1.

Discuss the changing role of the father in the contemporary dual earning family set-up

The contemporary father embodies a diverse range of roles,

challenging the traditional notion of the married breadwinner and
disciplinarian in the family. In today's society, fathers can take on
various forms, breaking away from stereotypical expectations.
They may be single or married, employed outside the home or
stay-at-home, identify as gay or straight, and serve as adoptive or
step-parents. Additionally, fathers prove to be capable caregivers
for children facing a spectrum of physical or psychological
challenges.

Because of this increased interaction, fathers have also changed when it

comes to their methods of parenting. The role of a strict enforcer has
evolved into more of a parenting style that differs from fathers of the
past.

The changing role of fathers has also introduced new

challenges as dads juggle the competing demands of
family and work. For example, fewer dads are the family’s
sole breadwinner. Years ago it was the natural family
dynamic that men would be out working and women would
serve as homemakers and caretakers. No so anymore. The
Pew Research Center took a look last year at the changing
American family and found that, among couples rearing
children under age 18, about one fourth comprise families
where only the father works and roughly two-thirds are in
dual-earner families. If you compare this finding with
similar studies conducted 45 years ago, almost half of
married couples with children under age 18 were in
families where only the father worked.

Research in psychology, encompassing families from diverse

ethnic backgrounds, indicates that the affection and increased
involvement of fathers contribute significantly to the social and
emotional development of their children. This highlights the
importance of fathers in nurturing and supporting their children's
well-being, transcending traditional roles and embracing a more
inclusive and diverse perspective on fatherhood in the modern
era.

Research studies with Indian fathers report of positive fathering ideals, such
as guiding children's education, becoming more open and expressive,
adopting less strict discipline measures, assigning more importance to
children and to their fathering role, prioritizing communication with their
children, and engaging children in extracurricular activities. (Mathur &
Mathur, 2006; Sandhu, 2008; Srirarn, 2003, 2008). Again, in another study
Mathur (2006) mentioned that adolescent children rated fathers high on such
factors as being protective, loving, and using symbolic rewards; moderate on
use of symbolic punishment, demands, and object rewards; and low on
neglect, in difference and rejection. This indicates a shift toward inclination of
family attitude of fathers towards their children.

2. 2. Critically analyse, giving examples, the social exchange

family theory.
Social exchange theory states that people engage in social
interactions and makes relationships with others after weighing
all the potential risks and benefits involved in that interaction or
relationship. When the benefits weigh more than the costs,
people tend to encourage the interaction, while if the costs
weigh more than rewards, people resists that interaction or
terminate the relationship. According to social exchange theory,
social interactions or relationships are based on an exchange
process, wherein people want maximum benefits and minimum
costs or punishments. The benefits could be money, appreciation,
power, or even small gestures like a smile or high-five, and the
cost or punishment could be a disgrace, embarrassment, or
gestures like an angry face or raised eyebrows.
The social exchange theory was initially developed by an
American psychologist, George C. Homans. He mentioned this
theory in his article titled “Social Behaviour as Exchange.” To
formulate this theory Homans conducted several studies on the
 group of people. When he started researching he believed that
any community or group can be considered a social system and
he conducted the research on the larger groups. However, to
examine the social system, one must look at the individual level
instead of the massive groups or communities.

Social Exchange Theory Examples

1. Friendship
Suppose your friend always borrows money or other stuff from you,
this means that your relationship with your friend costs you money.
But, you like spending your time with your friend as he/she is
supportive, loyal and fun to be around. When you will weigh the
pros and cons as per the social cognitive theory, you prefer to stay
in the friendship if your friend is bringing support and excitement
in your life even if he/she borrows money from you, but you may
terminate the friendship if you feel that the freeloader behaviour of
your friend is resulting in a burden over you.

What is Social Exchange Theory?

Social exchange theory states that people engage in social
interactions and makes relationships with others after weighing all
the potential risks and benefits involved in that interaction or
relationship. When the benefits weigh more than the costs, people
tend to encourage the interaction, while if the costs weigh more
than rewards, people resits that interaction or terminate the
relationship. According to social exchange theory, social
interactions or relationships are based on an exchange process,
wherein people want maximum benefits and minimum costs or
punishments. The benefits could be money, appreciation, power, or
even small gestures like a smile or high-five, and the cost or
punishment could be a disgrace, embarrassment, or gestures like
an angry face or raised eyebrows.

Social behaviour is an exchange of goods, material goods,

but also non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval
or prestige. Persons that give much to others try to get much
from them, and persons that get much from others are under
pressure to give much to them.” – Homans (1958)
The social exchange theory was initially developed by an American
psychologist, George C. Homans. He mentioned this theory in his
article titled “Social Behaviour as Exchange.” To formulate this
theory Homans conducted several studies on the group of people.
When he started researching he believed that any community or
group can be considered a social system and he conducted the
research on the larger groups. However, to examine the social
system, one must look at the individual level instead of the massive
groups or communities. Later, Homan conducted several studies on
small groups and closely analysed what forms of benefits or
punishments/costs the group members were receiving or giving to
the others. He formulated the framework of different elements such
as interaction, sentiments, and activities involved in the social
group. He published this research in his first book entitled, “The
Human Group.” Later, he conducted the research on a deeper level
to understand elementary social behaviour. Wherein, Homans
analysed the cost-reward exchange between the two people, where
either one of those two people is getting a reward or a punishment.
According to Homans, the exchange, i.e., cost or rewards could be
both material or non-material goods, for example, money, time,
power, or social status. People tend to choose the interactions that
cost them less and provide them with more rewards. Following are
the three propositions described by the Homans, which summarize
the social system behaviour.

Social Exchange Theory Examples

1. Friendship
Suppose your friend always borrows money or other stuff from you,
this means that your relationship with your friend costs you money.
But, you like spending your time with your friend as he/she is
supportive, loyal and fun to be around. When you will weigh the
pros and cons as per the social cognitive theory, you prefer to stay
in the friendship if your friend is bringing support and excitement
in your life even if he/she borrows money from you, but you may
terminate the friendship if you feel that the freeloader behaviour of
your friend is resulting in a burden over you.

2. Dating
Let us understand the reward and punishment concept in dating
through an example. Suppose you asked someone out on a date, if
that person agrees, it means you have gained the reward, and you
are more likely to ask out that person again. This enhances your
confidence. On contrary, if the person rejects you for the date, this
is considered a cost, because due to rejection you might hesitate to
ask someone out on a date in future.

3. Workplace
The employee and the employment relationship is an optimum
example of social exchange theory. An employee tends to give their
best when they receive benefits from the employer such as an
optimum working environment, appropriate feedback and good
wages. Here are a few examples that show the applicability of the
social exchange theory in the workplace.

4. Business
The capitalist economy, wherein the producers and the consumer
both receive mutual benefits through the exchange of goods and
services is also a prominent example of social exchange theory. The
producer receives the monetary expenses (benefit) and the
customers receive the quality product (benefit). The consumer can
analyse the benefits or costs involved in this exchange by
evaluating the quality of the product or the service received.

3. Define ‘family dynamics’. Discuss internal dynamics of Indian families.

Family dynamics are the patterns of relating, or interactions, between family members. Each
family system and its dynamics are unique, although there are some common patterns. Family
dynamics are the interaction between family members as well as the varying relationships that
can exist within a family. Every family has its own dynamic, which manifests in its own way.
Uncovering these relationships can help you better understand your family as well as others',
including how families function. Family dynamics is the way in which members of a family
interact with each other in relation to their individual goals and preferences. Although the family
is a unit, people are individuals. In order for a family unit to be cohesive, all of the members
must find some sort of balance between personal interests and the best interests of the unit. This
is where family dynamics come into play.

Family dynamics are one part of a larger system, defined by the individual members'
relationships with each other. Families exist as their own structure made of people who share
bonds and a sense of history and endeavor to meet each other’s needs. These core qualities set
the stage for family dynamics - without a structure, these dynamics cannot play out. Dynamics
are affected by many factors, including the number of children or a family's culture. For
example, a family with many children may have rules pertaining to which child does certain
chores.

Indian society is collectivistic and promotes social cohesion and

interdependence. The traditional Indian joint family, which follows the
same principles of collectivism, has proved itself to be an excellent
resource for the care of the mentally ill. However, the society is changing
with one of the most significant alterations being the disintegration of
the joint family and the rise of nuclear and extended family system.
Although even in today's changed scenario, the family forms a resource
for mental health that the country cannot neglect, yet utilization of family
in management of mental disorders is minimal.

any generalizations about the Indian family suffer from

oversimplification, given the pluralistic nature of the Indian culture.
However, in most sociological studies, Asian and Indian families are
considered classically as large, patriarchal, collectivistic, joint families,
harboring three or more generations vertically and kith and kin
horizontally. Such traditional families form the oldest social institution
that has survived through ages and functions as a dominant influence in
the life of its individual members. Indian joint families are considered to
be strong, stable, close, resilient and enduring with focus on family
integrity, family loyalty, and family unity at expense of individuality,
freedom of choice, privacy and personal space.

4. Discuss with examples the challenges faced by launching families.

In the launching stage of the family life cycle the children have reached the age where they are in
the process of making the transition from home as the primary location of their life to living life
as an independent adult outside the home. For some parents this leads to what is often referred to
as the “empty nest syndrome”, where parents are feeling somewhat lost as to their meaning and
role. For some parents this requires that partners reestablish their couple relationship without the
buffer and distractions of kids. For others, it can be a liberating time of freedom to pursue
interests put on hold while the children’s needs were the focus of family life.

Ideally, the transition from dependence to independence is a gradual, smooth, mutually agreed on
and satisfying process. There are times though when this is a highly emotional and conflicted
time of family life. Parent and young adult alike can be experiencing confusion and inner turmoil
about the impending separation. This can be especially hard if there have been difficult and
unresolved separations in the family’s life, like a turbulent divorce. Likewise, if the family has
been especially close due to financial problems, life difficulties, or in general has felt like it has
had to band together due to constantly feeling under threat by forces outside its boundaries,
sorting out the emotionality of the separation can very painful for everyone involved. family’s
life, like a turbulent divorce. Likewise, if the family has been especially close due to financial
problems, life difficulties, or in general has felt like it has had to band together due to constantly
feeling under threat by forces outside its boundaries, sorting out the emotionality of the
separation can very painful for everyone involved.

The launching family is part of the sixth stage of the family

life cycle. This is when the children begin to leave home with
the help of their parents. Children may go to college or
university as a way of integration into adult life. Parents have
reported feeling accomplished once their children have
started to leave home.

As a parent, this is often the stage that you are no longer

responsible for your child, as they have grown up enough to
leave the safety of the family home.

5. Explain family developmental tasks in the preschool stage.

The concept of developmental tasks assumes that human

development in modern societies is characterized by a long series
of tasks that individuals have to learn throughout their lives. Some
of these tasks are located in childhood and adolescence, whereas
others arise during adulthood and old age (see also Heckhausen,
1999). Successful achievement of a certain task is expected to
lead to happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure
may result in unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the
society, and difficulty with later tasks.

Developmental tasks arise from three different sources

(Havighurst, 1948, 1953). First, some are mainly based on
physical maturation (e.g., learning to walk). Another source of
developmental tasks relates to sociostructural and cultural
 forces. Such influences are based on, for instance, laws (e.g.,
minimum age for marriage) and culturally shared expectations
of development (e.g., age norms; Neugarten, Moore, and
Lowe, 1965), determining the age range in which specific
developmental tasks have to be mastered. The third source of
developmental tasks involves personal values and aspirations.
These personal factors result from the interaction between
ontogenetic and environmental factors, and play an active role
in the emergence of specific developmental tasks (e.g.,
choosing a certain occupational pathway).
Skills such as naming colors, showing affection, and hopping on one
foot are called developmental milestones. Developmental milestones
are things most children can do by a certain age. Children reach
milestones in how they play, learn, speak, behave, and move (like
crawling, walking, or jumping).

As children grow into early childhood, their world will begin to open up.
They will become more independent and begin to focus more on adults
and children outside of the family. They will want to explore and ask
about the things around them even more. Their interactions with
family and those around them will help to shape their personality and
their own ways of thinking and moving. During this stage, children
should be able to ride a tricycle, use safety scissors, notice a difference
between girls and boys, help to dress and undress themselves, play
with other children, recall part of a story, and sing a song.

Following are some of the things you, as a parent, can do to help your
preschooler during this time:

 Continue to read to your child. Nurture her love for books by

taking her to the library or bookstore.
 Let your child help with simple chores.
 Encourage your child to play with other children. This helps him
to learn the value of sharing and friendship.
 Be clear and consistent when disciplining your child. Explain and
show the behavior that you expect from her. Whenever you tell
her no, follow up with what he should be doing instead.
 Help your child develop good language skills by speaking to him
in complete sentences and using “grown up” words. Help him to
use the correct words and phrases.
 Help your child through the steps to solve problems when she is
upset.
 Give your child a limited number of simple choices (for example,
deciding what to wear, when to play, and what to eat for snack).

6. Discuss the challenges faced to maintain successful ageing.

The notion of successful aging has gained significance in characterizing the
quality of the aging process. It encompasses various dimensions and
primarily aims to extend the period of functional well-being in the later stages
of life. Originally rooted in a biomedical perspective, the concept has evolved
to encompass a broader understanding of the social and psychological
adaptations associated with aging. Despite its importance, a universally
agreed-upon definition of successful aging is still lacking, leading to the
utilization of different operational definitions in various research studies. In
this review, we will explore several definitions and operational indicators of
successful aging, adopting a multidimensional approach to capture the
diverse aspects of this concept.
According to the classic concept of Rowe and Kahn, successful
ageing is defined as high physical, psychological, and social
functioning in old age without major diseases. In this brief review
we use the classic name, although several terms of this concept,
such as healthy ageing, active ageing, productive ageing, and ageing
well, etc. have been used in the field.
The main focus in the concept of successful ageing is how to expand
healthy and functional years in the life span. The phenomenon of
successful ageing can be viewed from a population or an individual
perspective. At the population level, definition includes
determinants of health and participation for the purpose of
promoting policies, whereas at the individual level it is defined by
outcomes of health, physical, and cognitive function, and life
involvement. Because, successful ageing is a multidimensional
concept encompassing domains of physical, functional, social, and
psychological health, all of these dimensions should be taken into
account, both with objective and subjective conditions, when
studying the phenomenon.
Valliant (2002) found the following variables contributed to successful
aging:
1. seeking and maintaining relationships and understanding that
relationships that help us to heal and grow require gratitude, forgiveness,
and intimacy;
2.having interest and concern about others and being able to give of
oneself;
3. a sense of humor and the ability to laugh and play well into later
life;
4. making new friends as we lose older ones, which has a more
positive impact on aging well than retirement income;
5. the desire to learn and to be open to new ideas and points of
view;
6. understanding and accepting limitations and accepting the
help of others;
7. understanding the past and its effect on our lives while
living in the present;
8.focusing on the positives and the good people in our
lives rather than on the negative things that may
happen to us.

https://meetcaregivers.com/common-barriers-to-aging-in-place/#:~:text=Transportation
%20access%20is%20one%20of,lack%20access%20to%20public%20transportation.