN THIN FILMS
For white light if t and r are made constant, μ varies with the
wavelength. At a fixed point of the film and for a fixed position of the
eye, the interfering rays of only certain wavelengths will have a path
difference satisfying the conditions of a bright fringe. Hence only these
wavelengths will be present.

The colors for which the condition for minima is satisfied are absent.

 Similarly, if the same point is observed with the eye in different

positions or different points of the film are observed with the eye in the
same position, different set of colors are observed due to change in r.
12:23:06
 S3
Eye • Let an extended source of light
(which may be thought to be
S2
made up of large number of point

S1 source S1, S2, S3,…………….) is used

to illuminate the thin uniform
film. The light reflected from
every point of the film reaches
the eye

• Hence by placing the eye in a

suitable position, one can see the
entire film simultaneously. Due
to this reason an extended source
of light is used to view a film.

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 Testing the optical flatness of surfaces:

The air wedge formed between the component and optical flat
produces straight and equidistant fringes if the component surface is
smooth.

If the fringes are curved towards the contact edge, the surface is
concave and if the fringes curve away, it is
convex
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High quality lenses are ground with a precision of less than a light wavelength
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 For a large number of reflections, the quality of image produced by
a device will be poor.

 Alexander Smakula (1935) discovered that reflection from a

surface can be reduced by coating the surface with a thin
transparent dielectric film.

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 Anti reflection films (APPLICATION)

 One of the most important applications of thin film interference

is in producing antireflection coatings.

 Optical instruments such as cameras and telescopes use

multi-component glass lenses.

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 Anti Reflection Coating

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12:23:06
 ANTI REFLECTION COATINGS

 Antireflection (AR) coatings are thin transparent

coatings of optical thickness of one quarter
wavelength given on a surface in order to
suppress reflections from the surface.

 It is found that coating the surface with a thin

transparent film of suitable refractive index
can reduce such loss of energy due to reflections
at surface. Such coatings are called antireflection
coatings.

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A transparent thin film coated on a surface to suppress the surface
reflections is called an antireflection coating (AR) or non reflecting
film.

Conditions:

Phase condition -wave reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of
the thin films are in opposite phase. Overlapping leads to destructive
interference.
Amplitude Condition – Reflected waves have equal amplitude.
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 R2

Air

Film
Glass

Figure 14

the thickness of the coating material should be /4 ,

where  is the wavelength of light used and

is the refractive index of the coated material.
12:23:07
 1
2
a b
air(na)

t
film(nf)

ng > nf > n a glass(ng)

12:23:07
 Thickness- t, Refractive index of film material = 𝑛

Phase of beams 1 and 2 reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of
the thin films should be 180º out of phase.
𝜆
Δ between 1 and 2 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
, n = 0, 1, 2…

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 First   change at the top surface of film (air to film boundary)
Second   change at the lower surface of AR film (film to glass boundary)

Assuming normal incidence of light i.e. cos r = 1

We wrote the above equality remembering that an addition of a full wave or

subtraction of a full wave from a train of waves does not affect the original phase
relation.
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Addition or subtraction of a full wave ( ) does not affect the phase.

Rays 1 and 2 interface destructively if

Therefore

For the film to be transparent, the thickness of the film should be minimum
which is possible for n = 0.

Therefore 2nf tmin = λ/2

or
12:23:07
tmin = λ/4nf
A transparent thin film coated on a surface to suppress the surface
reflections is called an antireflection coating (AR) or non reflecting
film.

Conditions:

Phase condition -wave reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of
the thin films are in opposite phase. Overlapping leads to destructive
interference.
Amplitude Condition – Reflected waves have equal amplitude.
12:23:07
 Anti- reflecting Films:
Let us consider a ray of light traveling in a medium of refractive index 1 is incident
normally on a substance of refractive index 2. Let I be the intensity of incident light
and Ir the intensity of reflected light. Then according to Fresnel’s equations

12:23:07
12:23:07
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 Anti- reflecting Films:

For air-glass surface [1=1 and 2=1.5], Ir/I =4%. This shows that 96% of the incident light
is transmitted. In order to reduce the reflection loss from the surface, a transparent film of
proper thickness, is deposited on the surface. This film is known as ‘Antireflecting film’.
The magnesium fluoride ( =1.38 ), cryolite ( =1.36) are found to be the suitable coating
material.
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A partially coated substrate is used for the determination.
The surfaces of the substrate and the thin film on it are coated with a transparent metallic film of uniform
thickness. A glass plate is also coated on one of its surfaces with the transparent metallic film. When the
substrate and the glass plate are placed in contact and examined under monochromatic light, the reflected light
shows a fringe system, as shown in Fig.6.31. A shift occurs in the fringes as we pass from the region occupied by
thin film to the region where thin film is absent. The amount of displacement of one set of the fringes with
respect to the second set of fringes is given by

s = 2t or t = s/2
where t is the thickness of the thin film. By measuring ‘s’, t can
be calculated.

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The condition for nth maxima is

2μt +λ/2 = nλ, n = 1,2,3…….

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  Optical thickness of Antireflection coating should be λ/4.
Such quarter wavelength components suppress the
reflections and allow the light to pass into the transmitted
component.

Amplitude condition:

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 𝑛 −𝑛 2𝑛
𝑟= , 𝑡=
𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛 +𝑛

Amplitude of ray 1 = ar
𝑛 −𝑛 2𝑛
Amplitude of ray 2 = ar’tt’
𝑟′ = , 𝑡′ =
𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛 +𝑛

n −n 2n 2n
n −n ar′tt′ = a × ×
ar = a , n +n n +n n +n
n +n
n −n 4n n
=a ×
n +n (n + n )

For complete destructive interference ray 1 and 2 must

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have the same amplitude, i.e.
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Now na = 1 for air Therefore,

It implies that the refractive index of the thin film should be less than
substrate.
i.e glass plate.

In the case of glass., if ng is 1.5 , then nf will be 1.22 .

The materials having this refractive index are magnesium fluoride etc.
.
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