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Reasoning

The document provides a comprehensive overview of reasoning, including its definitions, types (deductive, inductive, abductive), and cognitive foundations. It discusses various reasoning applications, errors, and biases, as well as the development and social aspects of reasoning. Additionally, it explores computational models and their limitations in reasoning processes.

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3 views

Reasoning

The document provides a comprehensive overview of reasoning, including its definitions, types (deductive, inductive, abductive), and cognitive foundations. It discusses various reasoning applications, errors, and biases, as well as the development and social aspects of reasoning. Additionally, it explores computational models and their limitations in reasoning processes.

Uploaded by

singomillionaire
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Reasoning

Foundations of Reasoning
 Definition: Process of forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences from facts or
premises
 Relationship to logic, critical thinking, and problem-solving
 Types of reasoning:
o Deductive: General to specific
o Inductive: Specific to general
o Abductive: Best explanation inference
 Cognitive basis of reasoning:
o Neural mechanisms
o Information processing models
o Working memory constraints
 Historical perspectives on reasoning: Greek logical tradition to modern cognitive
science

Deductive Reasoning
 Characteristics: Certainty, necessity, validity
 Logical forms:
o Syllogisms (categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive)
o Conditional reasoning (if-then statements)
o Propositional logic applications
 Necessary and sufficient conditions
 Validity vs. soundness
 Applications:
o Mathematics
o Formal systems
o Legal reasoning
 Common deductive errors:
o Invalid logical structure
o Hidden premises
o Equivocation (shifting meanings)

Inductive Reasoning
 Characteristics: Probability, strength, uncertainty
 Types of inductive arguments:
o Generalization
o Causal reasoning
o Analogical reasoning
o Statistical reasoning
 Strong vs. weak inductive arguments
 Factors affecting strength:
o Sample size and quality
o Representativeness
o Background knowledge
o Alternative explanations
 Scientific method as applied induction
 Limitations and the problem of induction

Abductive Reasoning
 Inference to the best explanation
 Applications:
o Scientific hypothesis formation
o Medical diagnosis
o Detective work
o Everyday problem solving
 Criteria for evaluating explanations:
o Explanatory power
o Simplicity/parsimony
o Coherence with existing knowledge
o Testability
 Relationship to scientific discovery
 Limitations and potential for error

Probabilistic Reasoning
 Bayesian reasoning framework
 Conditional probability and Bayes' theorem
 Prior and posterior probabilities
 Base rate fallacy and neglect
 Conjunction fallacy
 Risk assessment and decision-making
 Expected value calculations
 Heuristics influencing probabilistic judgments

Causal Reasoning
 Correlation vs. causation distinction
 Necessary and sufficient causes
 Mill's methods for causal inference:
o Method of agreement
o Method of difference
o Joint method
o Method of residues
o Method of concomitant variation
 Counterfactual analysis
 Causal chains and networks
 Common causal reasoning errors:
o Post hoc fallacy
o Ignoring confounding variables
o Reverse causation
o Common cause confusion

Analogical Reasoning
 Structure and components:
o Source domain (familiar)
o Target domain (unfamiliar)
o Relevant similarities
o Mapping relations
 Strength factors:
o Number of similarities
o Relevance of similarities
o Nature of differences
o Multiple source analogs
 Creative applications:
o Problem-solving
o Scientific discovery
o Invention
 Educational applications
 Limitations and potential fallacies

Scientific Reasoning
 Hypothesis formation and testing
 Experimental design principles
 Falsifiability (Popper)
 Theory evaluation criteria:
o Explanatory power
o Predictive accuracy
o Simplicity
o Scope
o Consilience (unity of knowledge)
 Scientific revolutions and paradigm shifts (Kuhn)
 Research program methodology (Lakatos)
 Scientific thinking vs. pseudoscience

Practical Reasoning
 Means-end reasoning
 Decision-making frameworks:
o Expected utility
o Risk analysis
o Multi-attribute evaluation
 Moral and ethical reasoning
 Practical syllogisms
 Planning and problem-solving
 Action-oriented inference
 Implementation intention formation

Informal Reasoning and Arguments


 Toulmin model of argument:
o Claim
o Data/evidence
o Warrant
o Backing
o Qualifier
o Rebuttal
 Argument analysis techniques
 Argument mapping and visualization
 Identifying unstated assumptions
 Evaluating evidence quality
 Argument strength vs. psychological persuasiveness

Cognitive Biases in Reasoning


 Confirmation bias
 Belief perseverance
 Availability heuristic
 Anchoring effect
 Framing effects
 Motivated reasoning
 Overconfidence effect
 Sunk cost fallacy
 Hindsight bias
 Fundamental attribution error
 Debiasing strategies and techniques

Reasoning Across Domains


 Legal reasoning:
o Precedent-based reasoning
o Statutory interpretation
o Balancing tests
 Medical reasoning:
o Differential diagnosis
o Evidence-based medicine
o Clinical judgment
 Mathematical reasoning:
o Proof methods
o Problem-solving heuristics
 Everyday reasoning contexts
 Domain-specific reasoning skills

Development of Reasoning
 Piaget's cognitive developmental stages
 Development of logical reasoning in children
 Adolescent reasoning capabilities
 Adult reasoning development
 Age-related changes in reasoning
 Educational approaches to reasoning development
 Cultural influences on reasoning patterns

Collective and Social Reasoning


 Group decision-making processes
 Deliberative reasoning in teams
 Social influence on individual reasoning
 Dialogue and dialectical reasoning
 Collaborative problem-solving
 Groupthink and group polarization
 Wisdom of crowds phenomenon
 Conditions for effective collective reasoning

Computational Models of Reasoning


 Logic-based AI systems
 Neural network approaches
 Probabilistic reasoning models
 Case-based reasoning systems
 Constraint satisfaction problems
 Planning algorithms
 Cognitive architectures
 Limitations of computational reasoning </an

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