EMA ASSIGNMENT

GROUP NO. 4
(Nasir Syed – 65
Chetan Choudhary – 67)
Q1. Define and explain with diagrams and mathematical relations (And formulas):
1. Radiation Pattern
2. Half power Beam width
3. Front to back ratio
4. Beam Area
5. Radiation Density
6. Radiation Intensity
7. Directivity D
8. Antenna efficiency

1. Radiation Pattern
The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the Radiation pattern of the antenna.
Radiation Patterns are diagrammatical representations of the distribution of radiated energy
into space, as a function of direction.
Let us look at the pattern of energy radiation.
 The figure given above shows radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The energy being
radiated is represented by the patterns drawn in a particular direction. The arrows represent
directions of radiation.
The radiation patterns can be field patterns or power patterns.
• The field patterns are plotted as a function of electric and magnetic fields. They are
plotted on logarithmic scale.
• The power patterns are plotted as a function of square of the magnitude of electric
and magnetic fields. They are plotted on logarithmic or commonly on dB scale.
Radiation Pattern in 3D
The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional figure and represented in spherical coordinates
(r, , ) assuming its origin at the center of spherical coordinate system. It looks like the
following figure –

The given figure is a three dimensional radiation pattern for an Omni directional pattern. This
clearly indicates the three co-ordinates (x, y, z).
Radiation Pattern in 2D
Two-dimensional pattern can be obtained from three-dimensional pattern by dividing it into
horizontal and vertical planes. These resultant patterns are known as Horizontal pattern and
Vertical pattern respectively.
The figures show the Omni directional radiation pattern in H and V planes as explained above.
H-plane represents the Horizontal pattern, whereas V-plane represents the Vertical pattern.
Lobe Formation
In the representation of radiation pattern, we often come across different shapes, which
indicate the major and minor radiation areas, by which the radiation efficiency of the antenna
is known.
To have a better understanding, consider the following figure, which represents the radiation
pattern of a dipole antenna.

Here, the radiation pattern has main lobe, side lobes and back lobe.
• The major part of the radiated field, which covers a larger area, is the main lobe or
major lobe. This is the portion where maximum radiated energy exists. The direction
of this lobe indicates the directivity of the antenna.
 • The other parts of the pattern where the radiation is distributed side wards are known
as side lobes or minor lobes. These are the areas where the power is wasted.
• There is other lobe, which is exactly opposite to the direction of main lobe. It is known
as back lobe, which is also a minor lobe. A considerable amount of energy is wasted
even here.
Types of Radiation patterns
The common types of Radiation patterns are –
• Omni-directional pattern (also called non-directional pattern): The pattern usually has
a doughnut shape in three-dimensional view. However, in two-dimensional view, it
forms a figure-of-eight pattern.
• Pencil-beam pattern – The beam has a sharp directional pencil shaped pattern.
• Fan-beam pattern – The beam has a fan-shaped pattern.
• Shaped beam pattern – The beam, which is non-uniform and patternless is known as
shaped beam.
2. Half power Beam width

The angular separation, in which the magnitude of the radiation pattern decreases by 50% (or
-3dB) from the peak of the main beam, is the Half Power Beam Width.”
In other words, Beam width is the area where most of the power is radiated, which is the peak
power. Half power beam width is the angle in which relative power is more than 50% of the
peak power, in the effective radiated field of the antenna.
Indication of HPBW
When a line is drawn between radiation pattern’s origin and the half power points on the
major lobe, on both the sides, the angle between those two vectors is termed as HPBW, half
power beam width. This can be well understood with the help of the following diagram.

The figure shows half-power points on the major lobe and HPBW.

Mathematical Expression: The mathematical expression for half power beam width is
Half power Beam width = 70λ/D
Where,
• λ is wavelength (λ = 0.3/frequency).
• D is Diameter.
Units: The unit of HPBW is radians or degrees.

3. Front to back ratio

The Front to Back Ratio (F/B Ratio) of an antenna is the ratio of power radiated in the
front/main radiation lobe and the power radiated in the opposite direction (180 degrees from
the main beam).
This ratio tells us the extent of backward radiation and is normally expressed in dB. This
parameter is important in circumstances where interference or coverage in the reverse
direction needs to be minimized.

4. Beam Area
Beam area is the solid angle through which all the power radiated by the antenna would
stream if P (θ, Ø) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero elsewhere.
The radiated beam of the antenna comes out from an angle at the antenna, known as solid
angle, where the power radiation intensity is maximum. This solid beam angle is termed as
the beam area. It is represented by ΩA.
The radiation intensity P (θ, Ø) should be maintained constant and maximum throughout the
solid beam angle ΩA, its value being zero elsewhere.
Power radiated=P (θ, Φ) ΩA watts
Beam angle is a set of angles between the half power points of the main lobe.

Mathematical Expression: The mathematical expression for beam area is

𝛺𝐴 =∫2π0∫π0Pπ (θ, Φ) dΩ wattts
dΩ=sinθ dθ dΦ watts
Where, 𝛺𝐴 is the solid beam angle.
Θ is the function of angular position.
Φ is the function of radial distance.
Units: The unit of beam area is watts.
6. Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity is defined as the power per unit solid angle
Radiation emitted from an antenna which is more intense in a particular direction, indicates
the maximum intensity of that antenna. The emission of radiation to a maximum possible
extent is nothing but the radiation intensity.
Mathematical Expression: Radiation Intensity is obtained by multiplying the power radiated
with the square of the radial distance.

Where,
• U is the radiation intensity
• r is the radial distance
• Wrad is the power radiated.
The above equation denotes the radiation intensity of an antenna. The function of radial
distance is also indicated as Φ.
Units: The unit of radiation intensity is Watts/steradian or Watts/radian2.

7. Directivity
Ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the radiation intensity of an
isotropic or reference antenna, radiating the same total power is called the directivity.
An Antenna radiates power, but the direction in which it radiates matters much. The antenna,
whose performance is being observed, is termed as subject antenna.
Its radiation intensity is focused in a particular direction, while it is transmitting or receiving.
Hence, the antenna is said to have its directivity in that particular direction.
• The ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from an antenna to the radiation
intensity averaged over all directions, is termed as directivity.
• If that particular direction is not specified, then the direction in which maximum
intensity is observed, can be taken as the directivity of that antenna.
• The directivity of a non-isotropic antenna is equal to the ratio of the radiation intensity
in a given direction to the radiation intensity of the isotropic source.

Mathematical Expression: The radiated power is a function of the angular position and the
radial distance from the circuit. Hence, it is expressed by considering both the terms θ and Ø.
Where,
• 𝝓(𝜽, 𝜱) 𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the maximum radiation intensity of subject antenna.
• 𝝓𝟎 is the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna (antenna with zero losses).

8. Antenna Efficiency
Antenna Efficiency is the ratio of the radiated power of the antenna to the input power
accepted by the antenna.
Simply, an Antenna is meant to radiate power given at its input, with minimum losses. The
efficiency of an antenna explains how much an antenna is able to deliver its output effectively
with minimum losses in the transmission line.
This is otherwise called as Radiation Efficiency Factor of the antenna.
Mathematical Expression: The mathematical expression for antenna efficiency is given
below-

Where,
• 𝜼𝒆 is the antenna efficiency.
• 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 is the power radiated.
• 𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 is the input power for the antenna.
Q2. Differentiate between Antenna efficiency and Aperture efficiency
When discussing antenna performance, "antenna efficiency" and "aperture efficiency" are
distinct concepts, though they both relate to how effectively an antenna operates. Here's a
breakdown:

Antenna Efficiency:
Concept:
• Antenna efficiency refers to the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the total
power supplied to it. In simpler terms, it measures how much of the input power is
converted into radiated electromagnetic waves.
• It accounts for losses within the antenna itself, such as resistive losses in the
conductors and dielectric losses in insulating materials.
• This is a broader term, applying to all types of antennas.
Key Factors:
• Conductor losses (due to the resistance of the antenna material).
• Dielectric losses (due to the absorption of energy by insulating materials).
• Mismatch losses (due to impedance mismatches between the antenna and the
transmission line).

Aperture Efficiency:
Concept:
• Aperture efficiency is specifically used when discussing aperture antennas (like
parabolic reflectors or horn antennas).
• It describes how effectively the antenna utilizes its physical aperture area to capture or
radiate electromagnetic waves.
• It's the ratio of the effective aperture area to the physical aperture area.
Key Factors:
Illumination efficiency: how uniformly the aperture is illuminated.
• Spillover efficiency: how much of the energy spills past the edges of the aperture.
• Phase errors across the aperture.
Relationship to Antenna Efficiency:
• Aperture efficiency is a component of the overall antenna efficiency, particularly for
aperture antennas. The overall antenna efficiency can be thought of as the product of
the radiation efficiency and the aperture efficiency.
In essence:
• Antenna efficiency is the overall ability of an antenna to radiate power.
• Aperture efficiency is how well an aperture antenna uses its physical size to capture or
transmit power.