Applied Physics

I Year, I semester

L T P C
3 1 0 4
Course Outcomes:
1. Identify various optical phenomena of light
2. Discuss the basic principles of quantum mechanics
3. Classify solids based on the band theory
4. Elucidate the characteristics of semiconductors and semiconductor devices
5. Explain the working principle of optical fibers and lasers

UNIT – I:
Wave Optics:
Course Outcome: Identify various optical phenomena of light.

Principle of Superposition, coherence. Interference - Interference in thin films by reflection, Newton’s

Rings. Diffraction – Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction, Farunhofer diffraction due to single slit, Plane
Diffraction Grating, resolving power of Grating (qualitative treatment). Polarization – Polarization of
light waves, Plane of vibration, plane of polarization, Double refraction, Nicol’s Prism, Applications of
Polarization.

Principle of superposition: When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant
displacement at any point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacement due to individual waves. This
phenomenon is called superposition principle.

Y=Y1+Y2 Y=Y1-Y2
Coherent light waves: Two light waves with same wavelength, same frequency, same time period and
constant phase difference between them are said to be coherent waves.
Coherent source: The two light sources with same frequency, same wavelength, same time period and
constant phase difference between them are said to be coherent source.
The light waves which are highly coherent if they maintain
1) Spatial coherence and
 2) Temporal coherence.
Spatial coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of light waves at different points
transverse to the direction of propagation. Spatial coherence tells us how uniform the phase of the wave
front is.
Temporal coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a light wave at different
points along the direction of propagation. Temporal coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is.
Coherent waves can be obtained by two methods.
1) Division of wavefront: The incident wavefront is divided into two or more wavefronts.
e.g: young's double slit experiment, Bi prism.
2) Division of amplitude: The amplitude or intensity of incident light is divided by partial
reflection.
e.g: Interference in thin film, Newton's rings.

Interference: When light waves are superimposed, the modification in the distribution of intensity in
the region of superposition is called Interference.
e.g: Colours observed on soap bubbles, on oil film formed on water when viewed under
sunlight, compact discs, etc.
Conditions for Interference:
Constructive interference Destructive interference

1) When two waves interfere in phase, it When two waves interfere out of phase, it results in
results in constructive interference. destructive interference

2) At a point the path difference is an At a point the path difference is an odd multiple of λ/2
integral multiple of wavelength, λ ie. Δ = λ/2, 3λ/2, 5 λ/2 ……… (2n+1) λ/2
ie. Δ = λ, 2 λ, 3 λ…….n λ Δ=(2n+1) λ/2
Δ= n λ Where, n=0,1,2,3……..
Where, n=0,1,2,3……..

3) At point the phase difference Ø is an At point the phase difference Ø is an odd integral
integral multiple of 2π multiple of π
ie. Ø=0, 2π, 4π,…… ….2nπ ie. Ø=π, 3π,5π…… ….(2n+1) π
Ø=2nπ Ø=(2n+1) π
Where, n=0,1,2,3…….. Where, n=0,1,2,3……..
4) The Resultant Intensity is maximum The resultant Intensity is minimum.

5) Bright bands or rings can be observed Dark bands or rings can be observed
Interference in thin film (by reflected rays)
Thin film: A film is a transparent material with uniform thickness. A film is said to be thin film when
thickness in the range of 1 - 10 µm.
e.g: Thin film may be glass, Mica, air enclosed between two transparent sheets, soap bubble, etc.
Thin film interference occurs when light waves reflecting off the top and bottom surfaces of a thin film
interfere with one another. This type of interference is the reason that thin films, such as oil or soap
bubbles, form colorful patterns.

 let us consider a thin film of thickness ‘t’ bound by two surfaces XY and X'Y'. let “µ” be the
refractive index of the material of thin film.
 A ray of light AB incident on surface XY at an angle ‘i’ is partially reflected long BC and
partially refracted along BD.
 Let the angle of refraction be “r”.
 At the surface X’Y’, the ray is partially reflected along DE and partially refracted along DK.
 Similarly, reflection and refraction occur at E and G as shown in figure.
 The rays BC and EF constitutes reflected system and interferes to produce interference pattern.
 To find the path difference between these reflected rays, a line perpendicular to BC is drawn,
labeled as PE.
From the figure, path difference = (BD+DE) in the medium-BP in air
= (BD+DE) µ-BP
DQ t
In ∆le BDQ, cosr = BD = BD
t
BD = cosr = DE

2µt
∴ , path difference = - BP
cosr
BP
In ∆le BPE, sini = BE
⇒ BP = BE sini
 BQ BQ
In ∆ BDQ, tanr = DQ = t

BQ = t tanr = QE
∴BP = 2t. tanr. Sini
sini
According to snell’s law, µ = sinr

sinr
BP = 2t cosr µ sinr

Sin2r
BP = 2t µ cosr
2t µ 2t µSin2 r
∴ Path difference = cosr - cosr

2t µ
= cosr(1- sin2r)
2t µ
= cosr cos2r

= 2 µt cosr
Since, BC is reflected from a denser medium, it undergoes an additional phase change of “φ”
or path difference of “λ/2”.

Hence, Path Difference between BC & EP

�
∆ = 2 µt cosr - � ………………….(1)

Condition for Bright band:

λ
The thin film appears bright, if path difference 2µt cosr - 2 = n λ
λ
Or 2 µt cosr = (2n+1) 2
Where, n = 0,1,2,…..

Condition for Dark band:

λ λ
The thin film appears dark, if path difference 2 µt cosr - 2 = (2n+1) 2
Or 2 µt cosr = (n+1) λ
2 µt cosr = n λ where n = 0,1,2,……

If the thickness of the film is extremely small when compared to λ, then 2µtcosr can be neglected.
λ
Then in Equation 1, the net path difference is 2
, Hence destructive interference occurs and the film will
appear dark.
Applications
 Anti reflection coating on glasses and camera lenses
  Optical filters.

Newton’s Rings experiment:

Introduction: Interference phenomenon of light waves can be observed by, when a plano convex
lens is placed on top of a glass plate, the lens illuminated by a monochromatic light source and circular
rings can be observed. These circular rings are called Newton’s Rings.
Experimental arrangement:

The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure.

 L is the plano-convex lens of a large radius of curvature placed on an optically flat glass plate G. The
lens touches the glass plate at ‘O’.
 S be the monochromatic source of light falls on a on a glass plate B held at 450inclination.
 The glass plate B reflects part of the light incident on it towards the air film enclosed between the lens
L and glass plate G. Part of the light incident on the bottom surface of the lens L and the top surface
of glass plate G.
 These two reflected beams have the same path difference depending on the thickness of the air film
and hence interference produces Newton’s Rings.
 These rings can be viewed by microscope M.
Formation of Newton’s Rings by reflected light:

Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens L.

�
Path difference between the two reflected beams is 2t+�
λ
i.e path difference = 2t+2 ………………… (1)
Condition for bright rings (constructive interference):
When, path difference = nλ, constructive interference occurs.

λ
2t+2 = nλ
λ
Or 2t = (2n-1) 2
……………………………(2)
Where, n = 0,1,2,3…..

Condition for dark rings (destructive interference):

λ
When, path difference = (2n+1) 2, destructive interference occurs.

λ λ
2t+2 = (2n+1) 2
Or 2t = nλ ……………………………(3)
Where, n = 0,1,2,3…..
Calculate the thickness of thin film:
Let's consider a dark ring with radius rn at a point where the separation is t. The right-angled triangle
has a height R–t
∴ R2 = (R − t)2 + rn2 (from Pythagoras theorem)

R2 = R2 − 2Rt + t2 + rn2
2Rt = t2 + rn2
∵ t << rn, neglect t2
 ∴ 2Rt = rn2
t = rn2/2R
��� from eqn (3), 2t = nλ
∴ rn2 = Rnλ

rn = ��� …… is the radius of the nth dark rings.

Determination of Wavelength of given source light using Newtons rings:

Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of the curved surface in contact with glass plate and λ the wavelength
of light used.
Radius of dark ring is given by
rn = ���
The diameter of the nth dark ring is
Dn= 2 rn = 2 ���
D2n = 4nRλ

Similarly, the diameter of (n+m)th dark ring is

D2(n+m) = 4(n+m)Rλ
Subtracting equation,
D2(n+m) - D2n = 4mRλ

�� (�+�) − �� �
Or λ = ���
Hence by measuring the diameter of rings of different order,
 Knowing the radius of curvature of lens R, we can determine the ‘λ’ of given monochromatic
source.
OR
 Knowing the wavelength of light, radius of curvature of lens can be calculated.

DIFFRACTION

Definition: Bending of light waves around the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction.
Condition for Diffraction: Diffraction phenomenon can be observed when the dimensions of obstacle
or aperture is comparable to wavelength.

There are two classes of diffractions.

1. Fresnel diffraction
2. Fraunhofer diffraction
 Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

Either point source or screen or both are The source and screen are effectively at
kept at finite distance from obstacle. an infinite distance from the obstacle.

The wavefront that undergoes diffraction is The wavefront that undergoes diffraction is a
a spherical/ cylindrical wavefront. plane wavefront.

The experiment is simple but analysis is Both the Experiment and analysis are simple.
difficult.
Maximas and minimas are not well defined Maximas and minimas are well defined

No lens is used Lens are used

Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit:

Introduction: In fraunhofer diffraction incident wave front must be plane wave front, hence two
lenses are used one is collimating and another is converging.
Experimental arrangement:

 Let S be the monochromatic source of light,

  L1 the collimating lens of focal length f at a distance from the source, so that the lens
produces the parallel beam of rays.
 AB be the slit of width ‘a’.
 The light passing through the slit is collected by lens L2 which forms an image on the screen
as shown in the figure.

Working:
 Let us consider a plane wavefront incident normally on the slit AB, each and every point on
the wavefront acts as a secondary source of light waves from the source travels after AOB in
all possible directions.
 Let us consider waves travelling along OPo, after A,O,B they travel straight and focus at Po.
 Since all the light waves have travelled the same optical distance, there is a constant phase
difference between them and hence they produce the constructive interference Po appears
with maximum intensity called central maxima.
 Let us consider secondary waves travelling along AC w.r.t AD makes an angle θ.
 All the secondary waves travelling from wavefront AOB reaches point P1 on screen, whether
point P1 is maximum or minimum that depends on path difference between them from
various point on wavefront AOB reaching at P1.
 Draw BL perpendicular AC, after BML all the waves travel same distance to reach P1, OP1
cuts at M and AL=∆
From Triangle ABL,
�� ∆
Sin θ = �� = �

or ∆ = a Sinθ
Where, a = slit width
θ = angle of diffraction

Condition for Minima:

If path difference ∆ = λ, 2 λ, 3 λ,……,
Point P1 appears with minimum intensity called minima
Therefore the General condition for minima is
asinθn= n λ ………….(1)
Where, n= 1,2,3,…….
θn= corresponding directions of nth minima

Condition for Maxima:

λ 3λ 5λ 7λ λ
If path difference is odd multiple 2, ie. ∆ = 2 , 2 , 2 ,……(2� + 1) 2
Point P1 appears bright called maxima
Therefore the General condition for maxima is
λ
a sinθn= (2� + 1) 2
………….(2)
 Where, n= 1,2,3,…….
θn= corresponding directions of nth maxima

Diffraction pattern is due to single slit consists of central maxima and secondary maxima’s.

Calculate the slit width:

a sin θ = n λ
λ
sin θ = � (n=1)
x x
From fig: tan θ = � or sin θ = � (because L2 is nearer to slit f ≈d and for small θ, tan θ ≈ sin θ
≈ θ)
λ x
∴ =
� �
��
a= �
Where, a is slit width
Fraunhofer diffraction due to N- slit:
(Diffraction Grating)
 Diffraction grating closely placed multiple slits.
 Grating is a transparent material on which parallel opaque rulings are made with a diamond
pointer. This type of grating is called plane transmission grating.
 The combined equal width of the ruling and slit is called the grating element.
 The points on successive slits separated by a distance equal to the grating element are called
corresponding points

.
 Let ABCDEF represent the section of grating normal to the paper,
AB, CD, EF….etc represent the transparent ruling of width ‘a’ and BC, DE,etc…… represent
the opaque ruling of width ‘b’ each. i.e. (a+b) is the combined width of ruling and slit is
called a grating element.
 Let a plane wavefront be incident normally on the grating. The slits AB, CD, act as a secondary
source of light and gives secondary waves.
 These waves spread in all directions on either side of the grating.
 The secondary waves travel in the same direction as the incident rays focused at point P0. They
reinforce constructively and hence point P0 is the position of central bright maxima.
 Now let us consider secondary diffracted waves moving in a direction that makes an angle θ
with respect normal to grating and reaching point P1 as shown in the figure.
 Let us consider the waves diffracted at corresponding points A&C. Calculate the path difference
by drawing a perpendicular AMM1 normal to the diffracted light.
 The path difference between the waves on reaching P1 is CM since they travel an equal path
beyond AM.
�� ��
∆ ACM, sinθ = ��
= (�+�)
Or CM = (a+b) sinθ

The superposition of secondary waves at P1 causes interference, P1 will be bright.

When (a+b) sinθm = m λ
Where, m = 1,2,3,……
θm= θ1, θ2,…….correspond to the directions of principal maxima.

mλ
sinθm = (a+b)

sinθm= mN λ
1
Where, (a+b)
= N called number of grating elements or lines per unit width (cm) of the
grating.

Calculation of the maximum number of orders possible with grating.

sinθm= mN λ
The maximum possible value of θ is 900 i.e. sin900=1
∴ mN λ ≤ 1

1
⇒ m≤ ��
∵ m is an integer; this gives the maximum order possible.

Resolving power of Grating:

The ability of grating to form separate spectral lines of two very close wavelengths is called
the resolving power of plane diffraction grating.
 POLARIZATION
The phenomenon of polarization, establishes the transverse nature of light.Light is
electromagnetic in nature. It consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to
each other and also to the direction of propagation of the wave.

e.g: Waves produced on stretched string are transverse.

What is Polarization?
Polarized waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane. Plane polarized
light consists of waves in which the direction of vibration is the same for all waves.
The process of transforming unpolarized light into the polarized light is known as polarization.
Ordinary light (bulb, sunlight, candle…..) is unpolarized light & can be represented as

In unpolarized light waves, vibrations are confined to two components.

  Vertical component
The vibrations along the plane of paper (Fig A).
 Horizontal component
Vibrations perpendicular to plane of paper (Fig B)

Plane polarized light: The vibrations confined to a single plane (either in the direction along the plane
of paper or in the direction perpendicular to the plane of paper) is called plane polarized light.

Plane of Vibration: The plane in which the vibrations occur is called plane of vibrations (plane PQRS).

Plane of polarization: The perpendicular to the plane of vibrations is called plane of polariazation
(plane EFGH).
Methods Used in the Polarization of Light
• Polarization by Transmission
• Polarization by Reflection
• Polarization by Scattering
• Polarization by Refraction
Polarization by Transmission

• A Polaroid filter is able to polarize light because of the chemical composition of the filter
material. The filter can be thought of as having long-chain molecules that are aligned within the
filter in the same direction.
• As unpolarized light strikes the filter, the portion of the waves vibrating in the vertical direction
are absorbed by the filter.
• The general rule is that the electromagnetic vibrations that are in a direction parallel to the
alignment of the molecules are absorbed.
• Any vibrations that are perpendicular to the polarization axis are blocked by the filter.

Polarized light by reflection:

• Unpolarized light can also undergo polarization by reflection off of nonmetallic surfaces.
• The extent to which polarization occurs is dependent upon the angle at which the light
approaches the surface and upon the material that the surface is made of.
• Metallic surfaces reflect light with a variety of vibrational directions; such reflected light is
unpolarized.
• Nonmetallic surfaces such as asphalt roadways, snowfields and water reflect light such that there
is a large concentration of vibrations in a plane parallel to the reflecting surface.
• A person viewing objects by means of light reflected off of nonmetallic surfaces will see a glare
if the extent of polarization is large.
Polarization of light by Refraction:

Polarization can also occur by the refraction of light.

Refraction occurs when a beam of light passes from one medium to another medium.
At the surface of the two materials, the path of the beam changes its direction.

When an unpolarized light AB is incident on glass surface, most of light is refracted into the medium
and some light is reflected.

The reflected ray consists of light waves whose plane of vibration is perpendicular to the plane of
incident. The refracted light is partially polarized until it reaches a certain angle when it is completely
polarized.
This angle is where the reflected light and refracted light are at right angle to one another. This
angle is called brewester’s angle.

Double Refraction (Birefringence):

When unpolarized light passes through certain anisotropic crystals such as calcite or quartz, velocity of
propagation of two components of unpolarized light vary. This means that the material exihibits two

different refractive indices.

 When unpolarized light passes through such crystals we get two refracted beams and this
phenomenon is called Double Refraction.
 When unpolarized light passes through such crystal the direction is different from
the optic axis, it is split into ordinary ray and extraordinary ray.
 The ordinary ray travels the same velocity in all directions, the corresponding refractive
index is called the ordinary refractive index (µo).
 The extraordinary ray travels with the same velocity along the optic axis but velocity
gradually changes and in the direction perpendicular to the optic axis the change is
 maximum the refractive index corresponding to extraordinary is called extraordinary
refractive index (µr).
 If an object is viewed by looking through an Iceland Spar crystal, two images will be
seen.
 The two images are the result of the double refraction of light.
 Both refracted light beams are polarized - one in a direction parallel to the surface and the
other in a direction perpendicular to the surface.

Nicol Prism
A device used to produce plane-polarized light. Calcite crystal is modified to eliminate one of the two
refracted rays by total internal reflection (TIR).

 A calcite crystal whose length is three times its breadth is taken. The ends of the crystal are cut
such that one angle is equal to 68o. The crystal is cut into two halves along the diagonal.

 The cut faces are polished and cemented together using Canada balsam cement a clear
transparent glue with refractive index µbalsam=1.55.
 When unpolarized light passes through the crystal it splits into extraordinary ray (µE=1.486). and
ordinary ray (µo=1.65).
 When the ray meets Canada balsam cement it has traveled from a denser medium to a rarer
medium and the angle of incidence at the Canada balsam interface is greater than the critical
angle and hence it undergoes total internal reflection. Hence e-ray only emerges out of the other
face of prism.
 Nicols prism is a good polarizer and analyzer. Can be used to produce and analyze the plane
polarized light.
Applications of Polarization:
 In polarized glasses e.g. Sunglasses
 In polaroid films, they are used in 3D movies.
 Polarized sheet is used as a polarizer and analyzer.
 Optical activity of Quartz crystal can be measured with the help of polarized light.
 Polarized light is used in the study of the structure of nucleic acid.