Fundamentals of Computers –AECC KGC, HNK

UNIT – I
Fundamentals of Computers

1.*What is computer? Draw and explain Block diagram of computer (Basic Organization of Computer)

Computer is an electronic device, which takes data from you through the input device and processes data according to
the instructions given by the user and shows the result on output device.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

M.U

A.L.U
INPUT OUTPUT

C.U

INPUT UNIT:
It is used to send input data to the computer and it is connected to C.P.U.
Alphabet, Digits, Special characters, etc… that you provide to computers is provided through Input Unit.
Eg: Key Board, Mouse, Joystick, etc…

C.P.U.: C.P.U. stands for Central Processing Unit. It carries the task for processing. It can also be called as heart or
brain of the computer. It consists of A.L.U., C.U. and Memory Unit.

A.L.U.: A.L.U. stands for Arithmetic Logical Unit. It performs arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and percentage. Comparisons and assignments are logical operations like <, >, <=, >=, = etc…
Control Unit: It performs internal management functions of computer. It transfers the data and instructions from input
to primary memory.
It transfers data from primary memory to A.L.U. and back.
It is responsible for taking result from memory to output. So, it controls the processing and H/W devices.
Memory Unit: It can store the data. It is a storage area. It has two subunits.
(I) Primary Memory (II) Secondary Memory
I) Primary Memory: It is a temporary storage place. Whatever information given to the computer comes into primary
memory, get stored there, and then they get processed. Similarly, the result of processing also gets stored in primary
memory. As soon as the power is switched off, its contents get lost that’s why it is called temporary memory.
Primary memory is divided into two types: a) RAM b) ROM
a) RAM: Random Access Memory.
i) It is read and write memory.
ii) It is a volatile memory (i.e. Erasable memory).
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iii) It does not have necessary commands to start the computer.

b) ROM: Read Only Memory.

i) In this we can read the data, we cannot write the data.
ii) It is non-volatile memory (Non-erasable memory).
iii) It has necessary commands to start the computer.

II) Secondary Memory: This is supporting memory. It can store data permanently.
Eg: Floppy disks, CD’s, DVD’s, Hard Disks, etc…
OUTPUT UNIT:
The information that is received from the computer is an output. The device used for receiving output is
known as output device.
Eg: Monitors, Printers, Plotters, Speakers, etc…

2.* Explain Capabilities OR Features OR Characteristics of Computer.

Computer is an electronic device. It can take the data from input device and stores the data, processes data with the
help of instructions given by the user and shows the result on Output device.

1. Speed: The rate at which Computer process the instructions per second is defined as speed of Computer. Computer
processes the data at an unimaginable speed. The speed of the computer ranges up to Nano seconds. Computer can
calculate mathematical and logical calculations at a very fast speed. This is equivalent to the traveling speed of a light.
2. Storage: Computers can store large amount of data in a secured way. It is of two types
Primary Memory: The memory, which computer uses for its internal use, is called
Primary Memory. It is also called as Internal Memory.
Secondary Memory: Secondary Memory stores data permanently and it can hold
Large amount of data.
3. Accuracy: Usually computers do not make mistakes. While computing due to human mistakes like wrong
formulae, wrong methodology inaccurate results may raise. But computers always process with high accuracy. It
performs calculations with greater accuracy in less time.
4. Diligence: There are some limitations to a human power, human being requires some rest, some limitations to their
memory power many factors effect them like personal problems where as computer does not suffer from failure and
loss of concentration. Diligence means being constant and earnest in effort and application. Computer can able to
perform same task continuously. It process same activity at any time with same speed and accuracy.
5. Versatility: Computers are very versatile machines and are capable of performing multi tasks. Computers can
perform a variety of jobs like generating bills, pay rolls etc with high speed and accuracy.

LIMITATIONS OF A COMPUTER
1. Programmed by human:
Though computer is programmed to work efficiently, fast and accurately but it is programmed by human beings to do
so. Without a program, computer is nothing. A program is a set of instructions. Computer only follows these
instructions. If the instructions are not accurate the working of computer will not accurate.

2. No Thinking:
The computer cannot think itself. The concept of artificial intelligence shows that the computer can think. But still this
concept is dependent on set of instructions provided by the human beings.

3. NO Self Care:
A Computer cannot care itself like a human. A computer is dependent still to human beings for this purpose.

4. Retrieval of memory:
A computer can retrieve data very fast but this technique is linear. A human being's mind does not follow this rule. A
human mind can think randomly which a computer machine cannot.

5. No Feelings: One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer can not feel about some like a
human. A computer cannot meet human in respect of relations. Human can feel, think and caring but a computer
machine itself cannot.
A computer cannot take place of human because computer is always dependent of human.

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Fundamentals of Computers –AECC KGC, HNK

3. Write about Generations of Computers.

The development of computers can be divided into 5- generations.

First Generation Computers:

Period of First generation computers is 1945-1956 and used main processing device as vacuum tubes and in
this used storage device is punched cards the language used is Machine language.
Examples: ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (Computer)
UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer.

Advantages: i) It was the only electronic to store data device to hold memory.
ii) These computers could calculate data in millisecond

Disadvantages:
i) Computers are very bulky and large in size.
ii) They consumed more power.
iii) They produce more heat. To removing heat they were used AC’s that’s why maintenance
problem.
iv) It was very low in performing operations.

Second Generation Computers: Period of Second Generation Computers: 1956-1963 and used main processing
device as Transistors and storage device used is Magnetic disks. This generation used assembly language instead of
machine language.

Examples: IBM 7094 series, IBM 1400 series and CDC 164 etc

Advantages: i) Size is reduced

ii)fast and reliable than first generation computers
iii) Better speed and could calculate in microseconds
IV) Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
v) Accuracy is improved
Disadvantage: i) They were provided less memory.
ii) Commercial production was difficult
iii) Only used for specific purposes
iv)Costly and not versatile

Third Generation of Computers: Period: 1963-1971 main processing device used is IC’s (Integrated Circuits)
and Floppies are used to store the data. This generation Computer could be used for high level languages.

Examples: PDP-8, PDP-11 & IBM-360

Advantages:
i) IC’s are very small in size
ii) Performance was improved and they were cheap.
iii) More reliable
iv) Produced less heat
v) Wider commercial use
vi) Calculate data in nanoseconds

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Disadvantages: Used Highly sophisticated technology used required for the manufacturing of IC chips

Fourth Generation of Computers: Period: 1971-Present. Processing Device used in this generation is IC with
VLSI (Very Large Scale integration technology) Storage Media used: Floppies, CD’s, Hard Disks
Examples: IBM PC, APPLE II Cray etc
Advantages:
1.It is very speed. Cost is cheap and consumed less power.
2. No air conditioning required
3.More powerful and reliable than previous generations
4. All types of High level languages can be used

Disadvantages: 1.It required latest technology for manufacturing of microprocessors

Fifth Generation Computers: Period: Present and beyond. Main processing device is ULSI technology. Storage
Media: Video Disks, DVD’s. All high level languages like c, c++, java .Net are used in this generation. Artificial
intelligence is used, functionary like expert system.

Examples: Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultra book and Chrome book etc.

Advantages: 1.These are much faster than other generations

2. They are portable and easy to handle
3. Development of true artificial intelligence
4. Advancement in Superconductor technology.
Disadvantages: 1. They tend to be sophisticated and complex tools

4.*Explain types or Classification Of Computers.

Different types of computers depending on their nature, characteristics and the applications for which they are
used.

I. Depending upon nature computers are three types:

i) Analog Computers
ii) Digital Computers
iii) Hybrid Computers

i) Analog Computers: Computers which accept signals as input. Continuous flow of physical entity is called signal.
The movement of car, heat flow, flow of water pressure, electric current etc… is example for signals. Computers
which accept these signals as input are Analog Computers.
Eg: Speedo meters used in scooters and cars, Thermometer, Electric power meters.

ii) Digital Computers: Computers which accept digits as input are called Digital Computers.
Eg: Computer that we see in offices, hotels, shops and railway stations etc…
Digital Computers take data and instructions in the form of digits.

iii) Hybrid Computers: Computers which accept signals and digits, both as input such type of computers are called
Hybrid Computers. They constantly keep watch on the signal that is fed to them. If the signal rises or falls beyond the
given limits then the given actions are carried out.
Eg: Computers in ICU’s and Computers placed in the mines.

II. Depending on size and performance computers are divided into four types:
i) Micro Computers
ii) Mini Computers
iii) Main Frame Computers
iv) Super Computers

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i) Micro Computers: These computers are smallest category of computers. These computers consist of Micro
processors hence these computers are called Micro Computers.
Eg: Micro Computers again two types: a) Personal Computers
b) Lap top Computers

a) Personal Computer: It can perform variety types of tasks and at a given point of time
only one user can work on them.
b) Lap top Computer: These computers are very small in size. It’s like a briefcase. We
can carry them along with us any where. They work on battery backup.

ii) Mini Computers: Mini computers are larger and faster than Micro Computers. They are designed to create multi
user environment. They possess larger storage capacity and larger memory.
Eg: PDP-II, VAX, etc…

iii) Main Frame Computers: These are still larger variety of Digital Computers. They use their own circuits. This
circuit is specially designed for connecting more than one terminal (Key Board, Monitor, etc…), faster speed,
handling large amount of data. They are big in size and provide facility for connecting Micro Computers with them.
Eg: DEC 20, IBM370, etc…

iv) Super Computers: Super computers are largest category of computers. They are designed to work with multiple
Micro Processors so that parallel processing done.
In parallel processing, single task divided into no. of smaller tasks. Multiple processors then process these
tasks and then result is produced. In this way speed of the computer increases.
Super Computers are used in weather forecasting, nuclear weapon design, etc…

Eg: CRAY, XMP24, NEC500, etc…

III. Depending upon use computers are divided into two types:
i) General Computers: These computers can be used for variety of tasks from financial accounting to
mathematical from designing to textile prints to controlling machines.

ii) Special Computers: These can be designed to perform specific functions. In such devices the instructions
are permanently pre-programmed.

5.Explain the applications of computer

Computers are applied in the following fields

1.Business: A computer has high speed of calculation machine used in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −

a)Payroll calculations b)Budgeting c)Sales analysis d)Financial forecasting e)Managing employee database etc

2.Banking: Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and overdrafts,
checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

3.Insurance: Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients

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Fundamentals of Computers –AECC KGC, HNK
4. Education: The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

5.Healthcare: Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases.
ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.

6.Military: Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs
computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are −

a)Missile Control b)Military Communication c)Military Operation and Planning etc

7.Communication: Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are −

a)E-mail b)Chatting c)FTP d)Video-conferencing etc

8.Government: Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are −

a)Budgets b)Sales tax department c)Income tax department d)Computation of male/female ratio etc

6. * Explain Input, Output devices.

Input Device: It is used to give data and instructions to the computer.

Eg: Key Board, Mouse, Trackball, Touch screens, Barcode readers, OMR, Microphone.

a) Key Board: Key Board is the main input device, using this we can enter data into the computer. It contains 101
standard keys on it. The following are the types of keys on its board.

i) Alphabetic Keys (A to Z) ii) Numeric Keys (0 to 9) iii) Special Character Keys (!, @, #, $, %, *, etc…)
iv) Function Keys (F1 to F12) v) Action Keys (Caps Lock, Tab) vi) Navigation Keys (Home, End, Page
Up, Page Down)
vii) Arrow Keys

b) Mouse: It is also an input device. It is called as pointing device. When a mouse is connected to the computer, an
arrow like pointer appears on the screen. This pointer is called Mouse Pointer.
Using mouse we can perform the following activities:
i) Clicking the Mouse: Pressing the left button of the mouse and releasing it, is called clicking.
ii) Right Click: Pressing the right button of the mouse and releasing it, is called right click
iii) Dragging: Moving the mouse, with its left button pressed is called Dragging.
iv) Dropping: Moving the finger away from the mouse after Dragging is called Dropping.

c) Track Ball: A track ball is a pointing device that works like an upside down mouse. To move the cursor around the
screen, you roll the ball with your thumb. It requires less space than a mouse.

d) Touch Screen: Touch Screens allow the user to point directly at the computer display usually to select from a
menu of choices on the screen.

e) Bar Code readers: We have seen the wrappers of imported goods; have a series of black strips marked on them.
These strips are called Barcode.

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f) OMR: OMR stands for Optical Mark Reader, which acts as an input device. It is used for reading the marks that are
put on some paper.

g) Microphone: It acts as input device for Computers. It is to record the voice in computers.

h) Camera: A camera can be attached with computer, as input device. Digital Camera, Web Camera, Video Camera,
etc…

Output Devices: Output devices are used for showing the result.
Eg: Monitor, Printer, Plotter, Speakers and Modem.

Monitor: Monitor is an output device. It shows the results, images and videos.
There are two types of Monitors: i) CRT Monitors
ii) FPD Monitors
i) CRT: This type monitor’s use large vacuum tube, called Cathode Ray Tube.
ii) FPD: Flat Panel Display, it is used in Laptops.
Now a days LCD’s, LED’s are available.

Printer: Printer is also an output device, which can be connected to the computer.
i) Dot Matrix Printer: These printers print the characters with the help of dots. They print the
characters using pins. These printers print text and some graphics also. Speed of these printers varies
from 300 DPS to 600 DPS.
ii) Inkjet Printer: These printers print characters and drawings. These are color printers. These colors
are Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black. Using these colors generates all colors. Inkjet printers are high
quality and working performance is fast and cost is low.
iii) Laser Printer: These are high quality, high speed and high cost printers. In these, printing is done
using laser beam and black metallic powder called toner. Speed of these printers can range from 10
pages a minute to about 200 per minute.

Plotters: Plotter is an output device. It is used for plotting graphs, maps and charts.

Speakers: Speakers are output devices connected to computer to produce sounds.

Modem: Modem is also an output device, abbreviation of modem is modulator and demodulator it converts signals
into original formats.

*Explain Soft-copy output devices

These are the devices, which are used to produce a soft copy of the output. Soft-copy can be seen or heard i.e. it is the
copy of a document inside the computer. When power is switched off this copy is vanished, so a soft copy of a
document is of temporary nature.

soft-copy output devices;

1. Monitor
2. Speaker
3. PC Projector etc
Monitors can be defined as: “It is a soft-copy, standard output device, used to graphical type output”
It is widely in use and also known as Display Unit, Screen, Display Screen, Video Display Terminal (VDT), Video
Display Unit (VDU), Screens, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), etc. There is a cathode ray
tube installed in the monitors.

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2.SPEAKER:

Speaker can be defined as:“It is a soft-copy, standard output device,which is used to give the output of sound type of
data”
3. PC PROJECTOR:

Portable computers are rapidly replacing old-fashioned slide projectors and overhead projectors. A PC projector plugs
into the computer’s video output port and projects the video output onto an external surface.

** Hard Copy Devices: Hard copy devices are those that give the output in the tangible form. Printers and Plotters are two
common hard copy devices.

Examples : Printer: Printer is also an output device, which can be connected to the computer.
i) Dot Matrix Printer: These printers print the characters with the help of dots. They print the
characters using pins. These printers print text and some graphics also. Speed of these printers varies
from 300 DPS to 600 DPS.
ii) Inkjet Printer: These printers print characters and drawings. These are color printers. These colors
are Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black. Using these colors generates all colors. Inkjet printers are high
quality and working performance is fast and cost is low.
iii) Laser Printer: These are high quality, high speed and high cost printers. In these, printing is done
using laser beam and black metallic powder called toner. Speed of these printers can range from 10
pages a minute to about 200 per minute.

Plotters: Plotter is an output device. It is used for plotting graphs, maps and charts.

**Explain different types of Memories. (or) What is Primary Memory? Explain RAM, ROM,
PROM,EPROM and EEPROM

Memory: Memory is a storage area, where we can store data.

There are two types of memories: i) Primary Memory

ii) Secondary Memory

i) Primary Memory: The memory, which computer uses for its internal use, is called Primary Memory. It is also
called as Internal Memory. Computing capacity is faster. By adding memory chips, the memory capacity can be
increased.
Primary Memory is two types: a) Read Only Memory (ROM)
b) Random Access Memory (RAM)
a) ROM: The memory in which, only read operations are made possible are called Read Only Memory.
Computer cannot write anything on it. Contents of ROM are written in it by a special device. It is Non
Erasable Memory. It is Permanent Memory.

PROM: Programmable Read only Memory .This memory is created by developer, we cannot erase data from
this and we cannot add data into this memory.
EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read only Memory. We can add data into this memory and we can erase
data from this memory. To delete data from this memory we can use special tools (UV Rays).
EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory. It removes the drawback of EPROM. It
erase portion of the ROM also . Under this technology instead of using UV Light electric charge can be used

b) RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is Writable Memory. In this computer can write data and
instructions. It is Erasable Memory. It is Temporary Memory, because whenever power goes off then its
contents gets lost.
RAM is two types: SRAM – It stands for Static Random Access Memory. Flip flops are used for retaining
memory by SRAM. Four to six transistors are used by flip flops for a memory cell. This memory can story
information till the power supply is on. This memory is faster than DRAM and is expensive. These are

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mainly used in processor’s cache memory .It does not require refreshing, as it is quiet faster in comparison to
some other types.

DRAM – It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It makes use of a transistor and a capacitor to form
a memory cell standing for a single bit of data. They are not able to retain information for a longer time even if the
power supply is on throughout. Therefore, it needs refreshing dynamically, and therefore is known as the dynamic
type of memory. This is the most common type of computer memory. It provides more memory per chip due to lesser
number of components in comparison to SRAM. It is slower and less expensive than SRAM. This type of memory is
primarily used for creating a large system RAM space.

Cache memory: The Cache memory is the Volatile computer memory which is very nearest to the CPU so also called
CPU memory, all the recent instructions are stored into the cache memory. It is the fastest memory that provides hogh
speed data access to a computer processor
The memory is measured in terms of bits, bit means binary digit.
1 nibble= 4 bytes, 1 byte = 8 bits, 1 KB = 1024 bytes, 1 MB = 1024 kbs, 1 GB = 1024 mbs

***Explain secondary storage devices

Secondary Memory: Secondary Memory stores data permanently and it can hold large amount of data. Computing
capacity is lower than primary.
Some of commonly used Secondary Memory devices:
Magnetic Tapes: A sequential storage medium used for data collection, backup and archiving. The first electronic
storage medium, magnetic tape is made of flexible plastic with one side coated with a ferromagnetic material. Tapes
were originally open reels but were superseded by cartridges and cassettes of many sizes and shapes.

Magnetic disk: It is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to write, rewrite and access data. It is covered
with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks, spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and floppy
disks are common examples of magnetic disks

Tape cartridge is a storage device that contains a spool of magnetic tape used to store different kinds of data, from
corporate data to audio and video files. Each cartridge is designed to fit into a compatible audio/video recorder system
or computer system. In the context of computing, however, a tape cartridge is the magnetic tape storage cartridge used
in tape library units to store digital data on magnetic tape, which is packaged in cassettes and cartridges.
Tape cartridges are also known as data cartridges.

Hard Disk: It is also Secondary storage device. It can store large amount of data than Floppies.
Hard Disk is sealed unit which has own circuitry inside. It has multiple disks called Platters. The data get
stored on these disks. Each platter is having read and write heads. Platters move with a very high speed and read/write
heads perform read write functions. Hard disk is fixed inside the C.P.U. Capacity varies from 20 G.B. to 1 T.B.

Floppy: It is a Secondary storage device. It stores data permanently. Floppy appears to be rectangular in its outward
appearance, but it is circular from inside. It is made up of flexible plastic. A thin layer of the Iron Oxide is quoted on
the surface. The whole floppy is divided into 80 circles called Tracks. Each track is further divided into 9 units called
Sectors. Each sector stores 512 characters. A Floppy can store data up to 1.44 M.B.
Optical disk: An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and technology to read and
write data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses laser beams (transmitted from a laser head
mounted on an optical disk drive) to read and write data.
Compact Disks: Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony
and released in 1982. The format was originally developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later
adapted for storage of data. The following are compact disks
a) CD-ROM: Stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory. It performs read operations only. We can’t write data on
it. To read the data from C.D. you need to put the C.D. in CD-ROM drive.

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b).CD-R/W: Using this we can read the data and we can write the data. We can write data multiple times and we can
erase data also.

c)DVD: A digital versatile disc (DVD) is an optical disc storage medium similar to a compact disc, but with enhanced
data storage capacities as well as with higher quality of video and audio formats. Codeveloped by Sony, Panasonic,
Philips and Toshiba in 1995, the DVD is widely used for video formats, audio formats as well software and computer
files.
Zip Drive: A Zip drive is a medium-capacity and portable magnetic disk storage system launched by Iomega in the
mid-1990s. It was popular at the time of launch as cost per storage unit was lower than that of hard disks, and it could
store a larger amount of data than a floppy disk. The Zip drive was capable of fast data transfer and was durable and
reliable.
Flash Drive: A flash drive (sometimes called a USB device, drive or stick, thumb drive, pen drive, jump drive or USB
memory) is a small storage device that can be used to transport files from one computer to another.
Flash drives are small and light, use little power, and they don't have any delicate moving parts. Data stored on flash
drives is impervious to scratches, dust, magnetic fields, and mechanical shock. This makes them suitable for
transporting data conveniently without risk of damage.

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Fundamentals of Computers –AECC KGC, HNK

UNIT-II
Computer arithmetic and storage fundamentals

1. What is Binary? Explain Binary Arithmetic with examples

Binary (or base-2) a numeric system that only uses two digits — 0 and 1. Computers operate in binary, meaning
they store data and perform calculations using only zeros and ones.

The arithmetic of binary numbers means the operation of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Binary arithmetic operation starts from the least significant bit i.e. from the right most side.
1.Binary Addition
There are four steps in binary addition, they are written below
 0+0=0
 0+1=1
 1+0=1
 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next significant bit)

EX: Let us take two binary numbers 10001001 and 10010101

The above example of binary arithmetic clearly explains the binary addition operation, the carried 1 is shown on the
upper side of the operands.
2.Binary Subtraction
Here are too four simple steps to keep in memory

 0–0=0
 0 – 1 = 1, borrow 1 from the next more significant bit
 1–0=1
 1–1=0

EX: A binary arithmetic example is given to understand the operation more clearly

The operation shows the binary subtraction clearly.

3.Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication may sound like it would be more difficult than binary addition or subtraction – but is actually a
simple process. Here are the four steps to be followed, using the same binary numbers 10001001 and 10010101:
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Fundamentals of Computers –AECC KGC, HNK
 0×0=0
 1×0=0
 0×1=0
 1×1=1 (there is no carry or borrow for this)
The arithmetic of multiplying binary numbers is shown below:

4. Division
Binary division is comprised of other two binary arithmetic operations, multiplication and subtraction; an example
will explain the operation more easily.

Here 101 is the quotient and 1 is the remainder.

2. What is Number System? Explain positional and non-positional number systems

Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system architecture, every value that you are
saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number system.

Explain Positional number systems : 1) Decimal number system(Base-10)

2) Binary number system(Base-2)
3) Octal number system(Base-8)
4) Hexadecimal number system(Base-16)

1) Decimal number system(Base-10):

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal number system has
base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal
point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234 consists of the
digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its
value can be written as
(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

2)Binary Number system(Base-2):

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
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 Uses two digits, 0 and 1
 Also called as base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where x represents the last
position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012

3.Octal Number System(Base-8)

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 Also called as base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x represents the last
position - 1

Example
Octal Number: 125708

4.Hexadecimal Number System(Base-16)

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
 Also called as base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example 16x where x represents
the last position 1

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

4. Explain the steps to convert Binary to Decimal, Octal to Decimal and Hexadecimal to Decimal

**Converting from Binary to Decimal Equivalent –

Binary Number: 101012

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

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Fundamentals of Computers –AECC KGC, HNK
Step 3 101012 2110

**Converting from Octal to Decimal Equivalent –

Octal Number: 125708

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

**Converting from Hexadecimal to Decimal Equivalent –

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

5.Explain the steps to Convert Decimal to binary, Octal and hexadecimal

**Converting from Decimal to binary:

We can easily convert a decimal number to binary using the remainder method. This involves dividing the number by
2 recursively until you're left with 0, while taking note of each remainder.
1. Write down the decimal number.
2. Divide the number by 2.
3. Write the result underneath.
4. Write the remainder on the right hand side. This will be 0 or 1.
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5. Divide the result of the division by 2 and again write down the remainder.
6. Continue dividing and writing down remainders until the result of the division is 0.
7. The most significant bit (MSB) is at the bottom of the column of remainders and the least significant bit (LSB) is
at the top.
8. Read the series of 1s and 0s on the right from the bottom up. This is the binary equivalent of the decimal number.

**Convert Decimal to Octal number system

Follow the steps given below to learn the decimal to octal conversion:

1. Write the given decimal number

2. If the given decimal number is less than 8 the octal number is the same.
3. If the decimal number is greater than 7 then divide the number by 8.
4. Note the remainder we get after division
5. Repeat step 3 and 4 with the quotient till it is less than 8
6. Now, write the remainders in reverse order(bottom to top)
7. The resultant is the equivalent octal number to the given decimal number.
8. Below diagram shows an example of converting the decimal number 33 to equivalent octal number.
Example:

**Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal number system

1. Divide the decimal number by 16. Treat the division as an integer division.
2. Write down the remainder (in hexadecimal).
3. Divide the result again by 16. Treat the division as an integer division.
4. Repeat step 2 and 3 until result is 0.
5. The hex value is the digit sequence of the remainders from the last to first.

Example: convert 3479 decimal number to Hexadecimal

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**What is Logic gate? Explain types of Logic gates

A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits. They perform basic logical functions that are
fundamental to digital circuits. Most electronic devices we use today will have some form of logic gates in them. For
example, logic gates can be used in technologies such as smartphones, tablets or within memory devices
Basic logic gates

There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

AND | OR | XOR | NOT | NAND | NOR | XNOR

The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called "true," the gate acts in the same way as the
logical "and" operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit symbol and logic combinations for an
AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are at left and the output terminal is at right.) The output is "true" when
both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is "false." In other words, the output is 1 only when both inputs one AND
two are 1.

AND gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1 1 1

The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the fashion of the logical inclusive "or." The output is
"true" if either or both of the inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then the output is "false." In other words, for
the output to be 1, at least input one OR two must be 1.

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OR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1 1

1 1

1 1 1

The XOR ( exclusive-OR ) gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output is "true" if either, but not
both, of the inputs are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if both inputs are "true." Another way
of looking at this circuit is to observe that the output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.

XOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1 1

1 1

1 1

A logical inverter, sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it from other types of electronic inverter devices, has
only one input. It reverses the logic state. If the input is 1, then the output is 0. If the input is 0, then the output is 1.

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Inverter or NOT gate

Input Output

The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of the logical operation "and"
followed by negation. The output is "false" if both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is "true."

NAND gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1 1

1 1

1 1

The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if both inputs are "false."
Otherwise, the output is "false."

NOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

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1

1 1

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if the inputs
are the same, and "false" if the inputs are different.

XNOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1 1 1

**What is software? Explain types of software.

Software is a program or set of programs given to computer to perform the desired task
Software is a set of instructions given to computer to solve user problems and to control different operations of the
computer.
➢ There are two types of software.
1) System software
2) Application software

2.What is System Software? Explain Operating System and Utility Programs

➢ The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself.
➢ System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
➢ These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with
the hardware at a very basic level.
➢ System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.

EXAMPLES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE:

a) Operating system b)Device drivers

b)Compiler d)Interpreter
a) Operating system:-
➢ Operating System is a set of programs that are capable of managing the resources and the
operations of the computer.
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➢ It makes the communication between user and the components of the system.
➢ It is system software which acts like an interface between the user and the system
components.
➢ It is an important component of the computer system which is the first program loaded into the
computer by a boot program.
➢ It is considered as the backbone of the computer. ➢ it
performs basic tasks, such as
• Identifying the input from the keyboard ,
• sending output to the display screen ,
• Keeping track of files and directories on the disk memory ,
• Controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers,
• Providing security for authorized user access.
B) Device drivers:-
➢ This software is used to operate the parts of the computer.
➢ A device driver is a computer program that controls a particular device that is connected to
computer.
➢ Each of this needs a driver in order to work properly.
C) Compiler:-
➢ It is used to convert high level language to low level language program at a time.
➢ The compiler is used to find out the syntactical errors in program while executing a
program. The compiler translates the entire source program into machine language
program at once.
D) Interpreter:-
➢ it is used to convert a program high level language to low level language line
by line.
➢ It is mainly used to execute the program and gives output based on user request.

2)Application Software is a program that does real work for the user. It is mostly created to perform a specific task for
a user.

Application Software acts as a mediator between the end-user and System Software. It is also known as an application
package. This type of software is written using a high-level language like C, Java, VB. Net, etc. It is a user-specific
and is designed to meet the requirements of the user.

Types of Application Software

Here, are some important types of Application Software

 Word-processing software:- It makes use of a computer for creating, modifying, viewing, storing, retrieving,
and printing documents.
 Spreadsheet software:- Spreadsheet software is a numeric data-analysis tool that allows you to create a
computerized ledger.
 Database software:- A database software is a collection of related data that is stored and retrieved according
to user demand.
 Graphics software:- It allows computer systems for creating, editing, drawings, graphs, etc.
 Education software:- Education software allows a computer to be used as a learning and teaching tool.
 Entertainment software:- This type of app allows a computer to be used as an entertainment tool.

Firmware is a software program on the hardware device, which perform functions like basic input/output tasks and
offers necessary instructions for the device to communicate with other computing devices. It is a set of instructions
programmed that is permanently etched into a hardware device like video cards, BIOS, keyboards, or hard drives.
Without using special programs, it cannot be modifying or deleted by an end-user, unlike normal software. And it
remains on that device whether it is on or off. But firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM, which is actually a
kind of flash memory and allows users to erase and rewrite information.

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What is middleware?

Middleware is software that enables one or more kinds of communication or connectivity between two or more
applications or application components in a distributed network. By making it easier to connect applications that
weren't designed to connect with one another - and providing functionality to connect them in intelligent ways -
middleware streamlines application development and speeds time to market.

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