LECTURE NOTES

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
PARUL UNIVERSITY
VADODARA- 391760 (GUJARAT)
 SYLLABUS AND REFERENCE BOOK

Reference books:
Singh, N.P. 2005. Basic Concepts of Fruit Science. International Book
Distribution Company Lucknow.
Prasad, S. and Kumar, U. 2005. Principles of Horticulture. Agribios.
Jodhpur .
Singh, J. 2011. Basic Horticulture. Kalyani Publisher.
Singh, J. 2016. Fundamental of Horticulture. Kalyani Publisher. Chadha,
K.L. 2005. Handbook of Horticulture. ICAR Publication

(Prefer latest edition of above books)

Sr. No. INDEX Page No.
1 LECTURE -1 HORTICULTURE, ITS DEFINITION AND 1-4
BRANCHES, IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE
2 LECTURE -2 HORTICULTURAL AND BOTNICAL 5-6
CLASSIFICATION
3 LECTURE - 3. CLIMATE AND SOIL FOR HORTICULTURAL 7-10
CROPS
4 LECTURE 4. PLANT PROPAGATION-METHODS AND 11-25
PROPAGATING STRUCTURES
5 LECTURE 5. SEED DORMANCY AND SEED 26-28
6 LECTURE - 6. PLANNING OF ORCHARD 29-36
7 LECTURE - 7. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TRAINING AND 37-39
PRUNING
8 LECTURE 8- JUVENILITY AND FLOWER BUD 40-44
DIFFERENTIATION
9 LECTURE -9. UNFRUITFULNESS 45-46
10 LECTURE -10 POLLINATION, POLLINIZERS AND 47-50
POLLINATORS
11 LECTURE -11 FERTILIZATION AND PARTHENOCARPY 51-54
12 LECTURE -12 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 55-56
13 LECTURE -13 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT BIO-REGULATORS IN 57-60
HORTICULTURE
14 LECTURE -14. IRRIGATION – METHODS, FERTILIZER 61-74
APPLICATION IN HORTICULTURAL CROPS
15 Question Bank 1 75-91
16 Question Bank 2 92-103
16 Previous question papers 104-124
 LECTURE -1
HORTICULTURE, ITS DEFINITION AND BRANCHES,
IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE

The term Horticulture first appeared in written language in the seventeenth century.
The word horticulture is derived from the Latin words, hortus means garden and cultura
means to cultivate. Horticulture means garden cultivation Thus, Horticulture is a part of
plant agriculture which is concerned with cultivation of “garden crops”. Garden crops
traditionally include fruits, vegetables and all the plants grown for ornamental purposes as
well as spices, plantation, medicinal and aromatic purposes. The cultivation of garden plant
is in contrast to the cultivation of field crops which is practiced in an extensive manner.
Horticulture relies ongrowing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner. The
horticulture crops require very intense care in planting, carrying out cultural operation,
manipulating growth, harvesting, packing, marketing, storage and processing. Many
horticulture products are highly perishable, their constituent water is essential to their
quality and hence mostly utilizedin living stage. In contrast, the products of agronomy and
forestry are often utilized in the non-living state and are usually high in dry matter. Taking
these things into account precisely Horticulture can be defined as the branch of agriculture
concerned with intensively cultured plants directly used by people for food, for medicinal
purpose or for aesthetic gratification.

Definition of Horticulture:
- Horticulture is based on agriculture, and its name comes from the Latin terms Hortus
and culture, which mean "garden" and "cultivation," respectively.
- Horticulture can be very broadly defined as the science with deals with the production
utilization and improvement of (fruits, vegetables, ornamental plant spices and condiments,
medicinal and aromatics, plantation crops) as well as gardening, protective cultivation and
value addition.

Objectives:- To find out way by which horticulture crops can be made to yield optimum
benefits to mankind
This objectives can be achieved through
 The knowledge of geographical distribution of horticultural plants.
 The source and uses of such plants their structure and manner of growth
 The influence of climate and soil on their development
 The methods of their propagation
 The manner, time and degree of pruning them
 Their diseases, pests and their control and
 The manner of harvesting, storing, transporting and using the finished products.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 1

 Division of Horticulture:-
Pomology :- The term Pomology is derived from the Latin word pomum meaning ‘fruits’
andthe Greek term logy meaning ‘science’. Thus, pomology is the science of production
of fruit crops. or The science of growing fruit crops.
a) Tree fruits:- Fruits are produced on tree e.g. Mango, Chiku Citrus etc.
b) Small fruits:-Fruits are produced on shrubs or vines g.Phalsa, Raspberry,
Mulberry, Grapes, Gooseberry, Strawberry.
Olericulture:- The term Olericulture is originated from Latin word ‘oleris’ meaning pot
herb and the English word culture meaning raising of plants. Thus, olericulture is the
science of vegetable crops. OR The cultivation of vegetable crops. e.g. Brinjal, Tomato,
Potato, Radish, Carrot, Chilli, Bottle gourd.

Floriculture:- It is a science of cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants for commercial

purpose or merely for getting pleasure and as a hobby.
Plantation crops: The science of growing those crops which have long bearing age,
cultivated by individual or industries and require some sort of processing before
consumption. eg. coconut, coffee, cocoa, arecanut, tea, rubber, oil palm etc.
Landscape gardening:- It is a science of designing and laying out home gardens, public
gardens, parks, road-side plantation, avenues etc.
Spices and condiments: The science of growing those crops which add taste and flovour in
food stuffs. eg. Spices: cardamom, black pepper, clove, cinnamon etc. Condiments:
ginger, turmeric etc.

Preservation of fruits and vegetables:- It is a science of canning of fruits and vegetables.

e.g. Fruit juice, Jam, Jelly, marmalade, Candy, dehydration etc.
Aromatic and medicinal plants:- Deals with the plants cultivated for aromatic essential
oils like geranium, lemon grass and medicinal purpose for their alkaloids and steroids
like Vinca, Pyrathrum, Doscoria, Ashwagantha etc.
Post Harvest Technology: It deals with post harvest handling, grading, packaging, storage,
processing, value addition, marketing etc. of horticulture crops. e.g. Fruit juice, Jam,
Jelly, marmalade, Candy, dehydration etc.
Plant Propagation: Deals with propagation of plants. Science deals with technique of
multiplication of plants
Horticultural nurseries: - Deals with the production of planting material, their
maintenance and sale.

Apiculture: The science of honeybee rearing is called as apiculture.

Silviculture:- Cultivation and management of forest tree. e.g. Teak wood, Neem, Ficus,
Eucalyptus etc.
Mushroom: Growing or cultivating mushrooms.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 2

 IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURE
 Fruits and vegetables play an importance role in the balance diet of human being
byproviding energy rich food and vital protective nutrients.
 They not only adorn the table but also enrich health from the most nutritive menu
andtone up the energy and vigour of man.
 Fruits and vegetables have a key role in neutralizing the acid produced during
digestion of proteinous and fatty foods.
 They provide valuable roughages which promotes digestion and helps in
preventingconstipation.
 From unit are of land more income is obtained by growing fruits & vegetables crops.
 From energy point of view the fruit crops give very high amount of calories per acre
e.g. wheat 1034880 calories/acre. Banana 15252800 calories/acre. Hence in the
present situation of food shortage and land scarcity, we can produce more food in
limited area by growing fruits and vegetables.
 Horticulture farming is mother of several industries like canning, essential oil,
dehydration, refrigeration, wine, cashew nut, transport etc. Which provide work for
many people.

 Farmers and his labours can keep themselves engaged throughout year.
 Growing of horticultural crops is an art as well as science which helps in
mentaldevelopment of farmers.
 The fruits and vegetables are chief source of vitamins and minerals which help
inproper health and resistant to disease.
 The flowers, ornamental plants and gardens play a very important role in
refreshingthe minds of people and reducing air pollution.
 The growing of horticultural crops also contribute to the aesthetic side of rural
andhome life of community.

SCOPE OF HORTICULTURE
There is tremendous scope of developing horticultural industry in our country. With
the renewed research and development strategy, it can be expected that the tropical and
subtropical horticultural crops would play a greater role in future in meeting the
consumption requirements of the people and catering to a number of international market.
During the recent past there has been some advancement in the field of research and
development of horticultural crops.
The majority of Indian population is vegetarian and the production per unit area
isless. There is a great demand from all the classes of people for fresh fruits and vegetables
andalso for canned products because fruits and vegetables are the rich source of minerals

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 3

 and vitamins. The climatic conditions of India are quite suitable for growing various types
of fruits and vegetables in various zones, throughout the year. Certain fruits and vegetable
crops are well adopted to varied edaphic and climatic condition e.g. Date palm, Ber,
Pomegranate, Guava, Phalsa, Brinjal, Chilli, Tomato, Cabbage, Cucurbites etc.
Floriculture is an important branch of horticulture, we should not neglect the great
aesthetic value of flowers in our daily life, commercially, floriculture can open up great
opportunities to our poor farmers. As far as concerned area and production, India is the
second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. However with its growing
population it is in the position to meet the recommended per capita consumption norms.
However, India’s share in global exports of horticulture production is negligible
being only one per cent. But given the volume of world trade in fresh and processed
horticulture products and the country’s resources, India has the potential of more than
doubling the present level of exports within the next five years. Currently, potential
technologies have been largely directed towards higher production with little
consideration for quality whichhas to meet export standards. Thus emphasis is required on
export directed production technology. The use of remote sensing technique will play a
greater role in modern fruit growing. There is also a good scope in using rhizobium and
mycorrhiza for recycling and promoting the utilization efficiency of nutrients.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 4

 LECTURE -2
HORTICULTURAL AND BOTNICAL CLASSIFICATION

HORTICULTUREAL PLANT CLASSIFICATION

A. Edible plants Names of crops given below in a, b, and c should start with small letters
a. Vegetables:
(1) Plants grown for aerial portion
- Cole crops: cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli
- Legumes or pulse crops: pea, bean, soy bean cluster bean
- Solanaceous fruit crops: Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli
- Vine crops or cucurbits: Cucumber, Squash, Melon, Bottle gourd
- Green or pot herbs: Spinach, Dandelion, Amaranthus
- Salad crops: Lettuce, Celery, endive
- Miscellaneous: Corn, Asparagus, Okra, Mushroom
(2) Plant grown for underground portions
- Root crops: Beet root, Radish, Carrot, Sweet potato
- Tubers and roots: Potato, Yams, Cassava
- Bulb and corm: Onion, Garlic, Shallot, Leek Gladiolus
b. Fruits:
(1) Temperate (Deciduous) fruits:
- Small fruits: Raspberry, Black berry, grape, cranberry, straw berry.
- Tree fruits: Pomes, apple, pear, quince
- Stone fruits: Peach, plum, apricot
- Nuts: Pecan, filbert, walnut
(2) Tropical and sub-tropical (Evergreen) fruits:
- Herbaceous perennials: Pine apple, Banana
- Tree fruits: (i) Citrus fruits: Orange, lemon, grape gruit

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 5

(ii) Miscellaneous: Fig, date palm, mango, papaya, avocado - Nuts: Cashew, Brazil nut,
Macadamia
B. Ornamental plants
(1) Flower and foliage plants:
a. Annuals: Petunia, Zinnia, Snapdragon, Dianthus, Balsam
b. Biennials: Sweet William, holly hock, evening primerose, Gladiolus
c. Perennials: Chrysanthemum, philodendron, Aster amellus, Gerbera, Tulip
(2) Nursery plants
a. Lawn (Turf) plants: Blue grass, Bermuda grass
b. Ground cover: Periwinkle, sedum
c. Vines (Both herbaceous and woody): Virginia, creeper, grape, English ivy
d. Shrubs (Commonly restricted to deciduous shrubs): Forshythia, liac
e. Evergreens (Both shrubs and trees): Spreading juniper, rhododendron, white pine
f. Tree, commonly restricted to deciduous trees: Pin oak, sugar maple, larch
C. Miscellaneous plants:
(1) Herbs, spices, drugs: Dill, nut, meg, spearmint, quinine, digitals
(2) Beverage plants, non alcoholic: Coffee, Tea, Cacao, mate
(3) Oil yielding plants: Tung, sunflower
(4) Rubber plants: Para rubber tree
(5) Plants yielding gums or resins: Sweetgum, slash, pine
Christmas tree: Balsam fire, scotch pine

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 6

 LECTURE - 3. CLIMATE AND SOIL FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS

CLIMATE
It denotes average condition of weather prevailing over a large area. Temperature,
humidity, rainfall, solar radiation and wind are the principal constituent of climate. A rhythmic
change in constituent factors brings about change in the climate. Depending upon the
prevalence of various constituents the climate is broadly classified into temperate, tropical and
sub-tropical types.
(1) Temperate zone : Kashmir, HP, hills of UP & some high altitude regions of central India
(Nilgiri & Palni Hills). This climate is characterized by the fall of temperature below
freezing point in winter. The plants shed their leaves during winter as a survival
mechanism. Consequent to fulfillment of chilling hours, the plants again resume their
growth. There is snowfall in this type of climate. The ground remains covered with snow
for 3 to 5 months in a year. Temperature falls & plants drop down their leaves and enters
into rest. For breaking rest, a definite chilling period is required. During summer the
temperature varies between 10°C to 14°C and relative humidity between 80% to 100%.
This type of climate is observed at 1800 m to 3500 m height from ground level. Apple,
pear, peach, plum, walnut, apricot etc grow in this type of climate.
(2) Tropical zone : Southern regions of MP, & Bengal. States of Gujarat, MS, MP, Orissa,
Karnataka, TN, & Kerala. There is no distinct summer and winter in this type of climate.
Hot and humid summer and mild winter is hallmark of tropical climate. There is no
fluctuation in day and night temperature. This type of climate receives high rainfall and
humidity. The temperature ranges from 32°C to 37°C and above. It is experienced at 300
m to 900 m height from ground level. Tropical climate prevails along with coastal belt
of the country. Fruits like mango, banana, papaya, pineapple, sapota,cashew, jackfruits
grow in this climate.
(3) Sub -Tropical zone : It is in between temperate & tropical zones. Plains of Punjab &
UP. Northern regians of Bhihar, MP & W. Bengal & States of Rajasthan & Assam. The
temperature occasionally goes below freezing. Climate is hot & comparatively dry.
Winter is comparatively less cold. The temperature ranges from 25°C to 30°C and
humidity almost 100% during monsoon. It is found at 900 m to 1800 m height from
ground level. Fruits are named as subtropical fruits. Lime, lemon, orange, grape, guava,
date, fig, pomegranate, phalsa etc. Some tropical fruits like mango, banana, jack fruit, can
also be grown in this region.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF HORTICULTURALLY POTENTIAL ZONES OF THE

COUNTRY
1. Temperate zone
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Parts of Uttranchal, Arunachal Pradesh and
Nagaland, Nilgiris and Palni Hills of Tamil Nadu experience temperate climate.
2. North-western sub-tropical zone
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Parts of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh are
counted under this zone.
Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 7
3. North-eastern sub-tropical zone
Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Parts of Arunachal Pradesh and parts of
West Bengal experience this type of climate.
4. Central tropical zone
Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh
and Kanataka are counted under this zone.
5. Southern tropical zone
Parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are counted under this zone.
6. Coastal tropical zone
Coastal part of Maharashtra. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Tripura, Mizoram, part of Gujarat along sea side, Andaman and Nicobar islands
experience such type of climate.
Agro-Climatic zones of Gujarat State :-
I. South Gujarat Heavy Rainfall Zone.
II. South Gujarat Zone.
III. Central Gujarat Zone.
IV. North Gujarat Zone.
V. North-West Gujarat Zone.
VI. North Saurashtra Zone.
VII. South Saurashtra Zone.
VIII. Bhal and Coastal Zone.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 8

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 9
Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 10
 LECTURE 4. PLANT PROPAGATION-METHODS AND PROPAGATING
STRUCTURES

Propagation:- Plant propagation means multiplication of plants with the aim to achieve
increase in number and preserve the essential characteristics of the mother plant. It is of
two types: (i) Sexual or seed propagation (ii) Asexual or vegetative propagation
Sexual Propagation :- Reproduction by seed; but seed is under ordinary condition a result
of fusion of male and female germ cells or gametes, characters of both parents are
inherited by the seed or the new individual and therefore the new individual formed in
this way are not true-to-type.
Asexual propagation :- Does not involve the gametes from parents. It is simply a vegetative
or somatic extension of one parent and there is no chance of inheriting a mixture of
characters.
Sexual Propagation

Seed propagation :-
Seed :- Anatomically, seed is an embryo plant or fertilized, ripened ovule consisting of a
rudimentary stem and root, together with a supply of food sufficient for establishing the
plant in a new location and enclosed in a protective coat (seed coat).
Viability :- A seed is viable if it is capable of germinating or ability of seed to germinate
Vitality :- The vigour or strength possessed by the seed for growth.
Short viable seeds :- Cashew, Jack fruit, Jamun, Citrus, Mango, Neem
etc. Seed with hard seed coat :- Babul (acasia), Gulmohar, Chiku,
Amaltas etc.
Such seed should be given some treatment before growing for quick germination.
A. Mechanical Treatment :-
1. Scarifying :- Seed is filled in a scarifier which is a drum with inner surface
rough ,hard and sharp. The hard seed coat is filled and ground out by rotary action.
2. Others :- Breaking or cracking with hammer, drilling a hole, rubbing against
stone,filing.
B. Chemical treatment :-
- H2SO4 at conc. of 50 % and 25 %
- Potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
C. Soaking in water :- Seed are soaked in warm water for 24 hr. or 4 to 5 days
sometimethey are soaked in cow dung paste.
D. Stratification :- Keeping seed in alternate layers with sand or soil and kept
constantlymoist but not waterlogged.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 11

SEXUAL METHODS:
Advantages:
 Seedling trees (sexual method) are generally long lived; bear more heavily are
comparative more hard.
 Propagation from the seed is the only means of reproduction where the method of
vegetative propagation is not possible or economical as in papaya, phalsa,
mangosteen etc.
 Inbreeding for evolution of new varieties, the hybrids are first raised from seed and
it is, therefore, essential to employ this method in such cases.
 Propagation from seed has been responsible for the production of some chance
seedlings of highly superior merits, which has been of great benefit to the fruit
industry. It may be mentioned that commercial mango varieties originated from seed and
were, later on, perpetuated vegetatively.
 Seed like those of some citrus species and some mango varieties are capable of
givingout more than one seedling from one seed. They can be carefully detected in
the nursery stage.
 The rootstocks upon which the fruit varieties are budded or grafted are really
obtainedby means of sexual propagation.
 Seedlings are comparatively cheaper and easy to raise.
Along with advantages, the seedlings trees have some disadvantages too.

Disadvantages
 The seedling trees are not uniform in their growth, yielding capacity and fruit
qualityas compared to the grafted trees.
 They make more time to bear the maiden crop as compared to the grafted plants.
 The seedling trees become large for economic management i.e. the cost of
harvesting, pruning and spraying is more as compared to the grafted trees.
 It is not possible to perpetuate the exact characters of any superior selection through
seed and so to multiply superior hybrids or chance seedlings, vegetative methods
haveto be employed.
 In case of seedlings, it is not possible to avail of the modifying influence of
rootstockson the scion as in case of vegetatively propagated fruit trees.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 12

 Asexual Propagation

 It is independent of sexual propagation process as there is no involvement of sex organs.

 It takes place due to mitotic division. Mitotic division continues in shoot tip, root tip and
cambium.
 When some portion of plant is wounded, mitotic division takes place.
 Under mitotic division, chromosomes divide longitudinally to form two daughter cells.
This forms the basis of asexual propagation.
 The plants raised through asexual process are identical to mother plants. Cutting, division,
layering, budding and grafting are main techniques of asexual propagation.

 Advantages
o Asexually propagated plants are true to type to their mother plants.
o Asexually propagated plants have short juvenile phase and bear flowers and fruits in the
early age (3-4 years) than seedling plants.
o The vegetatively propagated plants are smaller in stature and hence management
operations like spraying, pruning and harvesting etc. become easy.
o Plants in which seed setting does not take place (e.g. pineapple and banana), asexual
propagation serves as a substitute for sexual propagation.
o Using asexual methods, desirable characters of a mother plant can be perpetuated/
multiplied easily.
o The benefits of rootstocks and scion are usually exploited through asexual propagation.
o Repairing of damaged portion of plant is possible through asexual propagation as in case
of bridge grafting.
o It is possible to convert a non-productive local variety into productive improved variety
by using asexual methods.
o It is possible to grow several varieties on one plant or change variety of existing plant
by top working.

 Disadvantages
o Asexual propagated plants have shorter life-span.
o Asexual propagation restricts diversity.
o Sometimes asexual propagation disseminates diseases e.g. Tristeza virus in citrus.
o Technical expertise/skill is required.

Introduction

 A large number of horticultural crops are raised through one or the other vegetative methods.
Several methods of vegetative propagation have been standardized for different horticultural
crops. However, one method of propagation may be suitable for a particular crop but may
not be suitable for the others. Similarly, one crop may be propagated on large scale with
different methods of propagation, whereas, the others may have only one method. Further,

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 13

 the success of different propagation methods is influenced by the environmental conditions.
Hence, one method for a particular crop may be highly successful in a particular locality,
but cannot be of any value in the other. For instance, side veneer grafting is successful
method of mango propagation in north India but in Konkan region of Maharashtra, epicotyl
or stone grafting is more successful. The different methods of vegetative propagation
include:
o Propagation by apomictic seedlings (mango, citrus etc)
o Propagation by cuttings and layering (propagation on its own root system)
o Propagation by grafting and budding (propagation on the root system of other plants)
o Propagation by specialized vegetative structures (propagation by bulbs, tubers,
rhizomes, corms, suckers, runners, bulbils, slips and crown etc.
o Micropropagation i.e. propagation through tissue culture system

Propagation by Cutting

 Now-a-days, propagation system are more market driven than production-driven, which means that
propagators must first analyze market demands and then select and develop cultivar utilizing
optimum propagation techniques to produce plants for the customers. Cuttings are still most
important means of propagating ornamental shrub-deciduous species as well as broad and narrow
leaved types of evergreen plants. Cuttings are also widely used in commercial green house
propagation of many floricultural crops.
Advantages

 Many new plants can be produced in a limited space.

 It is inexpensive, rapid and simple and does not require the special techniques necessary in
grafting, budding or micropropagation.
 No problem of graft incompatibility with rootstock and poor graft union etc.
 No variation due to variable seedling rootstocks.
Disadvantages
 The advantages of rootstock like induction of dwarfism, drought or disease resistance etc.
cannot be utilized
 Plants raised through cuttings have lesser longevity as they are susceptible to various
diseases and insect-pests.

Types of Cuttings
a.) Stem cuttings: A stem cutting is any cutting taken from the main shoot of a plant or any
side shoot growing from the same plant or stem. The shoots with high carbohydrate content
usually root better. Broadly, there are four types of stem cuttings, namely hardwood, softwood,
semi-hardwood and herbaceous cuttings.
i) Hardwood cuttings: Cutting from mature and lignified stem of shrubs and trees
are called as hardwood cuttings. Hardwood cuttings are prepared during dormant season,
usually from one-year-old shoots of previous season’s growth. The size of cuttings varies
from 10 to 45 cm in length and 0.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter, depending upon the species.
Usually, the cuttings of 25-30cm length, with pencil thickness are preferred. Each cutting
should have at least three or more buds. While preparing the cutting, a straight cut is given

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 14

 at the base of shoot- below the node while a slanting cut, 1 to 2 cm above the bud is given
at the top of cutting.

ii) Semi-hardwood (green wood) cuttings: Semi-hard wood cuttings are those made
from woody, broad-leaved evergreen species with partially matured wood. These types of
cuttings are mostly used in evergreen fruit plants like mango, guava, lemon, jackfruit some
shrubs and shrubby ornamental plants. The length of the cuttings varies from 7 to 20 cm.
The cuttings are prepared by trimming the cuttings with a straight cut below the node and
removing a few lower leaves. However, it is better to retain two-to-four leaves on the top
of the cuttings. While planting 1/4th cutting should be inserted in the soil. The best time
for taking such cuttings is summer, when new shoots have emerged and their wood is
partially matured. It is necessary that leafy cuttings should be rooted under conditions when
water loss from the leaves is minimum. Commercially, such cuttings are rooted under
intermittent mist, fog or under polyethylene sheets laid over the cuttings.
iii) Softwood cuttings: Cuttings prepared from the soft-succulent and non-lignified
shoots, which are not hard or woody, are called as softwood cuttings. Such types of cuttings
are very prone to desiccation. Therefore, proper arrangement for controlling humidity is
required. Usually the size of cutting is 5-5.7 cm but it may vary from species-to-species.
In general, some leaves should be retained with this type of cuttings. The best time for
preparing softwood cuttings is late summer. Softwood cuttings generally root easier and
quicker than other types, but require more attention and sophisticated equipments.
Similarly, the temperature should be maintained 23 to 27oC during rooting at the base of
cuttings.
iv) Herbaceous cuttings: Herbaceous cuttings are made from succulent non-woody plants
like geranium, chrysanthemum, coleus, carnation and many foliage crops. These are
usually 7-15 cm long with few leaves retained at the upper end. These are rooted under the
same conditions as that of softwood cuttings, requiring high relative humidity. Bottom heat
is also useful for initiation of rooting process. Herbaceous cuttings of some plants exclude
a sticky sap (as in geranium, pineapple, cactus etc.) that interferes with root initiation
process. In such cases, basal ends of cuttings should be allowed to dry for few hours before
planting. Generally, fruit plants are not propagated by herbaceous cuttings.

b) Root cuttings: Propagation by means of root cuttings is also a simple and cheap method of
vegetative propagation in species, which are difficult-to-propagate by other methods. In general,
the plants, which produce suckers freely, are easily propagated by root cuttings.
c) Leaf cuttings: Propagation through leaf bud cuttings is partially useful in species where leaves
develop root system but die because of non-development of shoot system.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 15

 Layering techniques

Layering is a form of rooting of cuttings in which adventitious roots are initiated on a stem
while it is still attached to the plant. The rooted stem (layer) is then detached, transplanted, while
later becomes a separate plant on its own roots. It is a natural mean of propagation in black
raspberries and trailing blackberries or it may be induced artificially in many plants like clonal
rootstocks of apple. In general, better rooting in the layers can be obtained by ringing or wounding,
etiolation or by the use of rooting hormones like IBA, NAA and by providing favorable
environmental conditions (temperature and humidity) .
Advantages

 It is an effective method of propagating species that usually do not root easily by

cutting as in mango, litchi, filberts and kumquat etc.
 It is a natural method of propagation in blackberries and raspberries.
 It does not require precise control on water, relative humidity or temperature, as for
other methods of propagation.
 Easy-to-perform and does not require much infrastructure.
Disadvantages

 Costlier in areas where labour availability is a problem.

 Limited number of plants can be produced.
 Plants produced through layering have usually small brittle roots.
 The mortality rate is particularly higher in air layered plants.

Types of layering
The most commonly used systems to layer plants include:

 Simple layering
 Compound/ serpentine layering
 Continuous/Trench Layering
 Air layering
 Mound/ Stool layering
the most commercially important are mound layering for multiplication of rootstocks and
air layering for some tropical fruits.

(1) Simple Layering:

Simple layer consists of bending an intact shoot to the ground to cause adventitious roots
to form. This method can be used to propagate a wide range of plants, indoor or outdoor on woody
shrubs that produce numerous suckers. Layering is usually done in the early spring using flexible,
dormant, one-year-old shoot-branches of the plant that can be bent easily to the ground. These
shoots are bent and “pegged down” at a location 15 to 20 cm from the tip forming a “U” shape.
Bending, twisting, cutting, or girdling at the bottom of the “U” stimulates rooting at that location.
The base of the layer is covered with soil or other media, leaving the tip exposed.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 16

(2) Compound or serpentine layering
It is a modification of simple layering in which one-year-old branch is alternatively covered
and exposed along its length. The stem is girdled at different points in the underground part.
However, the exposed portion of the stem should have at least one bud to develop a new shoot.
After rooting, the sections are cut and lined out in the field. In this way, many new plants can be
made from one branch.

(3) Continuous or trench layering

It is the most common method of propagation for woody plants, which produce long vines
and are difficult-to-propagate by other methods of propagation. Vigorous rootstocks of apple like
M-16, and M-25 and walnut can easily be propagated by trench layering. In this method, it is
important to establish a permanent row of plants to be propagated.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 17

(4) Air layering ( Marcottage, Gootee, Pot layerage)
Air layering is an ancient method of layering, originally introduced from China and now
commercially used for propagation of a number of tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs
including litchi, guava, mango, longan, persian lime (Citrus aurantifolia), ficus, croton etc. Air
layers are made in the spring or summer on stems of the previous season’s growth. The presence
of active leaves on the layered shoot speeds root formation.
Layers are prepared by making an upward cut about 5 cm long at or about the center of the
shoot. The shoot is then girdled by removing a ring of bark about 2 cm wide. The upper part of
wound is applied with IBA paste made in lanolin. The wound is covered with moist sphagnum
moss in a way to provide complete cover to it. Polyethylene film is wrapped around the moss grass
in such a way as to leave no opening, which could allow evaporation of moisture from the moss.
The rooted layers may be severed from mother plant and may be planted in the nursery under
shade.

Grafting techniques
Introduction
Before going into the details of different methods of grafting, it becomes very important to know
about the basic terminology related to grafting methods.
- Grafting: Grafting is a process by which two living parts are joined together in such a
manner that they would unite together and subsequently grow into a composite plant.
Usually graft has two parts, the scion and rootstock.
- Scion: Scion refers to that part of a graft combination that becomes the top of the plant.
Scion is the short piece of detached shoot containing 3 or more dormant buds, which
when united with the rootstock or inter-stock, comprises the upper portion of the graft
and from which will grow the stem or branches or both. It should be of the desired
cultivar and free from diseases.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 18

Rootstock: The rootstock is the lower portion of the graft, which develops into the root systems of
the grafted plant. It may be seedling, a rooted cutting, or a layered or micro- propagated plant.
Inter-stock: Inter-stock is a piece of stem inserted by means of two graft unions between the scion
and rootstock. Inter-stocks are used to avoid an incompatibility between the rootstock and scion,
to produce special tree forms, to control diseases or to take advantage of its growth controlling
properties.
Vascular cambium: Vascular cambium is a thin tissue located between the bark and the wood. Its
cells are meristmatic i.e. they are capable of dividing and forming new cells. For successful graft-
union, the cambium of the scion is placed in the close contact with the cambium of the rootstock.
Callus: Callus is a term applied to the mass of parenchymatic cells that develop from and around
wounded plant tissues. It occurs at the junction of a graft union, arising from the living cells of
both the scion and rootstock. The production and interlocking of these parenchymatic cells (callus)
constitute one of the important step in callus bridge formation between the scion and rootstock in
a successful graft.

 Reasons for grafting and budding

 Perpetuating clones that cannot be readily propagated by cutting, layers, division or other
asexual methods
 Obtaining the benefits of certain rootstocks
 Obtaining the benefits of certain plants (double working)
 Changing cultivars of established plants (top working)
 Precocity in bearing
 Reduction in juvenility
 Obtaining special forms of plant growth
 Repairing the damaged parts of trees
 Study and elimination of viral diseases
 Studying the developmental and physiological processes

 Elements for successful grafting

There are five important elements for any successful grafting operation. These are:

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 19

  The rootstock and scion must be compatible.
 The vascular cambium of the scion must be placed in intimate contact with that of the
rootstock.
 The grafting operation must be done at a time when the rootstock and scion are in the
proper physiological stage.
 Immediately after completion of grafting, all cut surfaces must be protected from
desiccation.
 Proper care must be given to the grafts for some period of time after grafting.

 Softwood grafting
 This technique of grafting is commercially used for raising mango, sapota, tamarind and
cashewnut in western India. In this technique, grafting is done with mature, procured
scion on the emerging soft, coppery-red shoot of the rootstock, which is 60-70 days old.
 The basic technique involves the beheading of rootstock with a sharp knife. Then, a slit is
made on the beheaded stock to insert the procured scion. The lower portion of scion is
made in wedge shape so that both the faces of scion fit with the stock. Both stock and
scion are tied with help of a polyethylene strip. The scion is then covered with a polythene
bag (100 gauge) and tied with thread to keep the scion fresh till the complete union is
formed (Fig.7.9). After sprouting, the bag is removed. To have better success, the leaves
on the stock must be retained.
 This technique is effective in dry hot weather or in areas of low precipitation where
mortality of nursery raised grafts is very high

Budding
Budding is a form of grafting in which one bud and a small section of bark with or without
wood is used, in comparison to grafting, in which the scion consists of a short-detached piece of
stem tissue with several buds. Chip budding and T-budding are the most important types of
budding for fruit crops and woody ornamentals. The type of budding method to be adopted depends
upon the bark’s slipping, ability of the stock and scion, which coincides with the period of active
growth in season and when newly formed tissues are easily torn as the bark is lifted from the wood.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 20

 Among the different methods, chip budding can only be done when bark is not slipping.

Advantages

 It is the best propagation method if the propagating material is scarce and valuable.
 Budding is useful in plants, which release excessive wound gum (e.g. stone fruits)
from injury caused to wood portion of the stem at the time of grafting.
 Budding union is stronger than grafting so damage by wind or storm is less compared
to grafted plants.
 Budding is comparatively simple, efficient and quicker method of propagation than
grafting.

 Shield or T-budding: As the name indicates, shield is the shape of the bud and ‘T’ is the shape
of cut given on the rootstock. It is the most common method of budding used by nurserymen
worldwide. For shield budding, one year old rootstock seedlings of 25-35 cm height and 2-2.5 cm
thickness is selected. The bark of seedlings should slip easily. The selected bud of desired cultivar
is inserted 15-20cm above the ground level and is tied with a polythene strip.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 21

 Plant Propagation Structures

 Introduction
The structures which facilitate propagation of plants are called propagation structures.
Propagation structures are required for propagating plants by seed, cuttings and grafting.
Propagation structures are of two types;
i) The first type a structure with temperature control and ample light, such as a green house,
modified quonset house, or hot bed-where seeds can be germinated or cuttings are rooted or
tissues culture micro-plants are rooted and acclimatized and the
ii) The unit is structure into which the younger, tender plants can be moved for hardening,
preparatory to transplanting out-of-doors. Cold frames, low polyethylene tunnels or sun tunnels
covered by saran cloth and lath-houses are useful for this purpose.

(1) Greenhouse:
 Greenhouse has been used long back by horticulturists as a mean of forcing rapid growth
of plants and extending the growing season particularly in colder areas. These are being
used for whole sale production and propagation of floricultural plants, nursery stock of
fruit crops and vegetable crops.
Types of greenhouse based on covering material:
- Polyhouse
- Glasshouse
- Shade net house
 In India, construction of temporarily low-cost poly-houses is in fashion for raising nursery
of fruit plant in off season. Such low cost greenhouses are constructed either on wood or
metal framework and are covered with polyethylene sheet of 0.10 to 0.15mm thickness,
which is resistant to ultra-violet rays. These houses are equipped with thermostat, cooler
or an air conditioner or humidifier etc for rigid control on temperature and humidity.
Greenhouses made from fiberglass sheet are more durable than the polythene houses, but
are quite expensive. In greenhouses, two types of beds are used for raising /growing of
seedlings. In greenhouses, the beds may either be prepared on ground itself or raised beds

or bench type b eds are used.

 Heating and cooling system in greenhouses: Ventilation, to provide air movement and air
exchange with the outside, is necessary in all green houses to aid in controlling temperature
and humidity. The attempt of sloppy green houses near the mud houses in Ladak is an

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 22

 attempt in these directions. The heat can be conserved by proving sealed polyethylene
sheeting outside green houses, glass or fibre glasses.

(2) Hot frames (Hot beds)

A hotbed is a bed of soil enclosed in a glass or plastic frame. It is heated by manure, electricity, steam, or
hot-water pipes. Hotbeds are used for forcing plants or for raising early seedlings. Hot beds can be used
throughout the years, except in areas with severe winters, where their use can be restricted to spring, summer
and fall. Another form of a hot bed is a heated, low polythene tunnels or sun tunnels that is made from
hooped metal tubing or bent PVC pipe, which is covered with polyethylene. The standard size of hot frame
is 0.9 by 1.8 m. If polyethylene is used as the covering, any convenient dimensions can be used.

(3) Cold frames

A cold frame is a bottomless box with a removable top. It is used to protect small plants from wind and low
temperatures. No artificial heat or manure is used inside a true cold frame but many gardeners experiment
with a variety of soil conditions. They utilize the sun's heat. The soil inside the box is heated during the day
and gives off its heat at night to keep the plants warm. The frame may be banked with straw or manure to
insulate it from the outside air and to retain heat. Cold frames include not only low polyethylene-covered
wood frames or unheated sun tunnels that people cannot walk within, but also low-cost, poly-covered hoop
houses. The covered frames should fit tightly in order to retain heat and obtain high humidity. Cold frames
should be placed in locations protected from wind. The primary use of cold frames is in conditioning or
hardening of rooted cuttings or young seedlings prior to field, nursery row or container planting. Cold
frames can be used for starting new plants in late spring. Low-cost cold frame construction is the same as
for hot beds, except that no provision is made for supplying bottom heat.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 23

(4) Lath house
Lath (lath - thin strip of wood) or shade houses provide outdoor shade and protect
container-grown plants from high summer temperature and high light irradiation.

(5) Net house

Net houses are widely used as propagation structures in tropical areas, where artificial heating is
not required and artificial cooling is expensive. In these areas, net houses may be constructed with
roofs covered with glass or plastic film and its sides are covered with wire net. It provides
necessary ventilation and maintains an ideal temperature for germination of seeds and subsequent
growth of the seedlings. The roof of net house may be covered with gunny cloth or even with live
plant creeper to cut off the solar radiant energy and to keep the house cool. Net house can be
constructed as per the need of the propagator and therefore its size varies with the requirements of
the nurserymen.

(6) Bottom heat box

It is a simple box for promoting rooting of cutting in difficult-to-root fruit plants like mango and
guava. It consists of two chambers made from galvanized iron sheets. The outer chamber has a
height of 70cm with 46cm width and the inner chamber has a height of 68cm and width of 44cm.
The space between the two chambers is filled with glass wool for heat insulation.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 24

(7) Mist propagation unit
The rooting of softwood leafy cutting under spray or mist is a technique now widely used
by nurserymen and other plant propagators throughout the world. The aim of misting is to maintain
humidity by a continuous film of water on the leaves, thus reducing transpiration and keeping the
cutting turgid until rooting take place.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 25

 LECTURE 5. SEED DORMANCY AND SEED
GERMINATION
germination
Seed: Seed is defined as fertilized, matured ovule consisting of an embryonic plant together with a
store of food, all surrounded by a protective coat.
Seed Dormancy: Dormancy is a condition where seeds will not germinate even when the
environmental conditions such as water, temperature and air are favorable for germination.

1. Exogenous Dormancy

This type of dormancy is imposed by factors outside the embryo.

In exogenous dormancy, the tissues enclosing the embryo can affect germination by inhibiting water
uptake, providing mechanical resistance to embryo expansion and radicle emergence, modifying
gaseous exchange (limit oxygen to embryo), preventing leaching of inhibitor from the embryo and
supplying inhibitor to the embryo.
It is of three types:
a) Physical dormancy (seed coat dormancy): Seed coat or seed covering may become hard, fibrous
or mucilaginous (adhesives gum) during dehydration and ripening as a result they become
impermeable to water and gases, which prevents the physiological processes initiating germination
This type of dormancy is very common in drupe fruits i.e. olive, peach, plum, apricot, cherry etc.
(hardened endocarp), walnut and pecan nut (surrounding shell).
b) Mechanical dormancy: In some fruits seed covering restricts radicle growth, resulting in
dormancy of seeds. Some seed covering structures, such as shells of walnut, pits of stone fruits and
stones of olive are too strong to allow the dormant embryo to expand during germination. The water
may be absorbed but the difficulty arises in the cementing material as in walnut. Germination in such
seeds does not occur until and unless the seed coats are softened either by creating moist and warm
conditions during storage or by microbial activity.
c) Chemical dormancy: In seeds of some fruits chemicals that accumulate in fruit and seed covering
tissues during development and remain with the seed after harvest. It is quite common in fleshy fruits
or fruits whose seeds remain in juice as in citrus, cucurbits, stone fruits, pear, grapes and tomatoes.
Some of the substances associated with inhibition are various phenols, coumarin and abscisic acid.
These substances can strongly inhibit seed germination.

2. Endogenous Dormancy

This type of dormancy is imposed by rudimentary or undeveloped embryo at the time of ripening or
maturity. This can be of different types such as morphological, physiological, double dormancy and
DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 26
secondary dormancy.
A. Morphological dormancy (Rudimentary and linear embryo): Dormancy occurs in some seeds
in which the embryo is not fully developed at the time of seed dissemination. Such seeds do not
germinate, if planted immediately after harvesting.

B. Physiological dormancy
i) Non-deep physiological dormancy: After ripening time is required for seeds in dry storage
to lose dormancy. This type of dormancy is often transitory and disappears during dry storage.
Temperate fruits such as apple, pear, cherry, peach, plum and apricot, cultivated cereals, vegetables
and flower crops, have this type of physiological dormancy which may last for one to six months
and disappears with dry storage.
ii) Photo dormancy: Seeds that either require light or dark condition to germinate are termed
as photo-dormant seeds
iii) Thermo dormancy: Some seeds have specific temperature requirement for their
germination, otherwise they remain dormant. Such seeds are called as thermo dormant .For example
seeds of lettuce, celery and pansy do not germinate if the temperature is below 25oC.
C. Double dormancy
In some species, seeds have dormancy due to hard seed coats and dormant embryos.
Combination of two or more types of dormancy is known as ‘double dormancy’. It can be morpho-
physiological i.e. combination of under developed embryo and physiological dormancy or exo-
endodormancy i.e. combination of exogenous and endogenous dormancy conditions i.e. hard seed
coat (physical plus intermediate physiological dormancy).
D. Secondary dormancy
Secondary dormancy is due to germination conditions. It is a further adaptation to prevent
germination of an imbibed seed if other environmental conditions are not favorable. These conditions
can include unfavorably high or low temperature, prolonged darkness and water stress. It is of two
types:
I) Thermo dormancy: High temperature induced dormancy.
II) Conditional dormancy: Change in ability to germinate related to time of the year.’

Advantages of seed dormancy:

1. Permitting germination only when environmental conditions favour seedling survival as in fruit
plants of temperate region.
2. Helpful in creation of a “seed bank”
3. Dormancy can also synchronize germination to a particular time of the year.
4. Seed disposal can be facilitated by specialized dormancy conditions. For example modification of
seed covering through digestive tract of a bird or other animals.

Methods of Breaking Dormancy

Several methods are used for breaking seed dormancy of horticultural crops. These are briefly
described hereunder:

1. Softening seed coat and other seed coverings: This helps in better absorption of water and
gases, which ultimately leads to better germination of the seeds. This can be achieved by
scarification.
Scarification: Scarification is the process of breaking, scratching, mechanically altering or
softening the seed covering to make it permeable to water and gases.

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 27

 1. Mechanical scarification Chipping hard seed coat by rubbing with
sand paper, cutting with a file or cracking
with a hammer are simple methods useful
for small amount of relatively large seeds
2. Acid scarification Dry seeds are placed in containers and
covered with concentrated Sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) or HCl in the ratio of one part of
seed to two parts of acid.
3. Hot water scarification Drop the seeds into 4-5 times their volume
of hot water with temperature ranging from
77 to 100oC.
4. Warm moist scarification The seeds are placed in moist warm
medium for many months to soften the seed
coat and other seed coverings through
microbial activity. This treatment is highly
beneficial in seeds having double seed
dormancy.

2. Stratification:
Stratification is a method of handling dormant seed in which the imbibed seeds are subjected to a
period of chilling to after ripen the embryo in alternate layers of sand or soil for a specific period. It
is also known as moist chilling.

Seed Germination

 The process of seed germination starts with the imbibition of water by seed coat and
emergence of growing root tip of embryo.
 The optimum conditions for seed germination are availability of moisture, O2 and optimum
temperature.

Types of Germination:
1. Epigeal Germination
2. Hypogeal Germination
3. Viviparous Germination

1. Epigeal Germination : In epigeal germination, the cotyledons are pushed above the soil surface as the
young seedling emerges. Eg. Sunflower
2. Hypogeal Germination: In hypogeal germination, the cotyledons remain below the soil surface as the
emerges. Eg. peas, peanuts.
3. Viviparous Germination: Viviparous germination is the process in which the seeds germinate while
being attached to the parent plant. Eg. Mangroves

Viviparous Germination

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 28

 LECTURE - 6. PLANNING OF ORCHARD

An orchard, being a capital intensive and long-term venture, deserves careful and well
throught-out planning. Fruit trees are perennial, and may be of tropical, subtropical and temperate
types, and thus require proper environmental conditions and suitable management practices for
their successful growing. Any mistake made initially in planning is likely to put the fruit grower
to incur heavy’ losses throughout the life-span of the orchard. On the other hand, with a carefully
prepared plan, the grower is able to provide not only the most economic orchard management,
but also for the economic layout and location of roads,drains, irrigation channels, fences,
wind breaks, etc. It is, therefore, considered important to plan properly before establishing an
orchard. The fruit grower must have full knowledge of the growth and bearing habits of fruit trees
including their cultivation requirements for better planning.
Principles of Orchard Planning
1. The orchard should be established in the right location and site having suitable climatic and
soil conditions and other physical facilities required for successful growing of fruits and
disposal of the produce.
2. The selected site, if uncultivated, should be cleaned by uprooting the existing trees and
bushes and leveled properly after deep tillage. In the hills, 1he land should be divided
into terraces depending on the topography of the land and then leveled within theterraces.
3. Minimum orchard space should be allotted for roads paths and buildings but in no case it
should exceed more than 10 per cent of the total area. ‘Roads and paths should be laid
out in such a manner as to occupy the minimum, space, but at the same time it should
ensure convenience and economy in orchard transport and supervision. The building
should be near the road and in the centre of the orchard, if it is a large one
4. The drainage and irrigation channels should be kept concealed as far as possible from the
visitors and laid out in such a way as to serve the needs of every plot or area in a most
efficient and economic manner.
5. As far as possible the orchard should present a nice panoramic view at the main entrance
with the background in harmony with it.
6. The evergreen fruits should be planted in the front and the deciduous trees or those shed
their leaves partially in some season, at the back.
7. The shorter fruit trees should be located in the foreground, while the taller ones at the rear
part of the orchard to facilitate supervision.
8. Fruit trees requiring frequent irrigation should be planted nearer to the source of water,
while the rain fed ones are kept farther away.
9. Fruit varieties ripening at a time should be located in adjoining plots to facilitate proper
orchard operations.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 29

 10. Fruits that attract birds and other animal pests and are prone to be damaged by them should
be located close to the watchman’s shed.

11. Fertile areas of the orchard should be planted with more paying and gross feeding fruit
trees.
12. Self-sterile or self-incompatible fruit trees requiring polleniser should be planted mixed or
polleniser varieties are side grafted on the fruit trees themselves to ensure optimum fruit set.
13. The spacing of fruit trees for each species should be the optimum. When intercrops, multiple
crops, etc., are to be grown, the spacing of the orchard trees may be kept at its maximum.
The vigorous varieties as well as the varieties growing in fertile soil generally require wider
spacing.
14. The system of planting of a fruit crop to be adopted in a particular plot should be decided
upon much earlier before laying out the orchard.
15. Under dry land horticulture in situ method of planting of rootstocks should be followed and
later on the desirable scion variety is side grafted when the rootstock attains desirable size.
16. There should be provision for wind breaks around the orchard to protect the fruit trees from
the clutches of strong wind.
17. Fencing of orchard sufficiently ahead of planting should be done.
18. Selection of fruit varieties suitable to the area and procurement of genuine plant materials
from reliable sources are essential.
19. Nursery for maintaining the clones and raising of seedlings should be located near the water
source.

The important points to be considered for planning an orchard are the following
Selection of site
It is always better to start an orchard in a predominantly fruit-growing area than in a new
locality where few or no orchard exists. This will not only help in sharing experience of local
fruit growers but also purchasing of plant materials, orchard equipments, transport, marketing,
storage of fruits, etc., would be easier through cooperation with other growers. Besides, the site
for an orchard should be either as close to a consuming centre/market as possible or on a metal
road or connected by rail. Over and above, the orchard site should have favorable climatic and
soil conditions and good source of irrigation.
Climate
The climate of the site where fruits are to be grown on commercial scale must be
considered carefully. Factors like day and night temperature, rainfall (frequency, amount and
intensity), wind, light, atmospheric humidity, hail storm frost occurrence, etc., are veryimportant
for selection of fruits to be grown there. Listed below are the fruits suitable for regions with
different climatic conditions

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 30

Tropical Climate: Fruits like mango, banana, papaya, pineapple, sapota, ber, breadfruit,cashew,
coconut, etc., thrive well in this climate.
Subtropical Climate: In this climate, guava, grape, litchi, citrus, date, phalsa, pomegranate,peach
(requiring low-chilling), pear, etc.
Temperate Climate: In this climate fruits like apple, pear, peach, plum, blackberry,
strawberry, apricot, walnut, almond, etc., grow well.
Hence, while planning the orchard, the fruits suitable to the particular site should be kept in
mind and planting of fruit species can be done accordingly taking into consideration the
topography also.

Soil
Though most of the fruits may be grown on a wide variety of soils such as clay, sand,
sandy loam, clay loam, loam, etc., a loam or sandy loam soil is considered to be the best for
most fruits. Shallow soils with rocky substrata, soils with very high or low pH, soils having poor
drainage and high water table during rainy season should be avoided.
The fruit growers must have at least a fair knowledge of soil type, its depth, reaction,
water table and fertility status before selecting a definite variety of fruit trees to be grown there.
The orchard site should have uniform soil with at least three to four feet top soil on which the
fruit trees will grow. Sandy soil may be suitably utilized for growing cashew nut, coconut, etc.,
loamy soil for banana, papaya, litchi, sapota, etc. However, the orchard soil of poor fertility can
be improved in the course of orchard soil management by green manuring, intercropping, etc.
After selecting the site and before planting fruit trees, it is necessary to prepare the land
by carrying out certain preliminary operation such as clearing and leveling of land, making
provision for irrigation water, providing of fences, planting of windbreaks, planning of
buildings, etc.
Clearing and leveling the land
If the land is already under cultivation, nothing except preliminary preparation is
necessary. If uncultivated, it is necessary to put them under deep ploughing and leveling. if
the selected site is under forest, the existing trees and bushes should be removed by uprooting.
The land then should be thoroughly ploughed, harrowed and leveled. Whilepreparing the land,
the subsoil which is usually less fertile than the surface soil, should not bedisturbed as far as
possible. In the hills, terraces should be made along the contours.
Irrigation source
An orchard flourishes well when put under irrigation particularly during the drymonths.
So the source of irrigation should be a permanent one assuring supply of requisite quantity of
irrigation water throughout the year. Whatever may be the source of irrigation a well, a shallow
or a deep tube well, it should be sunk well ahead of planting. In high hills, where the rainfall and
snowfall are adequate and evaporation from soil is not very high due to prevailing low

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 31

temperature, a few tanks may be installed for collection of rain or snow water to tide over the
critical periods of the year.
Fencing
To protect the trees of the orchard from frequent visits of wild and stray animals, and to
prevent stealing of fruits and other orchard property, some kind of fence is highly necessary.
This may be made by erecting mud walls or high brick walls with tops lined with glass pieces,
or barbed wire fencing.
The first one though quite effective against big animals, offer very little obstacle to
monkeys and thieves. The second one being permanent and very effective from the security
point of view is preferred. But it involves a large initial expenditure which is beyond the means
of ordinary fruit growers. The third one, the barbed wire fencing which costs moderately, is not
only effective against practically all animals and human beings, but it also neither shades the
orchard soil nor takes away any plant food from it.
So, the orchard boundary may be fenced with pillars and barbed wires. The pillars may be of
wood, angle iron, stone-cement concrete, etc. This fence may be further strengthened by
erecting live hedges which will not only help to stop the entry of animals and human beings but
also form a thick live-wall around the orchard for privacy and help to safeguard the produce
which cannot be seen from outside. The live hedge must have the following qualities (a) It should
be quick growing (b) easy to raise by seeds or cuttings of vegetative parts (c) should be drought
resistant (d) should have dense foliage (e) should preferably be thorny (f) should stand pruning
to develop thick and compact growth.
The plants suitable for live hedge are Inga dulcis, Parkinsonia aculeata L., Prosopis
juliflora, Carissa carandas, Casuarina equisetifolia, Duranta plumeri, Sesbania aegyptiaca.
Acacia sp., Zizyphus sp.. Lawsonia alba, Gliricidia, Bahunia sp., Polyalthia longifolia, etc.
To establish a live hedge, the soil along the fence is dug 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep at the
commencement of the rainy season. After sowing the seeds or planting the cuttings along the
boundary of the orchard, the plants are allowed to grow. In the course of time trimming and
pruning are done to develop a thick and tall hedge as required. It has also been found very useful
when cattle driven trench of 3 ft. deep and 4 It. wide is dug after the live hedge around the border.

Windbreaks
Fruit orchards usually face heavy losses when a strong wind of high velocity passes through the
orchard. Damages like uprooting of trees, breaking of branches, destruction of blooms, dropping
of immature fruits, erosion of surface soil, etc. are caused very often by wind. Hence,
establishment of a tall-growing windbreak is necessary to protect the orchard.
The planting of windbreaks should precede that of the fruit trees by at least two years, if they
are to give effective protection to the orchard. A well-established windbreak reduces the velocity
of wind, checks evaporation loss of soil moisture, prevents cold wind andreduces frost damage

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 32

to a great extent.
The efficiency of a windbreak depends upon the height of the trees and their compactness.
Ordinarily it has maximum effectiveness for a distance about 3-4 times as great as its height.
The first row of fruit trees should be about away from the windbreak row. To prevent the roots
of the windbreak trees from interfering with the normal growth of the fruit trees, a 3-4 ft. deep
trench should be dug at a distance of 10 ft. from the windbreak row.
An ideal windbreak should be upright in growth and occupy as little space as possible. It should
be tall, mechanically strong, quick growing and sufficiently dense to offer the maximum
resistance to the wind. One to two rows of such trees are planted at a close spacing, usually 12-
25 ft. apart, for having a tall and close tree-wall which can help to resist the incoming heavy
flow of wind. Trees commonly grown as windbreaks are Polyalihia longifolla, Casurina
equisdilfolla, Erythrlna indica, Eucalyptus globulus, Grevillia robusta, Dalbergia sissoo,
Putranjiva roxburghii, Syzygium sp., Mangsfera indica, Averrhoacarambola, Bambusa sp., etc.
Buildings
Any building which is to be constructed in the orchard should be planned before planting, though
their construction may be done later on. An orchard provides a very pleasantsite for a dwelling.
Other buildings such as implement shed, bullock shed and labour quarters may also be
constructed.
Roads, Paths, Irrigation and Drainage Channels:
Planning of roads, paths, irrigation and drainage channels should also be done well in
advance. Roads and paths are absolutely necessary for making every portion of the orchard
easily approachable and for convenience in operations like manuring, spraying and
transportation. The footpaths should be made in between the rows of trees without utilizing any
additional space of the orchard. Small non-spreading type of avenue trees may be plantedbeside
the road to enhance the beauty of the orchard.
The permanent irrigation and drainage channels should be dug in straight lines and
without interfering the main roads to economize the use of irrigation water by avoiding seepage
in the channels during the dry and hot seasons and for efficient drainage of excess water from
the individual plot of the orchard during rainy season or flood-affected areas.
Before the actual laying out of the orchard and undertaking the planting work, adetailed
plan of the orchard should be drawn showing the boundary, main gate, roadsand paths, source
of irrigation, drainage and irrigation channels and also the individual plotsfor the fruits to be
grown. This will help to establish the orchard correctly and conveniently.
Layout
The layout of the orchard is a very important operation. Under this, the arrangement of fruit
plants in the plot is carefully done to put the plants at a suitable distance for proper development
and for accommodating the requisite number of plants per unit area in addition to improving the
aesthetic look of the orchard. (Hence, the factors which are considered important for proper

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 33

layout of the orchard are (I) system of planting and (ii) planting distance of individual fruit
species which again would provide the following advantages
1. Allow equidistance for each tree for uniform growth.
2. Allow easy orchard operations like cultivation, intercropping, irrigation, spraying of
plant protection chemicals and growth regulators, harvesting, etc.
3. Proper utilization of orchard space avoiding wastage of land.
4. Help in proper supervision and management of the orchard.
5.Allow further extension of area from time to time so that subsequent plantings would
match with the existing orchard planting
System of Planting
The system of planting to be adopted is selected after considering the slope of land, purpose of
utilizing the orchard space, convenience, etc. Generally, six systems of planting are
recommended for fruit trees:
1. Square system
2. Rectangular system
3. Triangular system
4. Hexagonal system
5. Quincunx system
6. Contour system
Spacing of Fruit Trees
Provision of optimum spacing to fruit trees is one of the most important aspects of successful
fruit culture. If the spacing is inadequate, the fruit trees will grow poorly, produce small quantity
of fruits of inferior quality, and suffer from various diseases and insect pests. The cultural
practices of the orchards are also greatly hindered. Weeds and grasses grow in abundance and
rob off the vitality of the trees, resulting in their early decline and premature death. On the other
hand, if the spacing is too wide, there will be wastage of valuable orchard land without having
any direct benefit on ultimate yield of the orchard. The optimum spacing is, therefore, desired
so that the fruit trees may grow and bear crops properly. The optimum spacing is one in which
the tree on attaining its full size will not touch the branches of the neighbouring ones and the
root-system of one tree must not encroach that of the adjoining tree. The spacing given to fruit
trees is generally governed by the following factors:
1. Climate and soil, 2. Varieties, 3. Growth habit, 4. Root stocks
5. Nature of irrigation, 6. Pruning
It is very difficult to suggest the exact spacing for fruit trees which will suit every locality or
soil. However, the spacing given below for some of the important fruits may be considered as a
safe guide for planting fruit orchards both in the hills and plains

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 34

 Fruits Spacing (metre)
1. Pineapple 45—060 x 030-045
2. Banana. papaya. grapes 2—3x2—3
3. Phalsa 3x3
4. Passion fruit 3-4x3—4
5. Pomegranate 3—6x3—6
6. Custard apple 4—5x4-5
7. Date palm, fig, lemon 5—6x5—6
8. Pumelo, grapefruit 6-7 x 6—7
9. Guava, cashew nut, mulberry 6—8x6—8
10. Persimmon 7—8 x 7—8
11. Sapota, loquat, avocado, star apple 8—9x8.-9
12. Mandarin orange, sweet orange 6-9 x 6-9
13. Aonla. mangosteen 9—11 x9—1l
14. Ber, jamun, mango, Litchi 10—12x 10—12
l5. Jackfruit, breadfruit 12x 12
Intercropping
The fruit plants in the orchard take some years to produce the first crop. This period
differs from species to species, and among the varieties also. The orchardists do not get any
return from the new orchard till this period is over. Hence, it is necessary that intercrops should
be grown in the space between the rows of the young fruit trees, following usual package of
practices for growing such crops. This will help the orchardists to get someincome even
in the initial years. Besides, the orchard receives regular cultivation and attention and due to
that weeds are checked, pests and diseases are controlled to some extent. The young fruit trees
sometimes receive partial shade which is beneficial to them. Sowing of leguminous crops and
cover crops adds to the fertility of the soil and conserves the orchard soil, respectively.
High Density Planting
High Density Orcharding (HDP) is one of the technologies for increasing the fruit yield
per unit area. High Density Planting can be defined as planting fruit trees at a density in excess
of that which suffices to give maximum crop yield at maturity if individual tree grows to its full
normal size. In other words, it is the planting at a closer spacing to accommodate more number
of plants per unit area. The concept of HDP has drowned considerable attention of the fruit
growers all over the world.
The technology for HDP is based on the principle of maximum utilization of solar energy and
other natural resources per unit area.
Benefits
1. Maximum utilization of land and space
2. Higher nutrient and water use efficiency

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 35

3. Higher interception of solar radiation.
4. Higher efficiency of fungicidal and pesticidal spray due to greater degree of
sprayinterception.
5. Effective control of weed growth
6. Allows mechanization of fruit production

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 36

 LECTURE - 7. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TRAINING AND
PRUNING

Some of cultivated fruit trees grow wild and do not give sufficient yield unless pruned
or trained to a specific form. All types of fruit tree do not require pruning e.g. mango, chiku,
etc and some fruit trees can grow well naturally e.g. pineapple, papaya they do not require
pruning. While most deciduous tree like apple, pear, almond etc and grapes, ber, fig citrus,
pomegranate, guava etc. require pruning to train them for desired shape.
Pruning is done to divert a part of plant energy from one par to another part of plant.
Definition of pruning:
Pruning may be defined as the art and science of cutting away of portion of plant
toimprove its shape, to influence its growth, flowering and fruitfulness and to improve the
quality of the product.
Objectives of pruning
 Training of young trees.
 Maintenance of grown up trees. i.e. to maintain the health of bearing plant.
 Bringing vigour in old trees.
The effect of pruning
 It increases new vegetative growth.
 In young trees flowering will be delayed.
 In old trees there will be new vigorous vegetative growth. Which bear fruit.
 It reduce bearing surface are as a result tree remain dwarf which is compensated by
accommodating more number of dwarf trees. (Because pruning is a dwarfing process)
 Improvement in size, colour and quality of fruits.
Principles of pruning
o Young tree is pruned to train it to acquire a desired shape.
o In old trees light heading back is done to stimulate the flowering.
o In bearing trees light pruning is done to stimulate fresh growth. It bearing flower buds
on fresh growth.
o In old trees heavy pruning is done to restore vigorous.
o All the diseased, weak, dead or shading branches must be removed.
System of pruning
 Heading back:- Only tops of branches are headed back or cut off (light pruning)
 Thinning out: - Complete removal of a branches or a part.
 Dehorning :- Cutting away the main limbs or thick major branches
 Bulk pruning: - Heavy pruning all over the tree.
For good fruit production only judicious heading back or thinning out should be done.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 37

Rules of pruning
 Never leave a stub as far as possible.
 Minimum cut surface.
 Start cutting from the lower end first, leave half way or even less and then cut from
the top.
 Keep the cut surface clean and smooth.
 Protect the wound with Bordeaux paste.

TRAINING: - Training means developing a desired shape of the tree with particularobjectives
by controlling habit of growth. Training is start from nursery stage of plant.
Some fruit crops like grape vines, ber, fig, guava etc require training.
Objectives of training
 To admit more light and air to the center of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface
to the sun
 To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying,
ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.
 To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage.
 To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.
Principles of training
1. Formation of the mainframe work must be strong the branches must be suitable
spaced apart and the tree must be balanced on all the sides.
2. Never allow several branches to grow at one place or very near each other.
3. Careful training of main branches is very essential.
4. Another important point about training is that if two branches are growing at the same
point try to train them to grow at a wider angle. Narrow angle is always weak.
System of training
 Central leader system :-
In this system the central leader branches are allowed to grow indefinitely, so that
it will grow more rapidly and vigorously than the side branches and tree became tall.
Such a tree bears fruit more near the top. The lower branches are less vigorous and
less fruitful.
 Open center or vase system
The main stem is allowed to grow only up to a certain height about 1.5 to 1.8
m and then it cut for development of lateral branches. It allows full sunshine to reach
each branch.
 Delayed open center or modified leader system
It is intermediate between the above systems. It is developed by first trainingthe
tree to the leader type by allowing the central axil to grow un pruned for the first four or
five years. Then central stem is headed back and lateral branches are allowedto grow as

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 38

 in the open center system.
 Bush system
An un pruned tree multi stem and dwarf growing habit.
 Trellis system
Some times vines are trained on one, two or three wires.
 Over head trellis or Bower system
When vines are trained on mandap.
 Modified bower or Telephone system
Similar to bower system except that after every two meter as space is kept to
walk and carry out cultural operations.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 39

LECTURE 8- JUVENILITY AND FLOWER BUD DIFFERENTIATION

Juvenility
A plant through different stages in its life cycle. These stages are embryonic growth, juvenility,
maturity, senescence and death. Juvenility is a developmental stage in a plant during which it is
unable to induce flower. The length of juvenility varies among plant species. Annual plant have
very short and perennial plants have a long juvenility period.

Characteristics of Juvenility

1. Leaf Form- In its juvenile stage, the leaf is very active. Some plants, such as Acacia sp., have
different leaf morphologies in their juvenile stages.

2. Growth Form- The young branch resembles a whip. The branch develops in a straight line
parallel to the main stem. Citrus, Guava, and other fruits have such a branch, which is known as
a water sprout.

3. Presence of thorns- Some fruit trees have thorns when they are young or juvenile, but these
thorns vanish as they reach adulthood. Apple, pear, citrus, and other fruits are examples.

4. Leaf Retention – In the juvenile stage, plants do not lose leaves all year. In the adult or
mature stage, however, it is shed.

5. Root Emergence – The root develops quickly when the plant’s juvenile components are
employed in propagation.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 40

Flower Bud Differentiation

Bud- The bud is an immature branch system that is frequently enveloped by scale leaves for
protection. A lateral branch, a flower, or an inflorescence emerges from the bud. The development
of these buds into flowers or inflorescences is an important part of fruit production. The phases of
flower growth are as follows:

1. Flower bud differentiation- Flower induction is another name for it. Bud differentiation
requires increased cell division below the apical section of the meristem in the middle area.
Parenchyma cells develop into flower primordia that surround the meristem as a result of cell
division.

2. Initiation – In the second initiation, flower development takes place.

3. Development of Flowers- This includes the time between induction and bloom. The bloom is
normally open to pollination at this time. The ultimate step of development is the flower’s opening
(anthesis). A flower is a modified reproductive branch, which is essentially a stem with an apical
meristem that produces leaf primordia.

Table- Flower bud differentiation and flowering in some important fruits

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 41

Types of buds

1. Simple Bud –It grows from vegetative branches. Leaf bud is another name for it.

2. Mixed bud- It takes the form of a flower-bearing stalk. A flower bud is another name for it.

3. Compound bud –It grows on both the leaves and the blooms.

Factors affecting flower bud differentiation

The following endogenous and exogenous variables are involved in flower induction signals:

1. Endogenous factors

a) Carbon: Nitrogen Ratio (C: N Ratio): A high nitrogen-to-carbohydrate ratio promotes

blooming. In immature plants, excessive nitrogen use delays blooming by reducing the C:N ratio.
Plants that are old, feeble, or have a high C:N ratio are more likely to blossom profusely. There
are four possible scenarios when it comes to the C:N ratio:

i) Flowering with a high nitrogen and low carbohydrate content

ii) Flowering with enough of nitrogen and glucose

iii) Good growth and blooming with moderate nitrogen and carbohydrate.

iv) Only a few buds developed due to low nitrogen and high glucose levels.

Photosynthesis results in the buildup of carbohydrates that assist maintain the right C:N balance
while the plant is not growing. Photosynthesis occurs during the active growth phase, changing
the C:N ratio and, as a result, affecting flowering.

b) Genes – Synthesize the gene eafl as plants transition from juvenile to adult phase. The influence
of the juvenile stage, which causes early blooming, is reduced by this gene. The HST gene, on the
other hand, increases juvenility in plants.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 42

2. External factors

A) Environmental factor

Termperature

Synthesize the gene eafl as plants transition from juvenile to adult phase. The influence of the
juvenile stage, which causes early blooming, is reduced by this gene. The HST gene, on the other
hand, increases juvenility in plants. The main environmental factor linked to flowering is
temperature. The abundance of flowers in the spring is a common occurrence. Flowers bloom at
the same time every year due to the availability of a specific temperature in the spring. The plant
benefits from being exposed to cooler temperatures before flowering in the spring. When exposed
to temperatures ranging from 0 to 10 degrees Celsius, biennial plants such as carrots, celery,
cauliflower, cabbage, turnips, and others begin flowering. Vernalization is the term for this
process. The chilling requirement is the term for the low-temperature requirement in certain
situations. For bud blossoms in the spring, they need to be chilled below 7 degrees Celsius for 4
to 60 days.

Table-the chilling requirement of some temperate fruits

Photoperiod Some plants will only blossom if their photoperiodic requirements are met. Plants are
divided into three groups based on their light period:

1. Long day plant (LDP): –Only when the day is longer than 12 hours or more than 12 hours can
flowering occur.

2. Short day plant (SDP): – When the day is fewer than 12 hours long, these plants bloom.

3. Day Neutral Plant (DNP): – The duration of the day has no effect on the flowers of these
plants.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 43

Light

Bud differentiation and blooming are influenced by light intensity, duration, and quality. When it
comes to blossoming, more light intensity is preferable to low light. This is why a fruit tree’s
outside branches produce more fruit than its interior branches. Flowering is stimulated by red light
(sunlight), but it is inhibited by far-red light. As a result, the quality of light has an impact on
blooming.

B) Managemental Factor

1. Nutrients- The plant’s vegetative or reproductive growth is determined by nutrients. The plant’s
vegetative development is aided by nitrogen. It also improves the plant’s glucose consumption. In
plants, phosphorus is involved in protein synthesis and cell division, while potassium is involved
in sugar transport. Other nutrients are also important in blooming and bud differentiation.

2. Moisture- The lack of moisture extends the time it takes for flower buds to differentiate. When
there is a dearth of water, flowering primordia are less developed.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 44

 LECTURE -9. UNFRUITFULNESS

All the fruit plant in an orchard will not bear equally at a regular interval and sometimes
they fail to flower and fruit under similar conditions where another fruit tree bears heavily. This
failure of the plant for setting of fruit may be attributed to unfruitfulness of that specific plant.

Fruitfulness is the ability of the plant to produce flower as well as fruit whereas; the
inability is referred to as unfruitfulness/ barrenness. It is the most important and serious problem
of the orchard. It makes the plant unproductive even after they attained the age to bear fruits. Its
cause must be diagnosed or identified to reduce the loss to the farmer.

Causes of unfruitfulness:
Unfruitfulness in fruit plants is due to two important factors, they are the internal factors like
Evolutionary tendencies, Genetic influence, Physiological factors etc and the external factors
like environmental situation, pest and disease problem, locality or area where the orchard is
present etc.

a. Internal factors for Unfruitfulness:

1. Evolutionary tendencies of the plant:
During the course of evolution for better adoption of the specific crop there was occurrence
of some characters, which leads to barrenness if proper care is not taken. Some of the characters
are described below.
i. Monoecious and Dioecious nature: The plant with stamens and carpels in same or
different flowers on the same plant is known as monoecious plant for example mango. When
the stamens and carpels are present in different plant then the plant is called as dioecious plant
like papaya. In Monoecious plant pollination and fruit set is not a problem due to self pollination.
But on should be sure that there is proper availability of pollinating agents. In dioecious plant if
availability of any of the pollen or carpel at definite time then there will be no fruit set.
ii. Heterostyly : A condition in the flower where length of the style is different and cant
be easily pollinated.
iii. Dichogamy: the difference in the receptivity time of stigma and pollen grain.
Protoandrous is the situation where the androecium or stamen matures first than the gynoecium
or stigma and in protogenos situation the gynoecium ripen prior to the androecium. So there will
be one time where the egg cell can’t be fertilized due to shortage of pollen grains.
iv. Abortive Flowers or aborted pistils or ovules: It also causes unfruitfulness as there
is flower and fruit drop in case of aborted flower or pistil or ovules.
v. Impotence of pollen: Pollen viability determines the process of fertilization, which
the first step of formation of fruit in many fruit plants. When the pollen is not a functional one
then there is failure in pollinisation as well fruit set.

2. Genetic influences: Self sterility is a condition determined by the inheritance received from
the parents but can develop in favourable environment which affects the off springs as well as
hybrids. Incompatibility is the major reason for barrenness in fruit plants.

3. Physiological influences: The different physiological causes like Slow pollen tube growth,
Premature or delayed pollination, plant nutrient status, positions of fruit setting, hormonal

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 45

 imbalance etc make the plant barren either at the primary or latter stage of fruit growth.

b. External factors causing unfruitfulness:

Some of the external sources act as the cause for unfruitfulness in fruit crops and they are
as below:-
i. Nutrient supply: During floral development and fruit growth stagethe plant needs much of
the nutrients and if shortage of essential nutrient will be there the plant may bear flower but they
can’t develop mature fruit.
ii. Pruning and Training: It is a regular practice to maintain the bearing area of the tree. Pruning
should be done at proper time and desired quantity to maintain the plant in a fruitful condition.
iii. Locality: It means the suitability of climatic condition for a particular crop.
iv. Season: Some cultivar bear earlier in the season and some in latter part and hence proper
measures should be taken for pollination.
v. Temperature: High temperature at flowering dries up stigmatic secretion and prevents
pollination.
vi. Moisture: Proper moisture level should be there to maintain the cell rigidity and control fruit
drop.
vii. Light: After completion of the photoperiodic requirement for specific plant it will flower.
viii. Pests and diseases: Sucking insects like bug, hopper, whiteflies etc suck the succulent
tissues of the flower and make it dry. After flower anthesis stage there shouldn’t be use of any
pesticide which might reduce the pollination and fruitset.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 46

 LECTURE -10
POLLINATION, POLLINIZERS AND POLLINATORS

Pollination: Pollination is a method where pollen grains are picked from an anther, which is
the male part of a flower and transferred to the flower’s female part called the stigma. To make
the pollination work successfully, the pollen grains must be transferred from the same species of
flower.

Process of Pollination

The process of pollination begins when the pollen grains from the respective flowers lands on the
stigma and form a pollen tube with the style length, which connects both the stigma and ovary.
After the completion of the pollen tube, the pollen grain starts transmitting sperm cells from the
grain to the ovary.

Later the process of fertilization in plants will take place when the sperm cells will reach the ovary
and egg cells. The seed is then released from the parent plant and making it able to grow into a
plant and continue the reproductive cycle with the use of the pollination method.

Types of Pollination

All plants having flowers completely rely on pollination method for reproduction. There are 2
types of pollination –

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 47

  Self Pollination
 Cross-Pollination

Self Pollination
It is referred to as the primary type of pollination as it includes a single flower. Self-pollination
occurs when pollen grains fall directly from anther into the stigma of the flower. This process is
quite simple and fast, which leads to a reduction in genetic diversity as the sperm and egg cells
of the flower share some genetic information.

Advantages of Self-pollination

 Self- pollination ensures that recessive characters are eliminated.

 The wastage of the pollen grain is very less compared to cross-pollination
 In the process of self- pollination, the purity of the race is maintained, as
there is no diversity in the genes
 In self- pollination, there is no involvement of external factors like wind,
water, and other pollinating agents.
 Self-pollination ensures that even a smaller quantity of produced pollen
grains from plants have a good success rate in pollination.
Disadvantages of Self-pollination

The major disadvantage of Self- pollination is there is no mixing up of genes. Due to which:

 The vigour and vitality of the race are reduced

 The immunity to diseases is reduced in the resultant offsprings

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 48

 Cross Pollination
It refers to a complex type of pollination that allows the transfer of pollen grains from the anther
of the flower into the stigma of another flower. This method leads to an increase in genetic diversity
as different flowers will share and combine their genetic information to create unique offspring.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross-pollination

Advantages

1. The produced seeds are good in vigour and vitality.

2. All unisexual plants can reproduce through the process of Cross-pollination.
3. The recessive characters in the lineage are eliminated as a result of genetic
recombination.
4. This process improves the immunity of the offsprings towards the diseases
and other environmental factors.
5. Cross-pollination introduces new genes into a sequence of species and this
is mainly due to the fertilization between genetically different gametes.
Disadvantages

1. In this process, there is a great wastage of pollen grains.

2. Due to genetic recombination during meiosis, there are chances of
eliminations of good qualities and additions of unwanted characteristics in
offspring
Pollinizers

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 49

 Pollinators

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 50

 LECTURE -11
FERTILIZATION AND PARTHENOCARPY

Fertilization:

In plants, fertilization is a process of sexual reproduction, which occurs after pollination and
germination. Fertilization can be defined as the fusion of the male gametes (pollen) with the female
gametes (ovum) to form a diploid zygote. It is a physicochemical process which occurs after
the pollination of the carpel. The complete series of this process takes place in the zygote to
develop into a seed.In the fertilization process, flowers play a significant role as they are the
reproductive structures of angiosperms (flowering plants). The method of fertilization in plants
occurs when gametes in haploid conditions fuse to produce a diploid zygote.

In the course of fertilization, male gametes get transferred into the female reproductive organs
through pollinators (honey bees, birds, bats, butterflies, flower beetles) and the final product will
be the formation of the embryo in a seed.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 51

Fertilization Process

In flowers, the pollen grain germinates after the pollination of the carpel and grows into the style
by creating the pathway for the pollen grain to move down to the ovary. The pollen tube opens
into the ovule through the micropyle and bursts into the embryo sac. Here, the male nucleus unites
with the nucleus of an egg inside the ovule forming a diploid zygote, which later swells up and
develops into a fruit.

Double Fertilization

Double fertilization is a process of fertilization characterized by the fusion of a female

gametophyte with two male gametes. In this mechanism, one sperm cell fuses with the egg-
producing zygote, and the other fuses with the two polar nuclei to make the endosperm. All
angiosperm plants undergo double fertilization process.

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 Parthenocarpy
The condition in which fruits are developed without the formation of seeds is called parthenocarpy.
This process of fruit production was introduced in the year 1902. This is mainly due to the absence
of fertilization in plants, pollination and embryo development. In botany, parthenocarpic fruit
means “virgin fruit”. These types of fruits are generally seedless.

During cultivation, parthenocarpy is introduced along with other plant hormones including
gibberellic acid. It results in the maturation of the ovaries without the process of fertilization and
produces bigger and pulpy fruits. This process is applicable to all kinds of crops from varieties of
squash to cucumber and a lot more.

Banana is a good example of parthenocarpy. In this natural process, the produced bananas are
sterile, developed without viable ovaries and do not produce seeds, which means they must
propagate vegetatively. Pineapples and figs are also examples of parthenocarpy which occur
naturally.

Parthenocarpic Fruits

Pineapple, banana, cucumber, grape, watermelon, orange, grapefruit, pear, fig are some examples
of Parthenocarpy. These develop without fertilization and are often seedless.

Types of Parthenocarpy

Parthenocarpy can be categorized into two parts, which are: Vegetative and Stimulative
parthenocarpy

1. Vegetative Parthenocarpy

This generally takes place without pollination and due to the absence of pollination, no seeds are
produced within the fruits.

2. Stimulative Parthenocarpy
This type of parthenocarpy occurs when pollination occurs but fertilization doesn't.

Stimulative parthenocarpy generally takes place without the process of fertilization. This condition
occurs when the ovipositor of a wasp is inserted into the ovary of a flower and can also be achieved

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by flowing air or plant growth regulators into the unisexual flowers that are present inside the
syconium.

Benefits of Parthenocarpy

1. This is more healthy and the results are achieved easily.

2. Provides seedless fruits and improves quality.
3. It reduces the complete cost of the cultivation.
4. This improves crop yield without using organic pesticides.
5. Plant growth regulators are natural and the fruits produced are larger.
6. Parthenocarpy keeps the insects and pests away without using chemicals because there is
no requirement of pollinating insects for the formation of fruits. This protects the plants
from being attacked by pesticides.

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 54

 LECTURE -12
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

Plants have been one of the important sources of medicines even since the dawn of human
civilization. In spite of tremendous developments in the field of allopathy during the 20th century,
plants still remain one of the major sources of drugs in modern as well as traditional system of
medicine throughout the world. Approximately one-third of all pharmaceuticals are of plant origin,
wherein fungi and bacteria are also included. Over 60% of all pharmaceuticals are plant-based.
Plants may have bioactive constituents like alkaloids, glycosides, steroids, phenols, tannin,
antioxidants and other groups of compounds which may have marked pharmaceutical actions as
anti-cancerous, anti-malarial, anti-helminthic or anti-dysentric, etc. Many of the essential oils,
dyes, latex and even vegetable oils are also widely used as medicines. Many substances that go
into making up medicines are frequently products of living cells, although seemingly ‘waste’ or
intermediate, metabolic compounds and not an integral part of the protoplasm and may have no
obvious utility to the plants. Out of nearly 4, 50,000 species of higher plants available, only a small
proportion have been investigated for medicinal properties and still a smaller number of plants
yield well defined drugs. The same is the case with lower plants and with plants of the sea origin.
Thus, the knowledge of plant constituents gained so far is still meager, considering the huge
number of species available in the world. Approximately, only 10% of the organic constituents of
plants are reported to be known and the remaining 90% are yet to be explored. A very small
proportion of Indi
The importance of plants
Plants have been used by the mankind since prehistoric times for getting relief from
sufferings and ailments. Primitive people, when injured in battle or when they had a fall or cut,
instinctively resorted to materials available at the reach of hand for stopping the flow of blood or
for relieving from pain and, by trial and error, they learnt that certain plants were more effective
than others. Man has also gained such knowledge from his observation of birds and animals which
use plants for curing their ailments. Even today, we find that the domestic dog and cat, when they
suffer from indigestion or other ailments, run to the field, chew some grasses or herbs and vomit
to get cured. The folk medicines of almost all the countries of the world abound in medicinal plants
wealth, rely chiefly on herbal medicine, even today.
Today, chemical and pharmaceutical investigations have added a great deal of status to the use of
medicinal plants by revealing the presence of the active principles and their actions on human and
animal systems. Investigations in the field of pharmacognosy and pharmacology have provided
valuable information on medicinal plants with regard to their availability, botanical properties,
method of cultivation, collection, storage, commerce and therapeutic uses. All these have
contributed towards their acceptance in modern medicine and their inclusion in the pharmacopeias
of civilized nations.
The practices of indigenous systems of medicine in India are based mainly on the use of plants.
Charaka Samhita (1000 BC-100 AD) records the use of 2000 plants for remedies. Ancient
medicine was not solely based on empiricism and this is evident from the fact that some medicinal
plants which were used in ancient times still have their place in modern therapy. Thus for example,

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‘Ephedra’ a plant used in China 4000 years ago is still mentioned in modern pharmacopoeias as
the source of an important drug, ephedrine. The plant Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina) which
was well known in India as a remedy for insanity is in existence today for curing mental ailments.
Quinine, another important anti-malarial drug of modern medicine, was obtained from the
cinchona tree.
The knowledge about the use of medicinal plants has been accrued through centuries and such
plants are still valued even today, although synthetics, antibiotics, etc. have attained greater
prominence in modern medicine. It is, however, a fact that these synthetics and antibiotics although
they often show miraculous and often instantaneous results, prove harmful in the long run and that
is why many synthetics and antibiotics have now gone out of use or have been specified to be
prescribed strictly under medical supervision. In the case of most medicinal plants, however, no
such cumulative derogatory effect has been recorded and that is why many of the medicines
obtained from plants are still widely used today.
It is also true that lately, inspite of the rapid progress and spread of modern medicine, the popularity
of herbal medicines is gaining momentum.
Aromatic crops
Out of the nearly 4,50,000 species known to mankind , about 2000 species, which come
from about 60 botanical families, contain essential oils. The families-Pinaceae among the
gymnosperms, Apiaceae, Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, Lauraceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae (dicots),
Poaceae, Aracaceae, Zingiberaceae and Amaryllidaceae (monocots) among the angiosperms,
account for a large number of plants bearing essential oils of commercial importance.
The volatile oils occur in varied parts of the plant anatomy-in some cases being found all
over the plant body, in others being restricted to one special portion of the plant. Thus, in the
conifers, of which the pine is a type, volatile oil is found all over the various parts; whereas in the
rose, the oil is confined to the petals; in cinnamon, to the bark and the leaves; in the orange family,
chiefly to the flowers and the peel of the fruit; in aromatic grasses and mints, to the leaves, in
ambrette, cumin, fennel, etc, in seeds and in vetiver in the roots. In plants, these essential oils are
produced in specialized glandular cells. In the case of the leaves and petals, the essential oils are
contained in the innermost membrane of the cell-wall in parenchymatous tissue. In other plants,
they accumulate as floating drops in the protoplasm (e.g.terpenes in orange peels) or in separate
cell cavities.

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 LECTURE -13
IMPORTANCE OF PLANT BIO-REGULATORS IN HORTICULTURE

Class of plant growth regulators

 Auxins: IAA, NAA, IBA, 2-4D, 4-CPA
 Gibberellins: GA3 Cytokinins:
 Kinetin, Zeatin
 Ethylene: Ethereal
 Abscisic acid: Dormins, Phaseic Acid
 Phenolic substances: Coumarin
 Flowering hormones: Florigin, Anthesin, Vernalin
 Natural substances: Vitamins, Phytochrome Tranmatic
 Newly identified PGRs: Brassinosteroids, Jasmonates, Triacontanol, Salicylic acid,
Polyamines, Ancymidol, Nitrobenzene, Seaweed products, xanthoxins, betasins, alar,
mefluidide

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LECTURE -14. IRRIGATION – METHODS, FERTILIZER APPLICATION
IN HORTICULTURAL CROPS

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QUESTION BANK -1

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 75

 Fill in the blanks type questions

LECTURE -1. HORTICULTURE, ITS DEFINITION AND BRANCHES,

IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE
1. The word horticulture is derived from the ……….words Latin
2. Horticulture is a part of plant agriculture which is concerned with Garden Crops
cultivation of……………….
3. Latin words, Hortus means ………… Garden
4. The term Pomology is derived from the Latin word ‘pomum’ Fruit
meaning ………..
5. Latin word ‘oleris’ meaning ……… pot herb
6. ………..is a science of cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants Floriculture
7. The science of honeybee rearing is called as………. apiculture
8. …………..is a science of cultivation and management of forest tree Silviculture
9. Tulsi is the ……………type horticulture crop Medicinal
10. Lavender is the ……………….type horticulture crop Aromatic
LECTURE - 3. CLIMATE AND SOIL FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS
11 ……...... average condition of weather prevailing over a large area Climate
12 ……....... type of climate is observed at 1800 m to 3500 m height Temperate zone
from ground level.
13 ……....... type of climate is observed at 300 m to 900 m height Tropical zone
from ground level.
14 ............ soils develop by deposition of silt carried out in course of Alluvial soils
their massive flow during rainy season.
15 …….... soils occur in high rainfall area and are acidic in nature Marshy soils
LECTURE 4. PLANT PROPAGATION-METHODS AND PROPAGATING
STRUCTURES
16 In ………method of seed breaking dormancy, Keeping seed in Stratification
alternate layers with sand or soil and kept constantly moist but not
waterlogged.
17 Cutting from mature and lignified stem of shrubs and trees are Hardwood cuttings
called as……………
18 …………. is a form of rooting of cuttings in which adventitious Layering
roots are initiated on a stem while it is still attached to the plant.
19 Marcottage layering also known as………… Air layering/
Gootee/Pot
layering
20 ……… refers to that part of a graft combination that becomes the Scion
top of the plant.
LECTURE 5. SEED DORMANCY AND SEED
21 Some seeds have specific temperature requirement for their Thermo dormant
germination, otherwise they remain dormant and such seeds are
called as ………….

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 22 Seeds that either require light or dark condition to germinate are Photo dormant
termed as ……….. seeds
23 ……….is the process of breaking, scratching, mechanically altering Scarification
or softening the seed covering to make it permeable to water and
gases.
24 ………….. is a method of handling dormant seed in which the Stratification
imbibed seeds are subjected to a period of chilling to after ripen the
embryo in alternate layers of sand or soil for a specific period.
25 In ……….. germination, the cotyledons remain below the soil Hypogeal
surface as the emerges.
LECTURE - 6. PLANNING OF ORCHARD
26 To prevent stealing of fruits and other orchard property, some kind Fence
of …….. is highly necessary.
27 A well-established ……..reduces the velocity of wind, checks Windbreak
evaporation loss of soil moisture, prevents cold wind.
28 Maximum effectiveness of windbreak for a distance about ……. 3-4
times as great as its height.
LECTURE - 7. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TRAINING AND PRUNING
29 In……….system of training the central leader branches are allowed Central leader
to grow indefinitely system
30 ……system of training allows full sunshine to reach each branch Open center or
vase system
31 ……training system is intermediate between the central leader and Delayed open
open center system center or modified
leader system
LECTURE 8- JUVENILITY AND FLOWER BUD DIFFERENTIATION
32 A high nitrogen-to-carbohydrate ratio promotes ………. Blooming
33 When the day is longer than 12 hours, plant is bloom and is known Long
as…………day plant
34 When the day is fewer than 12 hours, plant is bloom and is known Short
as…………day plant
35 The duration of the day has no effect on the flowers of plants, is Day neutral
known as…………day plant
LECTURE -9. UNFRUITFULNESS
36 The plant with stamens and carpels in same or different flowers on Monoecious
the same plant is known as…………..
LECTURE -10. POLLINATION, POLLINIZERS AND POLLINATORS
37 …………refers to a complex type of pollination that allows the Cross pollination
transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the flower into the
stigma of another flower.
38 …………….are plants that act as a source of pollen for successful Pollinizers
pollination and fertilization

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 LECTURE -11 FERTILIZATION AND PARTHENOCARPY
39 …………is a process of fertilization characterized by the fusion of Double
a female gametophyte with two male gametes Fertilization
40 The condition in which fruits are developed without the formation Parthenocarpy
of seeds is called………………
LECTURE -13 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT BIO-REGULATORS
41 …………hormone act as plant stress hormone Abscisic acid
LECTURE -14. IRRIGATION – METHODS, FERTILIZER APPLICATION IN
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
42 …………..defined as the artificial application of water to the plant Irrigation
43 In……….system of irrigation circular basin are provided around Basin system
the trunk of tree
44 ………..type irrigation system practices for high value crops, Drip
especially in greenhouse
45 …………..refers to application of fertilizer along with irrigation Fertigation

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 LECTURE -1. HORTICULTURE, ITS DEFINITION AND BRANCHES,
IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE
1 The word horticulture is derived from the………………..words B
A Greek B Latin
C Japanese D English
2 ‘Hortus’ means ………. A
A Garden B Soil
C Mango D Papaya
3 ‘Cultura’ means …………. B
A To manage B To cultivate
C To handle D All the above
4 Example of garden crops A
A Potato B Wheat
C Rice D Sorghum
5 ………… is based on agriculture, and its name comes from the Latin terms C
Hortus and culture, which mean "garden" and "cultivation," respectively.
A Agriculture B Entomology
C Horticulture D Soil Science

6 The term Pomology is derived from …………….word B

A Greek B Latin
C Chinese D English
7 Pomology associated with …… A
A Fruit Science B Vegetable Science
C Spices D Flowers
8 Olericulture associated with……… B
A Fruit Science B Vegetable Science
C Spices D Flowers
9 Floriculture associated with…….. D
A Fruit Science B Vegetable Science
C Spices D Flowers
10 …………is the example of plantation crop B
A Banana B Coffee
C Chilli D Mango
11 …………is the example of plantation crop B
A Banana B Coconut
C Chilli D Mango
12 ……………is the example of fruit crop D
A Tomato B Muskmelon
C Watermelon D Pear
13 …………….is the example of condiments A
A Ginger B Cardamom

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 C Clove D All of the above
14 Spice gives………….. C
A Taste only B Flavor only
C Taste and flavor both D None of the above
15 Condiments gives…….. A
A Taste only B Flavor only
C Taste and flavor both D None of the above
16 ………is not the medicinal plant D
A Ashwagantha B Vinca
C Aonla D Ber
17 …………is the not branches of horticulture B
A Olericulture B Soil Science
C Medicinal Plant D Pomology
LECTURE -2. HORTICULTURAL AND BOTNICAL CLASSIFICATION
18 ………………plants grown for aerial portion A
A Cabbage B Carrot
C Sweet Potato D Cassava
19 ……………is legumes crop A
A Pea B Tomato
C Spinach D Cucumber
20 …………..is green or pot herb C
A Pea B Tomato
C Spinach D Cucumber
21` …………… is bulb crop A
A Onion B Okra
C Raddish D Yam
22 ………….root crops A
A Beet root B Corn
C Lettuce D Cassava
24 …………….is a temperate fruit B
A Banana B Apple
C Citrus D Mango
25 ……….. Nut crops B
A Banana B Walnut
C Citrus D Mango
26 ………….is stone fruit A
A Plum B Banana
C Pear D Apple
27 ………is oil yielding plant A
A Sunflower B Sedum
C Tulip D All of these

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 28 ………………. is not beverage plants D
A Cocoa B Tea
C Coffee D Pear
29 …..is the flowering plant A
A Jasmine B Cocoa
C Tea D Coffee
30 ……………is the vine vegetable crops A
A Cucumber B Okra
C Brinjal D All of the above
LECTURE - 3. CLIMATE AND SOIL FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS
31 ……………… denotes average condition of weather prevailing over a large A
area
A Climate B Soil
C Weather D Both A and B
32 ……………. climate is characterized by the fall of temperature below B
freezing point in winter.
A Tropical Zone B Temperate Zone
C Sub-tropical Zone D Both A and B
33 …………. type of climate is observed at 1800 m to 3500 m height from B
ground level
A Tropical Zone B Temperate Zone
C Sub-tropical Zone D Both A and B
34 Apple, pear, peach, plum, walnut, apricot etc grow in ……… type of climate. B
A Tropical Zone B Temperate Zone
C Sub-tropical Zone D Both A and B
35 Hot and humid summer and mild winter is hallmark of …………..climate. A
A Tropical Zone B Temperate Zone
C Sub-tropical Zone D Both A and B
36 …………. type of climate is observed at 300 m to 900 m height from ground A
level
A Tropical Zone B Temperate Zone
C Sub-tropical Zone D Both A and B
37 …………….. temperature occasionally goes below freezing. Climate is hot C
& comparatively dry.
A Tropical Zone B Temperate Zone
C Sub-tropical Zone D Both A and B
38 …………. type of climate is observed at 900 m to 1800 m height from C
ground level
A Tropical Zone B Temperate Zone
C Sub-tropical Zone D Both A and B
39 The idea soil pH for horticultural crop is …………. A
A 4.0-5.0 B 6.5-7.5

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 C 7.0-8.0 D Both a and c
40 Due to the presence of ………, the soil looks red B
A Iron Sulphate B Iron oxide
C Carbon D CaCO3
LECTURE 4. PLANT PROPAGATION-METHODS AND PROPAGATING
STRUCTURES
41 ……………..is the vigour or strength possessed by the seeds for growth A
A Vitality B Viability
C Seed D All of the above
42 Find advantages of sexual method of propagation from following sentences A
A Trees are generally long lived B The seedling trees are not
uniform in their growth
C They make more time to bear the D All of the above
maiden crop as compared to the
grafted plants.
43 Find advantages of asexual method of propagation from following sentences B
A Asexual propagated plants have B Asexually propagated plants
shorter life-span. are true to type to their mother
plants.
C Asexual propagation restricts D Technical expertise/skill is
diversity. required.
44 ………….method of asexual propagation is following on its own root system C
A Cutting B Layering
C Both a and b D Budding
45 Cutting from mature and lignified stem of shrubs and trees are called as A
…………...
A Hardwood B Semi-hardwood
C Softwood D Herbaceous
46 …………..cuttings are those made from woody, broad-leaved evergreen B
species with partially matured wood.
A Hardwood B Semi-hardwood
C Softwood D Herbaceous
47 Cuttings prepared from the soft-succulent and non-lignified shoots, which are B
not hard or woody, are called as …………..cutting.
A Hardwood B Semi-hardwood
C Softwood D Herbaceous
48 ……………… cuttings are made from succulent non-woody plants like D
geranium, chrysanthemum, coleus, carnation and many foliage crops.
A Hardwood B Semi-hardwood
C Softwood D Herbaceous

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 49 ………….. is a form of rooting of cuttings in which adventitious roots are B
initiated on a stem while it is still attached to the plant
A Cutting B Layering
C Both a and b D Grafting
50 …………. is a process by which two living parts are joined together in such a D
manner that they would unite together and subsequently grow into a
composite plant.
A Cutting B Layering
C Both a and b D Grafting
LECTURE 5. SEED DORMANCY AND SEED
51 …………type of dormancy is very common in drupe fruits A
A Physicl B Chemical
C Mechanical D All of these
52 ………….type of dormancy is imposed by rudimentary or undeveloped D
embryo at the time of ripening or maturity.
A Physical B Mechanical
C Chemical D Endogenous
53 …….. type of dormancy is often transitory and disappears during dry storage. D
A Physical B Mechanical
C Chemical D Non-deep physiological
54 Combination of two or more types of dormancy is known as A
……….dormancy
A Double B Triple
C Single D Non-deep physiological
55 ……………. dormancy is due to germination conditions A
A Secondary B Thermo
C Primary D Conditional
56 ………….dormancy change in ability to germinate related to time of the year D
A Secondary B Thermo
C Primary D Conditional
57 Identify the mechanical scarification from following sentences A
A Chipping hard seed coat by B Dry seeds are placed in
rubbing with sand paper, cutting containers and covered with
with a file or cracking with a concentrated Sulphuric acid
hammer are simple methods (H2SO4) or HCl in the ratio of
useful for small amount of one part of seed to two parts of
relatively large seeds. acid.
C Drop the seeds into 4-5 times D The seeds are placed in moist
their volume of hot water with warm medium for many
temperature ranging from 77 to months to soften the seed coat
o
100 C. and other seed coverings
through microbial activity.

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 58 Identify the warm scarification from following sentences D
A Chipping hard seed coat by B Dry seeds are placed in
rubbing with sand paper, cutting containers and covered with
with a file or cracking with a concentrated Sulphuric acid
hammer are simple methods (H2SO4) or HCl in the ratio of
useful for small amount of one part of seed to two parts of
relatively large seeds. acid.
C Drop the seeds into 4-5 times D The seeds are placed in moist
their volume of hot water with warm medium for many
temperature ranging from 77 to months to soften the seed coat
o
100 C. and other seed coverings
through microbial activity.
59 In …………germination, the cotyledons are pushed above the soil surface as A
the young seedling emerges.
A Epigeal B Hypogeal
C Viviparous D All of the above
60 ………… germination is the process in which the seeds germinate while C
being attached to the parent plant.
A Epigeal B Hypogeal
C Viviparous D All of the above
LECTURE - 6. PLANNING OF ORCHARD
61 Minimum orchard space should be allotted for roads paths and buildings but B
in no case it should exceed more than ……..per cent of the total area.
A 25 B 10
C 15 D 20
62. Find incorrect principle of orchard planning from following sentences C
A Fruit trees requiring frequent B Fruit varieties ripening at a
irrigation should be planted time should be located in
nearer to the source of water, adjoining plots to facilitate
while the rain fed ones are kept proper orchard operations.
farther away.
C The deciduous fruits should be D None of the above
planted in the front and the
evergreen trees or those shed
their leaves partially in some
season, at the back.
63. …………. fruit trees requiring polleniser D
A Self fertile B Self sterile
C Self incompatible D Both B and C
64. ……….. is one of the technologies for increasing the fruit yield per unit area A
A HDP B LDP
C Both a and B D None of the above

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 LECTURE - 7. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TRAINING AND PRUNING
65. What is the objectives of punning ? D
A Training of young trees B Maintenance of grown up trees.
i.e. to maintain the health of
bearing plant
C Bringing vigour in old trees. D All of the above
66. In …….system of pruning, only tops of branches are headed back or cut off A
(light pruning)
A Heading back B Thinning out
C Dehorning D Bulk pruning
67 In …….system of pruning, complete removal of a branches or a part. B
A Heading back B Thinning out
C Dehorning D Bulk pruning
68 In …….system of pruning, cutting away the main limbs or thick major C
branches
A Heading back B Thinning out
C Dehorning D Bulk pruning
69 In …….system of pruning, heavy pruning all over the tree. D
A Heading back B Thinning out
C Dehorning D Bulk pruning
70 …………. means developing a desired shape of the tree with particular A
objectives by controlling habit of growth. Training is start from nursery stage
of plant.
A Training B Pruning
C Both a and b D All of the above
LECTURE 8- JUVENILITY AND FLOWER BUD DIFFERENTIATION
71 ……… is a developmental stage in a plant during which it is unable to induce A
flower.
A Juvenility B Maturity
C Senescence D All of above
72 The ………. is an immature branch system that is frequently enveloped by A
scale leaves for protection.
A Bud B Leaves
C Flower D All of the above
73 ……….type bud, grows from vegetative branches. Leaf bud is another name A
for it.
A Simple B Mixed
C Compound bud D None of the above
74 ……….type bud, takes the form of a flower-bearing stalk. A flower bud is B
another name for it.
A Simple B Mixed
C Compound bud D None of the above

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 72 ……….type bud, grows on both the leaves and the blooms. C
A Simple B Mixed
C Compound bud D None of the above
73 Flowering with a …….. nitrogen and ……… carbohydrate content A
A High, Low B Low, Low
C High, High D Low, High
LECTURE -9. UNFRUITFULNESS
74 …… … is the ability of the plant to produce flower as well as fruit whereas B
A Unfruitfulness B Fruitfulness
C Both a and b D None of the above
75 When the stamens and carpels are present in different plant then the plant is B
called as ………plant
A Monoecious B Dioecious
C Both a and b D All of the above
LECTURE -10 POLLINATION, POLLINIZERS AND POLLINATORS
76 ………. is a method where pollen grains are picked from an anther, which is A
the male part of a flower and transferred to the flower’s female part called the
stigma.
A Pollination B Fertilization
C Pollinizer D Al of the above
77 Find advantage of self pollination from following sentences D
A The vigour and vitality of the B The immunity to diseases is
race are reduced reduced in the resultant
offsprings
C Both a and b D Self- pollination ensures that
recessive characters are
eliminated.
78 A

Identify the method of pollination from above figure

A Self pollination B Cross pollination
C Both a and b D Often cross pollination
79 Find disadvantage of cross pollination from following sentences C
A The produced seeds are good in B All unisexual plants can
vigour and vitality. reproduce through the process
of Cross-pollination.
C In this process, there is a great D The recessive characters in the
wastage of pollen grains. lineage are eliminated as a

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 86

 result of genetic
recombination.
80 Insect pollination known as ……… A
A Entomophily B Ornithophily
C Zoophily D Chiropterophily
81 Bird pollination known as ……… B
A Entomophily B Ornithophily
C Zoophily D Chiropterophily
82 Animal pollination known as ……… C
A Entomophily B Ornithophily
C Zoophily D Chiropterophily
83 Bat pollination known as ……… D
A Entomophily B Ornithophily
C Zoophily D Chiropterophily
84 Wind pollination known as ……… B
A Entomophily B Anemophily
C Zoophily D Hydrophily
85 Water pollination known as ……… D
A Entomophily B Anemophily
C Zoophily D Hydrophily
LECTURE -11 FERTILIZATION AND PARTHENOCARPY
86 Fertilization can be defined as the fusion of the male gametes (pollen) with B
the female gametes (ovum) to form a ……… zygote
A Haploid B Diploid
C Triploid D All of the above
87 ……….is a good example of parthenocarpy A
A Banana B Apple
C Sapota D Guava
88 ……..parthenocarpy is occurs due to without pollination and absence of A
pollination, no seeds are produced within the fruits.

A Vegetative B Stimulative
C Both a and b D All of the above
89 …… type of parthenocarpy occurs when pollination occurs but fertilization B
doesn't.
A Vegetative B Stimulative
C Both a and b D All of the above
LECTURE -12 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
90 ………..is the example of medicinal plant A
A Senna B Tuberose
C Lavender D Both b and c

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 87

 91 ………..is the example of aromatic plant D
A Senna B Tuberose
C Lavender D Both b and c
LECTURE -13 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT BIO-REGULATORS
92 Apical dominance function related with which plant growth regular ? A
A Auxin B Gibberellins
C Cytokinins D Ethylene
93 Stimulative germination function related with which plant growth regular ? B
A Auxin B Gibberellins
C Cytokinins D Ethylene
94 Delay senescence function related with which plant growth regular ? C
A Auxin B Gibberellins
C Cytokinins D Ethylene
95 Uniform ripening function related with which plant growth regular ? D
A Auxin B Gibberellins
C Cytokinins D Ethylene
96 Stomata closing function related with which plant growth regular ? B
A Auxin B Abscisic acid
C Cytokinins D Ethylene
LECTURE -14. IRRIGATION – METHODS, FERTILIZER APPLICATION IN
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
97 A

Identify the irrigation system from above figure

A Basin B Drip
C Furrow D Sprinkler

Dr. Ronak Mangroliya, Assistant Professor, CoA, Parul University 88

 Definition
1 Horticulture 28 Fruit
2 Science 29 Seed
3 Technology 30 Viability
4 Intensive farming 31 Vitality
5 Pomology 32 Budding
6 Olericulture 33 Grafting
7 Spices 34 Layering
8 Condiments 35 Root stock
9 Lithophyte 36 Scion
10 Epiphyte 37 Bulb
11 Terrestrial 38 Propagation structure
12 Hydrophyte 39 Fencing
13 Annual 40 Windbreaks
14 Biennial 41 Pruning
15 Perennial 42 Training
16 Climate 43 Tropical zone
17 Red soil 44 Red soil
18 Plant propagation 45 Mechanical scarification
19 Sexual propagation 46 Epigeal germination
20 Asexual propagation 47 Hypogeal germination
21 High density planting 48 Viviparous germination
22 Flower bud differentiation 49 Juvenility
23 Pollination 50 Self pollination
24 Cross pollination 51 Pollinizers
25 Parthenocarpy 52 Double fertilization
26 Plant bioregulator 53 Fertilization
27 Irrigation

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 89

 Do as direct type questions
1 Give the example of plantation crops
2 Give the example of tropical fruit crops
3 Give the example of warm season vegetables
4 Give the example of leafy vegetables
5 Enlist the methods of asexual propagation
6 Define stratification
7 What are the criteria of site selection for orchard ?
8 Give the example of plants which are suitable for live hedges
9 Enlist the system of planting
10 What are the characteristics of juvenility
11 Explain term : Entomophily, Ornithophily
12 Explain term : Zoophily, Chirpterophily
13 Explain term : Anemophily, Hydrophily

Short questions
1 What are the scope and importance of horticulture ?
2 Give the classification based on nature of growth
3 Give the classification based on climate requirement
4 Enlist agro climatic zones of Gujarat
5 What are the ideal soil doe horticultural crops ?
6 Explain the advantages of sexual propagation
7 What are the advantages of asexual propagation?
8 Explain different type of cutting
9 Explain shield budding
10 Write the steps of soft wood grafting
11 Write the steps of air layering
12 Enlist the different propagation structures
13 Write down the qualities of live hedges
14 Give the selection criteria of planting material for orchard planning
15 What are the benefits of high density planting ?
16 What are the objectives and effects of pruning ?
17 Explain: system of pruning
18 What are the rules of pruning ?
19 What are the principles of training?
20 Enlist the different system of training
21 Give the difference between tropical and temperate zone
22 Explain: Types of exogenous dormancy
23 Explain: types of germination
24 Give the advantages and disadvantages of self pollination
25 Give the advantages and disadvantages of cross pollination
26 Explain: Types of parthenocarpy
27 What are the benefits of parthenocarpy

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 90

 Long questions
1 Explain: Branches of horticulture
2 Explain in detail classification based on type of fruit
3 Enlist the different propagation structures and explain greenhouse in detail
4 Write down the principles of orchard planning
5 Enlist different types of soil and explain any three
6 Explain propagation method: Cutting
7 Explain: Causes of unfruitfulness
8 Explain: Use of plant bioregulators in fruit crops
9 Explain: Different methods of irrigation
10 Explain: Methods of fertilizer application

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 91

QUESTION BANK -2

92 | P a g e
 QUESTION BANK- 2

Choose the correct answer (MCQS)

1. Horticulture is derived from which language?

A. Greek B. Arabic C. Latin D. English

2. The word ponum meaning...

A. Vegetable B. Fruits C. Flowers D. Beverages

3. The science for cultivation of vegetable crops is known as…

A. Olericulture B. Pomology C. Floriculture D. A & B both

4. Which crops are cultivated in an extensive scale and utilized only after processing?

A. Fruit crops B. Plantation crops C. Medicinal D. B & C both

crops

5. Chillies are the example of….

A. Medicinal crops B. Spice crops C. Vegetable D. B & C both

crops

6. Which plant group is used as food adjuncts to add taste only?

A. Medicinal crops B. Condiments C. Spices D. None of above

7. The cultivation and management of forest tree is called as…

A. Plasticulture B. Silviculture C. Enology D. Agriculture

8. According to ICMR, consumption of vegetables and fruits per day should be…

A. 300 g, 150 g B. 150 g, 300 g C. 300 g, 125 g D. 125 g, 300 g

9. Mango, banana, pineapple, papaya is the example of…

A. Tropical fruits B. Subtropical C. Temperate D. None of the

fruits fruits above

10. Litchi, phalsa, fig, citrus is the example of…

A. Tropical fruits B. Subtropical C. Temperate D. None of the

fruits fruits above

11. Apple, pear, peach, cherry is the example of…

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 93

 A. Tropical fruits B. Subtropical C. Temperate D. None of the
fruits fruits above

12. Fruit is…

A. Mature ovary B. Mature ovule C. Mature carpel D. All of the

above

13. Seed is…

A. Mature ovary B. Mature ovule C. Mature carpel D. All of the

above

14. Pericarp meaning…

A. Exocarp + B. Exocarp + C. Endocarp + D. Embyo +

mesocarp mesocarp + mesocarp + Endosperm +
endocarp endosperm endocarp

15. Type of fruit of pineapple…

A. Pome B. Sorosis C. Hesperidium D. Syconus

16. Type of fruit of fig…

A. Pome B. Sorosis C. Hesperidium D. Syconus

17. Type of fruit of almond…

A. Pome B. Sorosis C. Nut D. A & C both

18. Which fruit is known as “Queen of fruit” …

A. Mango B. Litchi C. Mangosteen D. Fig

19. Type of fruit of Aonla…

A. Drupe B. Capsule C. Berry D. Syconus

20. Edible part of coconut is…

A. Fleshy receptacle B. Endosperm C. Mesocarp D. Endocarp

21. Edible part of grape is…

A. Thalamus and B. Pericarp and C. Fleshy D. Berry

pericarp placenta thalamus

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 94

22. Edible part of almond is…

A. Nut B. Pericarp and C. Seed D. Berry

placenta

23. Sapota is…

A. Climacteric fruit B. Non climacteric C. A & B both D. None of the

fruit above

24. Mangosteen is which type of fruit…

A. Climacteric fruit B. Non climacteric C. A & B both D. None of the

fruit above

25. Kochia is growing in which season?

A. Winter B. Summer C. Monsoon D. All of the

above

26. Balsam is growing in which season?

A. Winter B. Summer C. Monsoon D. All of the

above

27. Kalanchoe bears flowering in which season?

A. Winter B. Summer C. Monsoon D. All of the

above

28. Dahlia is propagated by mean of…

A. Tuber B. Sucker C. Rhizome D. Bulb

29. Tuberose is propagated by mean of…

A. Tuber B. Sucker C. Rhizome D. Bulb

30. Canna is propagated by mean of…

A. Tuber B. Sucker C. Rhizome D. Bulb

31. Turmeric is the modification of…

A. Stem B. Rhizome C. Sucker D. Root

32. Potato is the modification of…

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 95

 A. Stem B. Rhizome C. Sucker D. Root

33. Sweet potato is the modification of…

A. Stem B. Rhizome C. Sucker D. Root

34. The process of cultivation of more than two crops at once on the same plot of land
with varying heights is called as…

A. Monocropping B. Single storey C. Multistorey D. None of the

above

35. There are…. agro climatic zones in Gujarat

A. 8 B. 9 C. 12 D. 15

36. Polyembryony is found in…

A. Sexual method B. Stem cutting C. Tip cutting D. B & C both

37. Term “moist chilling” is related to…

A. Scarification B. Stratification C. Hardening of D. Loosing of

seedcoat seedcoat

38. Rose is propagated by means of…

A. Hardwood cutting B. Softwood C. Budding D. All of the

cutting above

39. Snake plant is propagated by mean of…

A. Leaf cutting B. Division C. Suckers D. All of the

above

40. Repair grafting is related to…

A. Cleft grafting B. Bridge grafting C. Wedge D. Softwood

grafting grafting

41. Epicotyl grafting is called as…

A. Stone grafting B. Bridge grafting C. Softwood D. Venner

grafting grafting

42. Softwood grafting is developed by…

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 96

 A. Lynch B. Bhan C. Amin D. Mukherjee

43. Guava is generally propagated by…

A. Cutting B. Budding C. Stooling D. B & C both

44. The principle of air layering is…

A. Phototropism B. Etiolation C. Epinasty D. Geotropism

45. The modification of underground stem is called as…

A. Rhizome B. Sucker C. Bulb D. Root

46. The principle of fan and pad cooling system is…

A. Active cooling B. Evaporative C. Convection D. B & C both

system cooling system heat system

47. The direction of wind break should be….

A. North-south B. North-east C. North-west D. All of the

above

48. For hilly areas, which type of planting system is suitable?

A. Square B. Contour C. Terrace D. B & C both

49. Cutting a plant part to maintain their framework is called as…

A. Training B. Supporting C. Pruning D. All of the

above

50. Cutting a plant part to maintain their vegetative and reproductive growth is called
as…

A. Training B. Supporting C. Pruning D. All of the

above

51. Identify the incorrect pair of horticulture branches and their corresponding
examples of crops.

(A) Olericulture- Watermelon (B) Floriculture- Tomato

(C) Spice- Clove (D) Condiments- Ginger

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 97

52.

Determine the type of fruit from the above diagram.

(A) Berry (B) Sorosis

(C) Syconus (D) Pome

53. Sentence I - Temperate zone his climate is characterized by the fall of

temperature below freezing point in winter.

Sentence II- Temperate zone climate is observed at 300 m to 900 m height

from ground level.

(A) Sentence I and II is correct (B) Only Sentence I is correct

(C) Only Sentence II is correct (D) Sentence I and II is incorrect

54. Find out the following incorrect statement.

(A) Seedling trees (sexual method) (B) The rootstocks upon which the
are generally long lived. fruit varieties are budded or
grafted are really obtained by
means of sexual propagation.

(C) Seedlings (sexual propagation) (D) The seedling trees are uniform
are comparatively cheaper and in their growth, yielding
easy to raise. capacity and fruit quality as
compared to the grafted trees.

55. Experiments have shown that a greenhouse that runs from …………is best for
better light penetration.

(A) East to West direction (B) North to West direction

(C) South to East direction (D) North to South direction

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 98

56. Sentence I - Self-sterile or self-incompatible fruit trees requiring pollinizer.

Sentence II- Example of pollinizer is honey bee and house fly.

(Sentences regarding orchard planning).

(A) Sentence I and II is correct (B) Only Sentence I is correct

(C) Only Sentence II is correct (D) Sentence I and II is incorrect

57. Bermuda grass and mint is the example of ………..type of natural modification.

(A) Runner (B) Sucker

(C) Stolon (D) Offsets

58.

Identify the specialized underground structure from above figure.

(A) Rhizome (B) Bulb

(C) Corm (D) Tuber

59. ……………. forms the new shoot system of the graft.

(A) Stock (B) Scion

(C) Both a and b (D) None of the above

60. In…………….fruit trees do not require pruning

(A) Sapota (B) Mango

(C) Apple (D) Papaya

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 99

Fill in the blanks:

1. The word ‘oleris’ means…….

2. ………is the art of beautifying a piece of land using garden design, methods and plant
materials.

3. Rubber is propagated by……….

4. …….. related to aroma and flavour while……. related to taste.

5. The science of honeybee rearing is called as….

6. Full form of ICMR is……

7. ……...plants completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season.

8. Type of fruit of apple is…...

9. Type of fruit of mango is….

10. Type of fruit of date palm…...

11. Type of fruit of Jackfruit……

12. Edible part of mango……

13. Based on ripening behavior, jack fruit is……

14. Plants which grows on stone is called as…..

15. Anthocyanin is responsible for……. Colour.

16. Petunia, Dianthus, Verbena is grown in……..season.

17. Gladiolus is propagated by mean of…..

18. Plants complete their life cycle within a week, month or year is called as…..

19. For quality production, the pH of soil should be……

20. A seed is viable if it is capable of germinating or ability of seed to germinate is called…

21. Coleus is propagated by…… cutting.

22. Shield budding is called as…….

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 100

23. Aonla is propagated by………. budding method.

24. Epicotyl grafting is famous in ……… region.

25. Strawberry is propagated by……

26. The shade net is 40% that meaning the penetration of light…..%.

27. ………helps to reduce evaporation, control weed growth and soil erosion in orchard.

28. In triangle system,……% plants are more as compared to square panting system.

29. 1 hectare =………….acre.

30. If planting distance is 10 × 10 m, then……...plants are there in 1 hectare area.

31. The word horticulture is derived from the Latin words, “Hortus” means………..

32. Edible part of litchi is…………

33. ……………. soils develop by deposition of silt carried out by river in course of their
massive flow during rainy season.

34. Ideal soil should have a pH of between................

35. Shield budding also known as……....

36. …………….. is very successful technique of in-situ grafting.

37. ……………is a simple box for promoting rooting cutting in difficult to root fruit.

38. The minimum orchard space that should be allotted for roads, paths, and buildings is
………..% of the total area

39. The system of pruning in which a branch or a part is completely removed is called
…………

40. ........paste should be utilized for wound protection after pruning.

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 101

Answers
MCQS
1. C 11. C 21. B 31. A 41. A

2. B 12. A 22. C 32. A 42. C

3. A 13. B 23. A 33. D 43. D

4. B 14. B 24. B 34. C 44. B

5. D 15. B 25. B 35. A 45. A

6. B 16. D 26. C 36. A 46. B

7. B 17. C 27. A 37. B 47. C

8. A 18. C 28. A 38. D 48. D

9. A 19. B 29. D 39. D 49. A

10. B 20. B 30. C 40. B 50. C

51. B 52. B 53. B 54. D 55. A

56. B 57. C 58. C 59. B 60. D

Fill in the blanks:

1. Pot herb
2. Landscape gardening
3. Forket budding
4.Spice, Condiments
5. Apiculture
6. Indian Council of Medical Research
7. Deciduous
8. Pome
9. Stone/Drupe
10. Berry
11. Sorosis
12. Mesocarp
13. Climacteric fruit
DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 102
14. Lithophyte
15. Red/Pink/Blue
16. Winter
17. Corm
18. Annual
19. 6.5-7.5
20. Seed viability
21. herbaceous
22. T budding
23. Patch
24. Konkan (MH)
25. Runner
26. 60%
27. Mulching
28. 11%
29. 2.4
30. 100
31. Garden

32. Aril

33. Alluvial soil

34. 6.5-7.5

35. T budding

36. Soft wood grafting

37. Bottom heat box

38. 10

39. Thinning out

40. Bordeaux

DR. RONAK MANGROLIYA 103

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION PAPERS – MID TERM

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