Exercise c) Control input/output devices

d) Perform arithmetic operations

Select the suitable answer for the following
viii. What is the smallest unit of
Multiple-choice questions.
memory in a digital computer?
i. What computing machine was capable a) Kilobyte
of taking input from punch cards and b) Bit
storing data in memory? c) Byte
a) Abacus d) Megabyte
b) Analytical Engine ix. Which memory type uses laser beams to
c) Tabulating Machine read and write data?
d) Differential Analyzer a) RAM
ii. What technology replaced vacuum b) Optical memory
tubes in second-generation computers? c) Cache memory
a) Transistors d) ROM
b) Integrated Circuits (ICs)
x. In Von Neumann architecture, where are
c) Microprocessors
instruction data and program data stored?
d) Magnetic tapes
iii. Which computer generation introduced a) In separate memory units
the use of Integrated Circuits (ICs)? b) In the same memory unit
a) First Generation c) In the processor’s registers
b) Second Generation d) In the cache memory
c) Third Generation
xi. What is the primary function of the buses in
d) Fourth Generation
a computer’s memory system?
iv. Which of the following is an example of
a natural system? a) Control memory operations
a) Telephone network b) Display graphics
b) Human body c) Transmit data between components
c) Database d) Perform arithmetic operations
d) Automobile
xii. What is the primary function of the
v. Which component of the microprocessor
Presentation Layer in the OSI model?
controls the working of input/output
devices and storage devices? a) Establishing connections between
a) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) computers
b) Control Unit (CU) b) Converting data into a standard format
c) Memory Address Register (MAR) c) Deciding the physical path of data
d) Data Register (DR) d) Sending data in both directions
vi. Which type of memory retains data even simultaneously
when the computer is turned off?
xiii. In which network topology is data
a) RAM
transmission unidirectional, like radio or
b) ROM
television broadcasts?
c) Cache
d) Register a) Star Topology
vii. What is the main purpose of Cache b) Bus Topology
memory? c) Mesh Topology
a) Store program instructions d) Ring Topology
b) Provide high-speed storage
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
xiv. Which data communication standard is Give Short answers to the following short
used for transferring web pages and related response questions (SRQs).
data on the World Wide Web?
I. What is the function and significance of
a) TCP/IP Napier’s Bone In early computing.
b) HTTP
Ans: John Napier developed Napier’s bones.
c) FTP
Function:
d) SMTP
It was a manually operated calculating device.
xv. Which network architecture requires each Used for multiplication, division, and other
computer to act as either a server or a client but arithmetic operations.
not both simultaneously? Significance:
It was also the first machine to calculate using the
a) Client/Server Network
decimal point system.
b) Peer-to-Peer Network
c) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) II. How did Charles Babbage’s Difference
d) Wide Area Network (WAN) Engine differ from the Analytical Engine?

Difference Engine Analytical Engine

It could do basic It was capable of
computations. solving any
mathematical problem.
It was not capable of It was capable of
storing data in memory. storing data in memory.

It was a steam-powered It took input from

calculating machine punch cards to operate.
used to solve numerical
problems

III. What is the primary goal of fifth-

generation computers?
Ans: The primary focus of fifth-generation
computers is to develop and utilize Al (Artificial
Intelligence) technologies. This involves
machines (called Robots) with the capability to
learn, think, Innovate, reason, and solve problems
automatically and independently.

IV. Name the three types of memory mentioned

on the motherboard in the Von Neumann
architecture?

Ans: 1) RAM (Random Access Memory)

2) ROM (Read Only Memory)
3) Cache Memory

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

V. Differentiate between volatile and non- VII. Why is the word size of a processor
volatile memory. important, and how does it affect the
computer’s performance?
Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory
Ans: Definition: Word size refers to the number
Volatile memory is a Non-volatile memory
of bits that a computer’s CPU can process or
temporary memory. is a permanent
manipulate in a single instruction or operation.
memory.
Importance: The word size of a CPU is a
fundamental characteristic that affects its
It requires power It can retain the stored performance and capabilities.
(electricity) to maintain
Information even when A larger word size generally allows a CPU to
the stored information.powered off. handle larger Integers, perform more complex
Examples Examples arithmetic operations, and address larger memory
• RAM (Random • ROM (Read- spaces
access memory) only memory) Example: A CPU with a 32-bit word size can
• Cache memory • Flash memory
process data in 32-bit chunks, while a CPU with a
• Registers. • Magnetic
storage devices 64-bit word size can process data in 64-bit chunks.
(e.g. hard disks
VIII. What is pipelining, and how does it
and magnetic
taps) improve the efficiency of a CPU?
• Optical disks Ans: Definition: In a pipeline, multiple
• Blue-ray disk.
instructions are in different stages of execution
(Difference between RAM & ROM)
simultaneously.
RAM ROM Improvement in efficiency of CPU: This allows
RAM is random access ROM is read-only for better utilization of the CPU’s resources and
memory. memory. faster execution of instructions.
Many modern CPUs use pipelining to increase
It is volatile memory. It is non-volatile
efficiency.
memory.
It is a temporary It is a permanent IX. Imagine you are building a custom
memory. memory. computer for a friend. Give three
It requires power It can retain the stored considerations you would take into account
(electricity) to maintain Information even when when choosing the type and size of memory for
the stored information. powered off. this computer.

Ans: i) System requirements & usage: which

type of software will be run. It varies application
VI. Show memory hierarchy with the help of
to application.
diagram.
ii) Compatibility with Motherboard & CPU:
Memory must be compatible with mother board
and CPU, that includes DDR4, DDR5 etc.
iii) Budget Constrains: Must maintain a balance
performance requirements and budget.

X. You are a computer technician tasked with

upgrading an older computer with a slow CPU.
How might you improve its performance
without replacing the entire CPU?
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
 Ans: i) Add more RAM: It increases performance XII. Define “protocol” in the context of data
of CPU significantly. communication.
ii) Upgrading storage to Solid-State Drive
Ans: Communication Protocols are defined how
(SSD): Upgradation of HDD to SSD will boost
data is transmitted and received over a network.
the performance of CPU.
Examples
iii) Optimize software and Operating system: It
will streamline the performance of CPU. Protocol Full form Uses
It will reduce unnecessary resource consumption. TCP Transmission Control Used for internet
Protocol communication and
iv) Optimize power setting: It ensures that CPU
provides reliable,
operates at its maximum capacity. connection-oriented
data transfer.
XI. Your school is planning to purchase new IP Internet Protocol Used for internet
printers for the computer lab. Give three communication and
advantages and disadvantages of impact and provides reliable,
non-Impact printers to help them. connection-oriented
Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers data transfer.
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Used for transferring
Advantages
Protocol web pages and
1. Cheap: Their printing is 1. High quality: Their related data on the
very cheap. printing quality is high. World Wide Web.
2. Durability: These are 2. Quiet printing: Their
FTP File Transfer Protocol Used for transferring
durable. printing is less noisy than
files between
3. Multi-part form: It can impact printers.
computers on a
print multi-part form such as 3. Faster speed: Their speed
network Used for
carbon copies and invoices. is much larger than impact
transferring files
printers.
between computers
Disadvantages
on a network
1. Noise: This produces noise 1. Higher cost: There initial SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Used for sending
during printing. cost is very high. Protocol email messages.
2. Low print quality: It’s 2. Less media compatibility:
printing quality is lower than These have less media
non-impact printers. compatibility. XIII. Define simplex, half-duplex, and full-
3. Slower Speed: These are 3. Damage Susceptibility:
duplex modes of communication with one
slower in speed than non- These are susceptible to
impact printers. damage from dust, dirt or example each.
mishandling.
Ans: Simplex mode: The communication takes
(Difference between impact and non-impact
place in only one direction. In this mode
printer)
communication is unidirectional.
Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers The communication can only take place in one
Definition direction.
It uses electro- It prints without striking It is not possible for the receiver to send data
mechanical mechanism the paper. back.
which causes character to Example: Data sent in electronic notice board in
strike the paper. train stations and Airports.
Printing
Radio and television broadcastings.
It prints slower. It printers faster than
impact printers.
Examples
Dot matrix printer Inkjet printer
Laser printer

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

Half-duplex mode: The communication takes It connects multiple It gathers Information
place in both the directions but not at the same LAN devices on one about the data packet
time. network and makes and forwards it to only
The signal can only be sent or received at one them act together as a the node (e.g. computer)
time. single network. it was Intended for.
Example: walkie-talkies When data is
Transaction-oriented systems (communication transmitted, it is broken
between a computer and credit card machine) down into packets
which are reassembled
to the original form once
they reach the
destination.
Intelligence
A hub is non-intelligent It is intelligent than hub.
Full-duplex mode: The communication takes device and sends output It sends output to one
place in both the directions at the same time. to all the devices on the node (computer).
In this mode, both sender and receiver can send network.
and receive the data simultaneously. Input/Output
It is the fastest bi-directional mode of It has multiple It also has multiple
communication. input/output ports. input/output ports.
Example: Telephone network Uses
It is used in LAN. It is also used in LAN.
Diagram

XIV. What are start and stop bits, and where

are they used in data transmission?

Ans: Start and Stop bits: The start bit tells the XVI. How does asynchronous transmission
receiver that a character is coming and stop bit differ from synchronous transmission, and in
indicates that the transmission of character has what situations are they typically used?
ended.
Uses: Used in asynchronous transmission Asynchronous Synchronous
(Keyboard data transmission) Transmission Transmission
These bits provide timing (synchronization) for Definition
the connection between the sender and the
The time interval The time interval
receiver.
between two characters between two
Ideal for slow-speed communication
is variable and not characters is always
XV. How does a switch differ from a hub in a fixed. the same and fixed.
network? Transmission requirement
It requires transmission It does not require
Hub Switch of start and stop bits. transmission of start
Definition and stop bits.
Speed
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
 It is slower It is faster than XVIII. Compare and contrast the star and ring
synchronous. asynchronous. network topologies.
Uses
Used in keyboard data Used in data Star Topology Ring Topology
transmission. transmission Definition
between devices in Each network node is It is made up of an
network connected to hub. unbroken circle of
communications network nodes.
links. Features
Examples It is suitable for both Each node is directly
small and large connected to the ring.
networks.
Easy to install and wire. Easy to install and wire.
Easy to detect and Data on the network
remove faults. flows in one direction.
Failure of cable does not Not costly to implement.
stop functioning of the
entire network.
XVII. Explain the concept of a peer-to-peer
Limitations
network and its limitations compared to a
Failure of the hub causes If the ring is broken at
client/server network.
the entire network to go any point, the entire
Ans: Peer-to-Peer networks: Every computer is down. network stops
capable of playing the role of client, server or both Expensive topology to functioning.
at the same time. implement. Lengthy
Each computer on the network is referred to as cable with a hub is Slower than other
peer. required to install star network topologies.
A peer computer on your desktop can share files topology.
and printers with other computers and it can Diagram
simultaneously access other shared resources on
the network.
Diagram:

XIX. Why is mesh topology considered the

Limitations most reliable but also the most expensive to
Peer-to-peer Client/Server implement?
More than one person Only one person or
or group administrate. group administrate. Ans: Reliability: It is considered as the most
Relatively small. Relatively large. reliable because data can be routed around failed
Difficult to manage. Relatively easy to computers or busy ones.
manage. It can also manage high traffic.

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

Expensiveness: It is the most expensive topology Give Long answers to the following extended
to implement because setup and maintenance is response questions (ERQS).
very difficult.

XX. What is the role of the Application Layer

Q1. Describe the evolution of computer
in the OSI model?
generations from the first generation to the
Ans: Role of the Application Layer in the OSI fourth generation, highlighting the key
model: technological developments and their Impact
1. Application Layer provides services to end- on computing.
user.
Ans: First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
2. It interacts with the operating system or
application software whenever the user wants to Period: Emerged in the late 1940s and lasted
send files, read messages or perform other through the early 1950s.
network related activities. Main Characteristic: The use of vacuum tube
technology.
Vacuum tube consists of a glass tube containing
electrodes (cathode, anode, and some additional
elements) and a partial vacuum.

Diagram:

Characteristics:

a) Vacuum tubes were used in first-

generation computers
b) The processing speed was slow.
c) Memory capacity was limited.
d) These computers were massive, occupying
entire rooms.
e) First-generation computers were both
costly and unreliable.
f) They consumed significant power and
generated substantial heat.
g) Input relied on punched cards.
h) Output was obtained through printouts via
electric typewriters.
i) Machine language was the only
programming paradigm.

Examples:
i) ENIAC
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
ii) UNIVAC 1 Third Generation Computers (1963-1971)
iii) IBM 604
Period: Emerged in the 1960s and extended into
iv) Mark-I
the 1970s.
v) EDSAC.
Main Characteristic: The use of integrated
Second Generation Computers (1956-1963s)
circuits (ICs) and the development of smaller,
Period: Emerged in the late 1950s and extended faster, and more reliable systems. IC chips.
through the early 1960s.
Diagram:
Main characteristic: The use of transistors.
Transistor functions like a vacuum tube. It was
faster, more reliable, smaller and much cheaper
than vacuum tube.

Diagram:

Characteristics:

• Third-generation computers used

Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.
• The utilization of IC chips led to
Characteristics: enhancements in computer speed and
memory.
• Second generation computers replaced • These computers demonstrated
vacuum tubes with transistors, leading to improvements in energy efficiency, size
enhanced efficiency. reduction, cost- effectiveness, and
• The adoption of transistors resulted in a reliability compared to second. Generation
reduction in computer size, accompanied computers.
by improvements in speed and memory • Interaction with third-generation
capacity. computers Involved the use of a keyboard
• Second-generation computers and monitor.
demonstrated increased reliability and • These computers had the capability to
cost- effectiveness. concurrently run multiple application
• Key input and output methods included programs.
punch card readers, magnetic tapes,
Examples: IBM System/360.
magnetic disks, and printers.
Control Data Corporation’s 3300 and 6600.
• Assembly language was employed for
programming purposes.
• This generation introduced high-level
Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)
programming languages such as
FORTRAN and COBOL Period: Starting from late 70s to the present.

Examples: UNIVAC II Main characteristic: Development of Large-

IBM 7030 Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale
General Electric GE 635 Integration (VLSI) chips.
Control Data Corporation’s CDC 1604 Development of the microprocessor, a single chip

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

capable of handling all processing tasks within a Q2. Discuss the importance of categorizing and
computer. understanding different types of systems, both
natural and artificial, and provide examples of
Diagram:
each type.

Ans:
System: A collection of interconnected or
interrelated components or elements that work
together to achieve a specific purpose or function.

Importance of categorization: It allows for

Characteristics: better analysis, design, and optimization of these
systems to achieve their intended goals.
The introduction of microprocessors marked a
Different types of systems may show distinct
defining feature of fourth-generation computers,
properties and behaviours, which necessitate
leading to the emergence of microcomputers.
different approaches to study and manage them
Fourth-generation computers are known for their
effectively.
exceptional speed, large storage capacity, and the
incorporation of advanced input/output devices. 1) Natural System: Interconnected collection of
Microcomputers in this generation are elements or components that exist in the nature.
characterized by their small size, high reliability, Importance: These systems are typically found in
low power consumption, and affordability. the environment and are characterized by their
A wide variety of software became available for ability to self-regulate, adapt, and maintain a
use in microcomputers during the fourth certain degree of stability.
generation. Natural systems are incredibly diverse and
Operating systems with Graphical User Interfaces fascinating, each with its unique characteristics
(GUIs) were developed during this period, and interactions.
enhancing user interaction and experience.
Examples:
Fourth-generation computers support multimedia
software, enabling the integration of text, image, a) Ecosystems: The most common and diverse
sound, and video. natural systems.
These computers are compatible with modern Types:
programming languages such as Visual Basic,
i) Forest Ecosystems: Such as a tropical
C++, Java, and Python, facilitating the
rainforest with its myriads of plants and
development of powerful software applications.
animal species.
Fourth-generation computers support a diverse
range of portable and wireless input/output ii) Aquatic Ecosystems: Like freshwater
devices. lakes, rivers, and marine ecosystems
Examples: Intel Pentium series such as coral reefs.
Dual Core
iii) Grassland Ecosystems: Such as the
Core2 Duo
African savanna, home to grazing
Core i3, i5, i7, and AMD Athlon
animals like zebras and wildebeests.
IBM ThinkPad series
HP Pavilion series b) Weather Systems: It involves the interactions
Dell Inspiron series of the Earth’s atmosphere
Apple’s MacBook Pro Examples: Rainfall, wind patterns, and
MacBook Air series. temperature changes.
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
c) Geological Systems: These systems encompass and maintenance to function efficiently and
geological processes and features. effectively.
Types:
Examples:
i) Plate Tectonics: The movement of
a) Communication Systems:
Earth’s lithospheric plates, leading to
phenomena like earthquakes and i) Telephone Networks: Created to
volcanic eruptions. facilitate voice communication over long
distances.
ii) Mountain Systems: Such as the
Himalayas, formed by tectonic plate ii) Internet and Computer Networks:
collision. Built to enable data sharing and digital
communication globally.
d) Hydrological Systems: The movement,
distribution, and quality of water on Earth. iii) Satellite Communication Systems:
Examples: rivers, lakes, and the water cycle. Developed for long-distance, wireless
communication.
e) Solar System: Our solar system itself is a
natural system. b) Information Systems:
Examples: Sun, planets, moons, asteroids, and
i) Databases: Used for storing and
comets all interacting under the influence of
retrieving data efficiently.
gravity.
ii) Software Applications: Such as word
f) Biological Systems: Biological systems
processors, spreadsheets, and video
encompass a wide range of living organisms and
editing software.
their interactions:
c) Transportation Systems:
i) Human Body: A complex biological
system with organs, tissues, cells, and i) Automobiles: Designed for personal and
biochemical processes. mass transportation on roads.
ii) Coral Reef: An ecosystem built by ii) Aircraft: Engineered for air travel,
coral colonies and inhabited by various including commercial airplanes,
marine species. helicopters, and drones.

iii) Rainforest Canopy: The upper layer iii) Trains and Rail Systems: Developed
of a rainforest, home to a unique set of for efficient land transportation on
plants and animals. tracks.

2) Artificial Systems Artificial systems are iv) Subways and Mass Transit: Designed
created and designed by humans to serve specific to move large numbers of people
purposes, solve problems, or achieve particular within urban areas.
goals.
c) Energy Systems:
It is also known as man-made or human-made
systems. i) Power Plants: Designed to generate
These systems can range from simple devices to electricity using various energy sources
highly complex structures, and they exist in like coal, natural gas, nuclear, or
numerous domains. renewable resources.
It is contributing to our ability to meet a wide
range of needs and advance in various fields.
They often require careful planning, engineering,
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
 ii) Renewable Energy Systems: Including tasks simultaneously and handle complex
solar panels, wind turbines, and computations more efficiently.
hydroelectric plants. It has the ability to understand and respond to
human languages. This involves developing
iii) Electrical Grids: Infrastructure for the
systems capable of NLP (Natural language
distribution of electrical power.
processing) and communication.
e) Manufacturing Systems:
Potential Challenges: This is a big challenge for
i) Factory Automation: Systems that computer developers and programmers to design
automate manufacturing processes, such such systems and software devices that can
as robotics and conveyor systems. understand natural languages and have thinking
power.
ii) Assembly Lines: Organized systems
for mass-producing goods. Implication on Society:

f) Healthcare Systems: These computers are planned to incorporate

advanced ES (Expert systems), which are software
i) Hospital Information Systems (HIS):
programs designed to replicate the decision-
Designed to manage patient records,
making abilities of a human experts in specific
billing, and other healthcare data.
fields, like medical, mining and engineering.
ii) Medical Devices: Including MRI
In this generation of computers user interfaces
machines, X-ray equipment, and
have become more intuitive and user-friendly,
artificial organs.
Incorporating features like voice recognition and
Q3. Explain the characteristics and potential gesture-based controls.
challenges associated with fifth- generation
Q4. Explain the fundamental components of
computers that aim to understand natural
network communication, and how do they
languages and possess thinking capabilities.
work together to facilitate data transfer?
What are the implications of such
advancements in computing on society? Ans: Network Communication Components:

Ans: Data communication is the process of transferring

information from one point to another in a
Characteristics:
networking environment.
It is generally associated with ongoing
advancements in computing that were expected to Components: Network communication consists
emerge in the late 20th century and beyond. of five basic components.
The main objective of fifth generation of
1. Sender
computers is to develop devices that can
understand natural languages and have thinking 2. Message
power.
3. Medium
The primary focus of fifth-generation computers
tis to develop and utilize Al (Artificial 4. Protocol
Intelligence) technologies. This involves machines
5. Receiver
(called Robots) with the capability to learn, think,
Innovate, reason, and solve problems
automatically and independently.
1. Sender: (also called transmitter) It sends the
It supports advanced parallel processing
message (data or information) from source to
capabilities, allowing them to execute multiple
destination in a communication network.
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
It may be a computer, workstation, cell phone or Commonly used communication devices are:
camera.
Hub
Working of sender: The sender device converts
Switch
the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for
Router
transmission over the communication network.
Gateway
2. Message:
Hub
Message is the data or information that is to be
Hub is a connectivity device used in LAN.
transmitted.
It connects multiple LAN devices on one network
Message can be in the form of text, audio, video,
and makes them act together as a single network.
or any combination of these.
A hub is non-intelligent device and sends output
3. Medium to all the devices on the network.
A hub has multiple input/output (1/0) ports, in
Medium is the path through which message
which an input in one port results in it being an
travels from source to destination.
output in all the other ports, except the port where
Wired medium: telephone cable, coaxial cable
it was input.
and fibre optics.
Wireless medium: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, microwave,
radio wave and satellite.

4. Receiver

Receiver is the device which receives transmitted

message.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset or television set. Switch

5. Protocol Switch is a networking device that performs the

same job as the hub but are considered as
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data
Intelligent than hub.
communications.
It gathers Information about the data packet and
It represents an agreement between the
forwards it to only the node (e.g. computer) it was
communicating devices.
Intended for.
Without a protocol, two devices are connected but
A data packet is a basic unit of communication
may not communicating with each other.
over a computer network.
When data is transmitted, it is broken down into
packets which are reassembled to the original
Q5. Describe the roles of common
form once they reach the destination.
communication devices like hubs, switches,
routers, and gateways in data communication.
How do they contribute to the functionality of a
network?

Ans: Communication Devices

A device that is used in telecommunication

systems for transmitting data from one location to
another is known as communication device. Router

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

Router is a communication device which is used Star topology
to connect two or more networks. Ring topology
Router receives the data packets, looks for the Mesh topology
remote computer address and forwards it to a
1. Bus Topology
computer that is closer to the remote computer.
It forwards the data packets by selecting the best It connects each node to the network along
path-way based on network traffic. a single piece of cable, called a bus.
Many routers take part in transmitting the data
packets from one location to another.

Usage: It is suitable for a small, simple of

temporary network. Reason: Low cost and easy to
install.
Features of Bus Topology

Suitable for a small network.

Gateway Easy to connect a computer or a peripheral device
to the network
Gateway is a device that is used to connect a Requires less cable to Implement.
network to another network that uses different Terminator is installed at each end of the cable to
protocols. prevent signals from reflecting back onto the bus
If we have to link different kinds of networks, and cause errors. Terminator is a device that is
such as a network of IBM mainframe computers attached to ground.
and a network of PCs, we might have to use a
gateway. Limitations of Bus Topology
Gateways change the format of the data packets If the single cable is damaged or broken at any
but not the contents of the message, to make it point, the entire network can go down.
conform to the application program of the remote Difficult to identify the problem if the entire
computer. network goes down.
Q6. Discuss the advantages and limitations of Not suitable for large network.
different network topologies, including bus, 2. Star Topology
star, ring, and mesh. When should each
topology be used in a network design? Each network node is connected to a
central device called a hub.
Ans: Topology: The arrangement of network Large networks can require many hubs and hubs
nodes (any devices which are part of network) and can be connected to each other to create a single
connections between them is called the network’s large network.
topology.
A node represents any device on the network.
Types of Topologies:

Bus topology

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

Usage: It is suitable for both small and large
networks. Reason: Easy to install and wire.

Features of Star Topology

It is suitable for both small and large networks.
Easy to install and wire.
Easy to detect and remove faults.
Failure of cable does not stop functioning of the
entire network. Usage: for large networks. Reason: It can manage
high traffic.
Limitations of Star Topology
Features of Mesh Topology
Failure of the hub causes the entire network to go
down. Most reliable network topology.
Expensive topology to implement. Lengthy cable Data can be routed around failed computers or
with a hub is required to install star topology busy ones.
Can manage high traffic.
3. Ring Topology
Limitations of Mesh Topology
Ring topology is shaped just like a ring.
It is made up of an unbroken circle of network Most expensive topology to Implement.
nodes. Setup and maintenance is very difficult.

Q7. What is the OSI model, and how does it

help in understanding the process of data
communication? Explain each of the seven
layers and their functions.

Ans: OSI Model: The OS1 (Open Systems

Usage: for equal access for all devices. Used in Interconnection).
WANs. Reason: Data flow in one direction. It is one such standard conceptual framework used
Features of Ring Topology in the field of computer networking to define and
understand how different networking protocols
Each node is directly connected to the ring. and technologies interact and work together.
Easy to install and wire.
Data on the network flows in one direction.
Not costly to implement.

Limitations of Ring Topology

If the ring is broken at any point, the entire

network stops functioning.
Slower than other network topologies.
4. Mesh Topology

In mesh topology, each node is directly connected

to all the nodes.

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

The seven layers of OSI model are described The communication device Switch works in this
below. layer.

Layer 7-Application Layer Layer 1-Physical Layer

Application Layer provides services to end-user. Physical Layer defines cables and signalling.
Function: It interacts with the operating system or Function: It provides hardware means such as
application software whenever the user wants to cables and connectors for sending and receiving
send files, read messages or perform other data. Cables, hubs and repeaters work in this layer.
network related activities.
Q8. Explain the evolution of the Internet from
Layer 6-Presentation Layer its origins to the modern-day global network.
What major technological advancements
Presentation Layer takes the data provided by the
contributed to its growth?
Application Layer.
Functions: It converts data provided by Ans: The Internet
application layer into a standard format that the
The Internet is a global network of interconnected
other layers can understand.
computer networks that allows for the exchange of
Layer 5-Session Layer data, information, and communication among
users and devices across the world.
Function: It enables two Applications or two
pieces of same application to communicate across Evolution of the Internet
the network.
ARPANET (1960s)
It performs security, name recognition, logging
The Internet has evolved from its origins in the
and other similar functions.
1960s as ARPANET, a U.S. Department of
It also establishes, maintains and ends
Défense project for research institutions and
communication with the receiving computer.
military Installations, to become a global network
Layer 4- Transport Layer of interconnected computer networks.

Function: Transport Layer establishes Development of TCP/IP protocols (1970s)

connections between two computers on the In the 1970s, the development of TCP/IP
network. protocols established the foundation for the
It handles quality control by making sure that the modern internet, allowing different networks to
data received is in the right format and the right communicate.
order.
World Wide Wet and web browsers (1990s)
Layer 3-Network Layer The 1990s saw the emergence of the World Wide
Web and web browsers, revolutionizing how
Function: Network Layer decides which physical
people access and share Information over the
path-way the data should take to reach the
Internet.
destination. The communication device Router
works in network layer. Broadband internet and social media platforms
(2000s):
Layer 2-Data Link Layer
The 2000s brought broadband internet and social
Data Link Layer defines the format of data on the media platforms.
network.
The rise of mobile internet and the Internet of
Function: This layer converts the data into
Things (IoT) (2010s):
packets and checks them before putting them on
The 2010s saw the rise of mobile internet and the
the path-way.
Internet of Things (IoT).
Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems
Cloud computing, artificial Intelligence, and Entertainment: Streaming, online gaming and
SG technology (2020s): multimedia content.
In the 2020s, the Internet continues to evolve with
Education: Online courses, research and e-
cloud computing, artificial Intelligence, and SG
learning platforms.
technology, impacting nearly every aspect of
modern life. Business and Work: Remote work, collaboration
and e-commerce.
Working of the Internet
Research and innovation: Access to research
It globally connects billions of devices and
materials and innovation platfroms.
networks.
It operates through a decentralized architecture Q9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
using packet- switching technology. of the Internet, considering factors like global
Data is divided into packets, which are routed connectivity, information access, privacy
through a network of Interconnected routers and concerns, and digital addiction.
switches.
Advantages of the Internet
Protocols like TCP/IP ensure data is packaged,
addressed, and transmitted correctly. Global Connectivity: Enables communication
The Domain Name System (DNS) translates and access to information worldwide
human readable domain names (e.g.,
Vast Information: Provides a vast information
www.ncc.gov.pk) into IP addresses, Content is
resources and knowledge.
hosted on servers, and data is transmitted as
packets to and from these servers. Communication: Facilitates real-time
As data travels through the network, it is communication and collaboration.
encapsulated in headers at each layer of the OSI
E-commerce: Allows online shopping and digital
model (such as the IP and TCP headers).
transactions.
When the data reaches its destination, these
headers are removed through a process called de- Education: Supports online learning and
capsulation. research.
Security measures like encryption protects data
Business: Enhances productivity and global
during transmission.
reach.
The Internet’s interoperable design allows diverse
devices and networks to communicate, making it a Entertainment: Offers streaming, gaming, and
global Information and communication platform. social media.
Major achievements: Innovation: Promotes technological
advancements and research.
Communication: Email, messaging and video
calls. Disadvantages of the Internet
Information Retrieval: Web browsing, search Privacy Concerns: Threats to personal data and
engines and online databases. online privacy.
E-commerce: Online shopping, banking, and Cybersecurity Risks: Vulnerability to hacking
digital payments. and cyberattacks.
Social media: Networking, content sharing and Information Overload: Overwhelming amount
social interactions. of data and misinformation.

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems

Digital Addiction: Excessive screen time and 8. Research and innovation: Access to research
online dependency. materials and innovation platforms.
Impact: Unequal access to the Internet
Digital Divide: Unequal access to the Internet
worldwide.
worldwide.

Q10. Explore common applications of the

internet and their impact on various aspects of
society, including communication, education,
business, entertainment, and research

Common applications of internet and their

impacts:

1. Communication: Email, messaging and video

calls.
Impacts: Addiction and irrelevant contents.

2. Information Retrieval: Web browsing, search

engines and online databases.
Impact: Excessive screen time and online
dependency.

3. E-commerce: Online shopping, banking, and

digital payments.
Impact: Threats to personal data and online
privacy.

4. Social media: Networking, content sharing and

social interactions.
Impact: Over whelming amount of data and
misinformation.

5. Entertainment: Streaming, online gaming and

multimedia content.
Impact: Physical and mental health impacts.
6. Education: Online courses, research and e-
learning platforms.
Impacts: Unequal access to the Internet
worldwide.

7. Business and Work: Remote work,

collaboration and e-commerce.
Impact: Vulnerability to hacking and
cyberattacks.

Unit 1 Prepared by Mughis Raza Computer Systems