Urbanisation and Development

What is an urban area?

The term urban is complex, the word urban comes from urbs or Urbis which
means city. The definition of urban is defined differently in different
countries, and there are a variety of criteria that is used to define an urban
area.

 Simple and descriptive characterisation of an urban area

 An area where the population where people are engaged in non-
agricultural activities such as manufacturing, professional
service sector, hotels and accommodation, mass transport and
communication, shops , and banks, . In contrast, rural areas
are dominated by agricultural and farming activities,
blacksmith, dominate by socio-cultural tradition.
1. An urban area can be defined based on minimum number of people
(UN Demographic year book 1983).
 Areas with 2000 and more inhabitants
 An area within the boundaries of the municipality councils
 More than 2000 in Israel and more people working outside the
agricultural sector
 50, 000 in Japan and more than 60% of the said people would be
living in built-up areas.
 Norway and Iceland, 200 or more inhabitants (4063183 people in
2013)

UN Year Book 2005

 2 000 or more inhabitants in Ethiopia

 Botswana:
 5 000 or more inhabitants where 75 per cent of the economic activity
is non-agricultural sector.

There is no universal definition of an urban area in Uganda as this has been

changing over time.
In 1969, 1980 and 1991, Uganda National Census defined an urban area as
those ‘gazetted urban areas including city, municipality and town councils
and gazetted trading centres’.1

However, the 2002 and 2014 censuses as gazetted urban centres including
city, municipalities and town boards.

In 2014, there were 197 urban centres in Uganda, with one capital city, 22
municipalities, 174 Town Councils (excluding town Boards).

 Number of urban Centres, 1969 (14), 119 (150), 2002 (75), 2014(197).
 21 urban Centres with 50,000 persons and more
 149 Urban Centres with 25,000 persons or less
 The median size of an urban centre in Uganda is 24,000 persons.

2. Administrative areas designated as urban

An urban area is defined as such based on the legislative process, or
by law, legislation. For instance, the transformation of Kampala into a
metropolitan area, Recently 12 municipalities were created Kira,
Nansana, Makindye- Ssabagabo, Kisoro, Mityana, Njeru, Kitgum,
Ibanda, Koboko, Mubende, Kumi and Lugazi. The reason cited for the
creation of new municipalities were, effective administration and
organised delivery of services to the people, proper planning and
expansion of the areas to ensure orderly development as the bedrock
behind the creation of the municipalities.

The requirements for the creation of the municipalities include ‘having

the capacity to meet the cost of service delivery and office
accommodation, existence of a physical development plan for land use,
reliable water sources and reasonable financial base’.

1
Source:
http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/NPHC%202014%20PROVISIONAL%20RESULTS%20REPO
RT.pdf
 Other conditions include‘availability of social services (health and
education facilities), existence of land for effective planning and
expansion and a minimum of 100,000 inhabitants. There are
currently 204 town boards, 174 town councils and 22 municipalities’.2

3. Employment in Agriculture.
 In Israel, 2000 people, those areas with less than 2000 can be
categorised as such but 2/4 of the people in the administrative
area, even when it meets other requirements, should not be
engaged in the agricultural sector.
 In Netherlands, even those areas with lower than 2000 people
can be categorised as urban but not more than 20% of the active
male population should not be engaged in agriculture.
4. Urban functions and facilities

What is the process of urbanisation?

 It’s the process through which the proportion of people resident in

urban areas increases. This conceptualisation of an urban area
considers the concentration of people in a specific geographical area.
This process also involves the multiplication of areas where the
population is concentrated and an aggregate increase in the size of
individual concentrations.
 Urbanisation can also be defined in terms of rural-urban migration.
However, this is relative, may be right or wrong.
 Another perspective recognises urban areas as a social process which
greatly transforms man’s way of life. The argument is that urban
people depend on industries, mass communication, markets and are a
mobile population. So, the processes which result in the increment of
these urban utilities and the qualitative and quantitative increase in
the quality of life that emanates from access and their use could be
termed as urbanisation. So urbanism as a way of life is taken to be a
2
Source: http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/672204-12-new-municipalities-created.html
 direct manifestation of urbanisation. It contrasts with rural life which
is based on small farms and folkways. Here we see a city as a relatively
large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous
individuals.
 Urbanisation is also recognised as a process through which new areas
are opened up for urban development and activities. It usually occurs
through the extension of existing utilities, expansion land uses and
related activities. This process is technically termed as ‘urban sprawl’.
It is not limited to settlements but land uses like industrial ,
commercial, urban agriculture, and other activities. This
understanding of urbanisation focuses on the change in the physical
construct of urban place.

Characteristics of urban areas in Developing countries

 Continue to have less people living in those cities
 Strong and rapid urbanisation processes fuelled by multiple
processes.
o High birth rates (an average Ugandan household has
about 4.7 people (UBoS 2014).
o Information flows, information on urban living and
lifestyles, TVs,
o Economic change and related processes, from exploitation
of natural resources to industries/manufacturing and
export.
o Agricultural change, displacement of labour because of
mechanisation of the agricultural sector and the creation
of jobless youths.
o The Break-up of colonialism, raised expectations of
Africans, created less stable and fluid conditions.
Migration from rural to urban migration has been the
result, but there are no jobs in the urban areas, the
creating of slums has been the consequence.
Dimensions of urbanisation

 Direct processes of urbanisation

 One of the dimensions of urbanisation is increase in population. The
population in town and cities of developing countries is increasing at a
fast rate. For instance, the population in Uganda in 1969 was
9,535,051, increasing to 12,636,179 in 1980, to 16,671,705 in 1991,
24,227,297 in 2002 and 34,856,813 in 2014. In comparison the
number of urban centres have been increasing; 1969 (14), 119 (150),
2002 (75), 2014(197). 3

 Economic development, Urbanisation is connected with a shift from

agricultural to non-agricultural occupations. In urban areas, the
number of key economic developments are significant and these
include work, property economic power and poverty.
 Increase in physical construct, which includes permanent settlement
and structures out up for urban activities. It usually stems from the
opening and sub division of land for activities. The urban physical
construct occurs in form of residential housing, industrial structures,
commercial structures, infrastructure etc.
Indirect processes of urbanisation
With increasing population in urban areas, there are subsequent processes
which accentuate the increase in urbanisation. These include;

 Water resource distribution and the laying of networks for water

distribution.
 Human waste accumulation and the installation of various means for
their disposal.
 Solid waste accumulation stemming from the increasing consumption
patterns.
 Increased demand for energy, electricity, fuel wood, charcoal and oil
all of which have adverse effects on the environment.

3
Source:
http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/NPHC%202014%20PROVISIONAL%20RESULTS%20REPO
RT.pdf
  Increased demand for transportation services and the associated need
for energy as well as opening up of new roadworks.
 Plot subdivision and the opening up of land under natural cover for
the purposes of construction.
 Increased demand for construction materials which results in the
exploitation of land resources , Eg, bricks, cement.
 Change in human behaviour and social organisation with a new of life
called urbanism. Some of the consequences of this are urban poverty,
despair, urban crime, diseases, all of which converge around the
urbanites.
 Industrialisation, it adversely affects the environment through air
pollution.

What accounts for the unprecedented urbanisation rates in developing

countries on the African continent? One of the characteristics of urban
centres and towns in developing countries is the increase in population.

 Demographic change; massive increase in the number of people in

urban areas, either naturally (4.6 in Uganda) and rural urban
migration. Kenya had a population of 5.4 in 1948, 15.3 in 1959,
18.78 in 1983, and 46 in 2014. In Uganda, 1969 was 9,535,051,
increasing to 12,636,179 in 1980, to 16,671,705 in 1991,
24,227,297 in 2002 and 34,856,813 in 2014.Tanzania had 17,512in
1978, 23,225 in 1988, 34,444 in 2002 and 44,929 in 2012.4

 The break-up of colonialism on the continent and apartheid in

South Africa. The control was characterised by exploitation of labour
and extraction of mineral and other natural resources. Exploitation of
labour in South Africa was realised through the putting of the black
African and coloureds in labour reserves. The minerals were extracted
and exported or some were semi-processed within and around the
cities. The attainment of independence on the rest of the continent
and the ending of apartheid in 2005 in south Africa results in mass

4
Source: http://www.nbs.go.tz/takwimu/references/Tanzania_in_figures2012.pdf
 movement of these communities to town and cities. The expectations
of the local communities were high, people had wild imaginations for
instance in living conditions, employment and other opportunities.
The result was the mass movement into cities and towns with the view
of meeting the outlined and other expectations hence the ‘urban boom’
in population. For instance, the expectations of the local population
have not been met, that is why there are increasing cases of
xenophobia in South Africa.

 Economic change; A change from mineral and natural resource

extraction during the colonial days to export oriented manufacturing
(semi or unprocessed agricultural products). The export of raw
materials in addition to the destruction of the informal economy in the
rural areas of developing counties has stifled production in rural areas
and consequently displaced the rural population to move to cities.

 Agricultural change;Climate change, lack of government investment

in agriculture, the implementation of the SAP in the 1980s more so
privatisation of agriculture have displaced the local people from the
peasant agriculture which employs the majority of the people in
Uganda and other developing countries.

 The advancement in ICTs; people in rural areas are given the

impression that it is easy to make it in urban areas through the
various communication platforms. This has resulted into
unprecedented waves of migration into the city.
 Globalisation
 Rural urban migration

Functions of urban areas

 General functions, these are performed by every town for instance

retail/business activities.
  Specific functions, Jinja as industrial, Entebbe as administrative and
kamapala as commercial. It means that each town is specifically
planned for a specific type of activity.

The Role of Urbanization in the Development Process

Urbanisation and Population Growth

Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of a territory’s population living in urban

areas. The world is gradually becoming more urbanised, and in 2008, a milestone was
attained where over 3.3 billion people (more than 50% of the total 6 billion) were living in
cities. This has created enormous opportunities for human development, as well as
problems and challenges. It is expected that future growth will occur in urban areas,
especially in the Global-South (i.e. Africa and Asia), with cities spatially expanding like never
before (e.g. megacities). This transition is characteristic of the changes from agrarian-based
economies to service and urban manufacturing based economies. For example, while
Uganda’s urban population is still below 20%, its urban areas have recorded steady growth
of 5% per year over the last decade, which is higher than the 2.83% of rural areas in the
same period (World Bank, 2014). If the current high urban growth rates are maintained,
more than 50% of the country’s population could become urbanised possibly within the
next 50 years or even less (refer to figure 1 below).

Figure 1: Uganda, urban-rural population growth trends 1950-2050 (Source: Population

Division, DESA, UN, 2014)
The world’s urban population is projected to grow by 48% to 4.9 billion by 2030, in contrast
with a declining rural population. The level of urbanisation has grown considerably in the
Global-South over the last decade, much faster than the urban transition that took place in
the Global-North during the early 20th century. There is a high correlation between level of
urbanisation and development. Urbanisation is synonymous with technological
advancement and innovation, increased productivity and competitiveness, capital
investment, and wealth creation. Countries such as Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei, in Asia
that have attained high levels of urbanisation have also recorded high rates of human
development in contrast to others like Vietnam and Cambodia.

The urban transition, primarily driven by natural population increase and rural-urban
migration, has also come with its challenges for the Global-South. Rapidly growing cities in
Africa such as Lagos (Nigeria), Johannesberg-Pretoria (South Africa), Kinshasa-Brazzaville
(DRC and Republic of the Congo), Accra (Ghana), Cairo (Egypt) and Nairobi (Kenya) are
grappling with problems related to service infrastructure (water, power, waste
management, roads, healthcare, education facilities) as well as poverty, housing deficits,
unemployment, insecurity, and more recently, the emergence of various climate-related
risks, and natural hazards.

Social, Economic and Political Roles of Urbanisation in the Development Process

Development can be conceptualised as a guided process of change for promotion of human

and social wellbeing of individual and social groups (Wills-Herrera, research in progress).
Under this vision, development is not defined exogenously by experts or elites. Herein,
development is viewed in a multi-dimensional approach that includes the non-material and
non-economic values such as family ties, social interconnectedness and social capital,
aspirations among others. From such a viewpoint, the ultimate goal of development should
be to ensure that:

i. all human beings are afforded the capacity to live a long and healthy life;
ii. to be educated and knowledgeable; and
iii. to have access to assets, decent employment and income.

Cities and towns play important economic, social, and political roles that define the
development process, and ultimately, ensuring positive change for human and social
transformation.

Socially, cities and towns, which are the focus of urbanisation, are hubs of cultural,
intellectual, educational and artistic interaction. Urban areas are platforms of cultural
exchange, evolution and expression, modernisation, enrichment. In this way, urbanisation
plays an important role in ensuring social cohesion, preservation of social identity and
values, all of which are important for shaping the development aspirations of individuals,
households and communities in cities and towns.

Economically, urban areas are hubs of wealth attraction, capital investment and resource
flows, infrastructure, productivity, markets, advanced services-management, insurance,
finance, media etc. Nearly all manufacturing is based in cities and towns, where access to
critical inputs such as labour, technology, infrastructure and communications systems
permit the cost-effective production and delivery of goods and services to readily available
markets. They contribute a greater share of the national incomes of most countries. For
example, Kampala City contributes more than 40% of Uganda’s gross domestic product, yet
accounts for less than 5% of the country’s population. Urbanisation therefore plays an
important role in shaping the development pathways of any community or country.

Cities and towns also play a vital role politically. It is here that critical policy networks and
relationships between/among a variety of groups are concentrated. The interaction of
public institutions and structures, civil society, the private sector, citizens and community
advocacy groups in the urban sphere helps to build networks that drive various policy
processes that are essential for good governance, rule of law, human rights promotion,
transparent, accountable and participatory decision-making. These are essential for
fostering the free flow of goods, ideas, proper functioning of systems, service provision and
maintaining social harmony.

However, it is also important to note that increased urbanisation has led to the
manifestation of serious gaps that have given rise to numerous challenges as a result of
social, economic and political flaws in cities and towns. Inequality, exclusion, vulnerability,
poverty, crime, social conflicts and environmental are just a few of the challenges that cities
and towns have come to grapple with, especially in the Global-South. These challenges are
further compounded given the state of interconnectedness between cities and towns from a
global perspective. Globalisation has transcended the limits of national boundaries,
exacerbating these challenges.

References
UNFPA., (2007). State of World Population: Unleashing the Potential for Urban Growth
New York: United Nations Population Fund.
United Nations, DESA-Population Division., (2014) World Urbanization Prospects
Hague, C et al., (2006). Making Planning Work: A Guide to Approaches and Skills
MDG Publishing
Tacoli, C., (1998). Rural-Urban Interactions: A Guide to
The Literature
Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 10, No. 1, April 1998
Urban Land Tenure and Use

Importance of land

Land is a strategic asset for the rural and urban poor, meaning that it has an indirect
importance to people’s livelihood and survival. Land forms between 50% and 60% of the
total assets owned by the poorest communities in Uganda. Land ownership encompasses a
variety of features including being an emotional issue, a social relation and source of power
and authority, but more importantly determines people’s livelihoods, identity and survival.
Land is a major source of ‘insurance and social security’ and last resort to which those who
own it have to return in case of joblessness. To most communities living in rural areas of
developing countries, land offers a substitute survival strategy in case of failure of other
livelihood sources. This is not the case for the people in developed countries as these often
have functional welfare systems which provide social protection to households and
individual persons when alternative income and livelihood opportunities are not available
and during the time of retirement. The varying degrees of importance accorded to land
make it a lot more contentious in the developing as opposed to developed countries.

Land is essential in the production and reproduction of society (2005), fundamental in

fostering economic development, central in reducing poverty, holds the diverse
communities together and contributes to the social construction of identity. The World Bank
argues that there is an inextricable relationship between land rights, economic growth and
poverty reduction as well as empowerment of the poor. Besides, land is deeply embedded
in people’s culture and tradition. The different attributes embedded in land imply that it is a
central hub and lies at the heart of livelihoods of most people in rural parts of Africa as
many activities in such societies are largely dependent on it. Thus, denial of access and user
rights to land in Africa interferes with people’s lives because land is not simply a factor of
production, but a multiplex of social, cultural and political phenomenon on which the
process of production and reproduction of relations depends.

Land tenure and land utilisation in Uganda

Land tenure is a system of ownership and utilisation of land. It’s a system of land holding
and utilisation. A land tenure system specifies how one can acquire land, hold it and utilize
it. Ownership means maintain ownership of land. It also specifies the responsibilities,
obligations and rights of individuals as far as land is concerned. Chapter 15, Article 237
clause 1 of the Constitution states that “land in Uganda belongs to the citizens of Uganda
and shall vest in them in accordance with the land tenure systems provided for in this
Constitution”. Chapter 15, Article 237, clause 3 specifically points out that land in Uganda
shall be owned in four major ways:

 Mailo land tenure

 Customary land tenure
 Leasehold tenure
 Freehold tenure
Customary land tenure system

It is the first customary tenure was officially recognised as a mode of land ownership in the
history of Uganda. It provides for the holding of land according to the local traditions and
customary vales and regulations as long as it does not contradict the provisions of the
constitution and any other related law(s). Land held under customary tenure may be
converted to freehold and a Certificate of Customary Ownership (CCO) obtained from the
controlling authority. The constitution advocates for the evolution of land ownership from
other forms of holding to freehold. Independent land administrative structures were
reaffirmed, including the Uganda Land Commission (ULC), District Land Boards and other
decentralised land administration bodies at various levels of governance to handle land
related issues in the respective areas of jurisdiction. The ULC is charged with the role of
holding and managing of any land in Uganda vested in or acquired by the government of
Uganda.

Implications/merits of the customary way of holding and utilising land

 Many more people can access capital by mortgaging land because it is legally owned.
 The system releases land for development of public facilities easily; Schools,
hospitals can easily constructed on such land.
 It reduces land registration inconveniences and costs as the process is tedious,
bureaucratic and cumbersome.

Demerits of the customary system

 The system is not fully operational especially in regard to registration
 It faces a problem of land identification
 The system may be counterproductive especially in cases where customs are rigid,
see the cases of land grabbing and conflicts in northern Uganda where much of the
land is under communal tenure. Land can’t easily be available to foreigners and
these are the people with capital to develop the land.
 Development control is not so easy to enforce or it is very difficult under the system.
Urban planners do not have the ground to control or give directions to these people
who own the land under customary tenure. We do not have rigid regulations to
control the developments, no conditions can be set.
 It is not feasible where we have got higher densities of population and therefore
high demand for land.
Mailo land ownership

It involves the holding of registered land in perpetuity. It permits the separation of

ownership of land from the ownership of development on the same piece of land by lawful
or bonafide occupant. Ownership of land and the buildings are owned by a different owner.
The Land Act is the first land legislation in the country to recognise the rights of bonafide
and lawful occupants especially on Mailo land. This recognition arose from the realisation
that a lot of development especially buildings in urban areas (Kampala) is held under this
category.

Merits of Mailo land tenure

 The recognition of lawful and bonafide occupants has given and will continue to give
developers more confidence in land utilisation and make it easier for land owners to
deal in their land (sale, lease).
 The new legislation on mailo land has potentially solved the cultural and political and
mistrust brought about by the mailo land tenure in the past (Bunyoro, Bachiga)
Baganda chiefs owned land in Bunyoro hence the land owners are Baganda while the
occupants are Banyoro. The Land Act solves such tensions. This development should
result into releasing of this land for development purposes.
 Mailo land tenure ensures security for both the owners and the users of land (owner
security is guaranteed).
 The problem of absentee landlords have been solved especially for those in Kibaale
there is a lot of land and the owners are not known.

Problems of Mailo land tenure

 The system encourages slow development because the people do not build good
structures because they do not own the land where the structures stand. In other
words, there is no security of tenure (a lot of land is not planned)
 Land owners can be put at ransom by the developers (right to stay on land even
without permission).
 Property owners can continue expanding their developments into land which is not
theirs since they are protected under the law.
 Such land may not be used for mortgaging purposes by the owners because there
are developments on land which does not belong to the owner.

Freehold land tenure

Freehold tenure is the holding of registered land in perpetuity for a period less than
perpetuity which may be fixed by a condition.

Merits of freehold tenure

  Development control is easier. It involves registration and conditions can be set;
applications are made hence conditions are set.
 More individual authority over the land and so is development or development
decisions can easily be made.
 The land can be used as collateral security to get a loan from financial institutions.
 The land can be easily sub-leased for a period of time, that is, land can be fully
utilised economically.
Problemsof freehold tenure

 The process of getting the land title is lengthy and expensive and there are
bureaucratic tendencies and checks as well as balances.

Leasehold Tenure

Leasehold land tenure involves the ownership of land for a period of time. It’s made by an
agreement create by either the owner of the land and the person interested in using the
land or by law. It is usually given in exchange for cash which may be paid at once or at
intervals; sometimes in exchange for services.

Merits of leasehold tenure

 Usually makes development control easy as conditions are set and applications
assessed.
 Under leasehold, land behaves more as an economic good. Land can be mortgaged,
sub-lease, and rented.
 Under freehold tenure, land can be mortgaged for capital
Demerits of leasehold tenure

 Getting sub-lease is long and expensive especially if there are developments on the
land which is applied for.
 The land is subject to abuse especially as the lease period comes to an end, eg,
hazardous materials may be dumped on the land.
 Sometimes there are conflicts on the land especially as the lease period comes to an
end.
Conditions that should be met by a good land tenure system

 Should ensure exchange of land as a commercial good

 Should ease land registration and holding procedure
 Should discourage land speculation
 Should not limit land utilisation
 Should provide security of tenure and ownership
 
Should facilitate provision of public facilities and services. Allows easy provision of
these facilities.
 Should be in conformity with the existing land use practices.
 In urban areas, a good land tenure system must not be in conflict with good town
planning practices and procedures.
Urban Land Use
Land use is only one of several components that define urban spatial dynamics. It is the
most stable component, since changes and modifications to it occur over relatively longer
periods of time than other components. The main impact of land use on urban dynamics is
its function of a generator and attractor of movements.

Urban land use comprises two elements; the nature of land use which relates to which
activities are taking place where, and the level of spatial accumulation, which indicates
their intensity and concentration. Central areas tend to have higher levels of spatial
accumulation and corresponding land uses, such as retail than peripheral areas.The
different activities for which land is utilised carry multiple functions that include production,
consumption and distribution. These functions take place at specific locations and are part
of an activity system. Some are routine activities, because they occur regularly and are thus
predictable, such as commuting and shopping. Others are institutional activities that tend to
be irregular, and are shaped by lifestyle (e.g. sports and leisure) or by special needs (e.g.
healthcare). Others are production activities that are related to manufacturing and
distribution, whose linkages may be local, regional or global. The behavioural patterns of
individuals, institutions and firms have an imprint on land use in terms of their locational
choice. The representation of this imprint requires a typology of land use, which can
be formal or functional.

Formal land use: This concerns the qualitative attributes of space such as its form, pattern
and aspect and are descriptive in nature.
Functional land use: This is concerned with the economic nature of activities such as
production, consumption, residence, and transport, and are mainly a socioeconomic
description of space.

Typology of Urban Land Use

The most common land use types found in all urban areas include:
i. Residential
ii. Commercial
iii. Industrial
iv. Recreational
v. Institutional/Civic
vi. Environmental
vii. Special Areas
viii. Utility Installations
 Residential land use is the most common land use in urban areas, occupying between 65
and 75% of the surface of a city. They can be further categorized depending on the type of
density, i.e. low, medium and high.
Commercial and industrial land uses occupy 5-15% and 15-25% of the surface respectively.
Similarly, these can also be further broken down depending on the type or intensity of the
activity, i.e. shopping, offices, retailing, wholesale or light, medium and heavy.
Other examples of land use in urban areas mostly cover less than the above, though they
remain important functional elements of the urban system. As indicated earlier, each one of
these land uses is intended to fulfil specific functions, with varying levels of regularity,
different sets of networks and therefore, have specific planning demands.

All land uses are inherently related to each other. Therefore, accessibility between the
different land uses, as well as mobility, is critical for optimal performance. Since each type
of land use has its own specific mobility requirements, transportation is a factor of activity
location, and is therefore associated intimately with land use. Within an urban system each
activity occupies a suitable, but not necessarily optimal location, from which it derives rent.

Urban Land Use Models

Urban settlements are highly complex phenomenon and are constantly evolving. An
understanding of the how components such as the different land uses relate to one
another, and how they impact urban growth and evolution over time, is important to inform
attempts for effective urban planning and management. Several descriptive and analytical
models have been developed over time to try and explain the relationships between/among
the different land uses. The level of complexity of these models increases from the older
ones to the most recent. All involve some consideration of transport in the explanations of
urban land use structures. These include:

 Central places and concentric land uses. These include the central place models developed
by Von Thunen, Christaller, Losch and others from North America from the early 19th
century to the middle 20th century.

 Concentric urban land uses. In 1925, E.W. Burgess developed the concentric model which
was meant to help understand the spatial organisation of urban places based on social
classes.

 Polycentric and Zonal Land Use Models. The Sector and multiple nuclei land use
models were developed to take into account numerous factors overlooked by concentric
models, namely the influence of transport axis (Hoyt, 1939) and multiple nuclei (Harris and
Ullman, 1945) on land use and growth.
 Hybrid Land Use Models. Hybrid models were developed to integrate the concentric, sector
and nuclei models to help explain land use in urban areas. They include Isard’s model,
developed in 1955, which tries to examine the concentric effect of central locations (CBDs
and sub-centers) and the radial effect of transport axis, all overlaid to form a land use
pattern, as well as the evolution of general urban spatial structure.

References
1. Rodrigues, J., (2013). The Geography of Transport Systems
Third Edition, New York: Routledge, 416 pages.
ISBN 978-0-415-82254-1

2. Carter, H., (1990). Urban and Rural Settlements

London & New York: Longman, 192 pages.
ISBN 0-582-35585-0

3. Hopkinson, (). The Geography of Settlements

Urbanisation in the Europe

In the 19th century, most areas were rural except in Britain which
experienced some form of urbanisation in the pre-19th century period. The
slow pace of urbanisation has increased especially in the 19th century. The
key factors for the unprecedented increase in urbanisation are: migration,
land availability etc. The industrial revolution was key, the areas where
farm produce would be processed for instance wheat emerged into light
industries and because of the need for labour to work in those industries,
the areas where industries were established started to evidence
characteristics of urbanisation. This was because the labourers and factory
workers demanded other services such as housing, water and related
utilities. This process gave the way the emergence of heavy industries. Coal
mines and places near hydro-power stations fuelled the emergence of
urbanisation due to the aggregation of workers in those places.

Urbanisation in Africa

Africa is one of the most urbanising continents in the world. The present
cities and towns of Africa were once local trading centres that were
characterised by trade (collection and trade) in agricultural products. In
areas where there were kingdoms, such areas were ‘administrative
capitals’ of kings, local chiefs and other administrators. These emerging
urban centres were instrumental in the collection of natural resources,
acted as collection centres of slaves, ivory and other precious minerals
from the interior before they were taken to the coast for export to Asia and
Europe.

Important to know is that most cities in West Africa were established along
the coastal zones, and influenced by colonial occupation such as Lagos in
Nigeria. Slave trade was a key issue here, and educational institutions
were instrumental in fostering urbanisation on the continent.

In East Africa, colonialism as also key but long distance trade and slave
trade between the communities on the continent and those in the far
East/Asia also had a role to pay.

In North Africa, some cities have developed around and along water bodies
(rivers, lakes, oceans or coastal zones) articulately those in North Africa.
This applied to those which were situated in the desert areas, because of
the need for water, transport and had fertile soils around them.

Others were shaped and informed by transport and communication routes

such as roads, railway and the like.The urban corridors of Africa, cities are
located along features (Mombasa, Nairobi, Nakuru, Kisumu, Jinja, Kampala,
south Sudan and Rwanda; continued growth and expansion of the already
established cities.

Meanwhile, many more cities emerged emerged as a result of the discovery

of natural resources and mineralssuch as Johannesburg in South Africa.
One of the key issues in the urbanisation trend is the notion of slums, an
issue that we will come back to later in this course. Most people, more so
the urban poor, live in flood prone areas, with no access to basic social
services such as water, electricity roads etc. These dynamics created the
physical, social and economic differences between cities but also some
similarities. In West Africa, some were out of slave trade, Lagos, for
instance.

Cairo: Cairo is one of the big cities on the African continent. The River Nile
and the fertile soils that dominate the Nile valley and the delta were
important ingredients that stimulated the growth of Cairo. Cairo developed
on the banks of river Nile because of the transport and communication
characteristic which the river Nile brings. Cairo was founded in 641 AD, on
the Eastern side of the River Nile, the factors for its establishment included
availability of power, water, in migration and fertile soils. The other issue
was the reduction in death rate and increase in birth rates, economic
factors, communication and transport, international relationships and
political factors (centralisation of administration). The influence of
colonialism and its policies is important as it favoured the establishment
of urban centres as administrative areas; Cairo as the administrative and
political centre. In 1986, the population of greater Cairo was 9.5M,
increasing to 12M in 1994 and projections show that Cairo, as of 2015, has
17M people. In migration of locals and foreigners was key to the
development of Cairo as a city. The city also faces a lot of challenges,
housing, transportation and infrastructure challenges.

Johannesburg: Also called/known as the gold city. The city of

Johannesburg is one of the most developed cities on the African continent.
Although its developed, there are a variety of impoverished townships such
as Soweto, yanga, Gulugethu, etc. The discovery of Gold in 1886
precipitated the growth and development of Johannesburg and other related
towns such as Durban on the East coast. In addition, migrant casual and
skilled labour from neighbouring countries to work in Gold and platinum
mines, more so people from Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, Botswana and
Mozambique, have also spurred development and growth of Johannesburg.
Racial segregation, Soweto vis-à-vis Sandton in Pretoria is also a key
feature of the urbanisation process in Johannesburg.
Lagos: Pre-colonial Lagos was characterised by small fishing communities
and farming villages in the 17th century. Lagos offered a natural break from
the open West African Coast/ sea. This ‘closed off area’ was important for
the promotion of slave trade and export to South and North America. The
abolition of slave trade slowed down the urbanisation trend of Lagos.
However, the arrival of colonial administrators and other traders coupled
with in-migration increased the population of Lagos. In 1991, Lagos
metropolis had 5.2 million inhabitants, increasing to 21 million in 2014.
Other factors that have contributed to the urbanisation of Lagos include
administrative and political roles, economic, political, social and financial
activities, manufacturing, and headquarter of national and international
organisations in Nigeria.

Kinshasa: Before the colonial period, the large villages along the banks of
the Congo River were inhabited by tradesmen, fishermen and farmers.
Colonialism shaped and influenced the growth and development of
Kinshasa. The construction of the railway from the Atlantic Ocean to the
interior in 1889, for instance, accelerated trade and communication hence
the formation of a large trading area which later became Kinshasa. Other
issues which facilitated its growth are increase in birth rates and reduction
in death rates, rural-urban migration and increased population. The other
factors included minerals and natural resources in the Congo basin.

Urbanisation in East Africa

The extension of the Uganda railway network from the East African coast to
Kampala in Central Uganda, Kasese in Western Uganda and Pakwach in
North Western Uganda was instrumental in the growth of towns such as
Nairobi (due to the camps that were established by railway workers),
Kisumu, Kampala, Kasese and beyond. Other towns that emerged due to
the establishment of the railway network are JInja, Moshi and Tanga. Then
there are towns that developed on the shores of Lake Victoria, due to the
cheapness and availability of water transport, such towns are; Mwanza.
Even Dodoma, Dar es salaam, and Mombasa emerged as a result of the
availability of cheap means of transport, water.

Nairobi: Grew out of natural increase in population; higher birth rates and
lower death rates arising from the availability of food and medical services
and rural-urban migration,cheaper rents, Land for expansion was also
available. There were more people living in informal areas of Nairobi in the
1970s, and this contributed to the increase in informal settlements in
Kenya, eg, the famous Kibera slum, which is one of the biggest slums on the
African continent. The central issue is that unofficial houses make it harder
for the controlling. One of the other key issues which resulted in the growth
and development of Nairobi is the construction of the Uganda railway
from Mombasa to Kampala. AT the time, Nairobi was a camp for those who
constructed the railway, but this gradually grew into an urban centre, of
course with the cool climate which was conditioned by the water bodies, the
rift valley and mountain Kenya.

Urbanisation in Uganda

Most towns in Uganda were just small townships, shaped and informed by
the local trade that went on at the time, from small trading posts to small
townships. The kingdom of Buganda established the administrative centre
in Mengo, which became the capital of Buganda kingdom. Other kingdoms
in the country, Busoga, Tooro, Ankole, Acholi also had administrative
capitals/commercial centres and these indirectly shaped/informed the
formation of urban centres in those areas where the capitals of these
kingdoms were established. The coming of missionaries and later
colonialism shaped and influenced the urban centre development dynamics
in Uganda.

The establishment of colonial administrative posts in central Uganda,

Buganda in particular, influenced and shaped the emergence of urban
centres in the country. The connections and links that were established
between the administrative area of Buganda kingdom and the colonial
administrators meant that their offices were established at Mengo. AT the
same time, there are other areas(trading posts) which developed from the
export of farm produce such as sugar, tea, cotton, coffee and the like; while
others were headquarters of chiefs and other administrators during that
period.

Moreover, situated on seven hills (Makerere, Rubaga, Kololo, Nakasero,

mengo, Kibuli and old Kampala) Kampala also developed as a result of the
railway transport network from Mombasa to Kampala. From Kampala, the
influence of the Uganda railway that was extended to Kasese in Western
Uganda and Pakwach in North Western part of Uganda thereby
strengthening the centrality of Kampala to the Ugandan economy and
accentuating the urbanisation processes in and around Kampala.

The urban development trends in Uganda have mostly followed a linear

pattern, which is, structured along major transport routes, road and
railways. It has also been haphazard, characterised by rural urban
migration, situated between road junctions, dominated by more informal as
opposed to formal sectors, with a high growth rate; and has also entailed the
draining of wetlands to pave the way for construction space.
Jinja was a fishing village, the influence of the Uganda Railway, the road
from Mombasa to Kampala and then the construction of the Hydro
power dam spurred the growth and development of Jinja from a fishing
village to a town. Jinja was the administrative and provincial
post/headquarter of the eastern region. Industrial heart of Uganda

Functional classifications of cities:

Administrative (Entebbe)

Educational; commercial (Kampala)

Manufacturing(Kampala)

Seats of traditional leaders (Buganda/Mengo/Kampala)

Financial functions(Kampala).

One of the stark manifestations of urbanisation in the towns and cities in

Uganda and the African continent is the increasing environmental problem
and sustainability problems.

Urbanisation issues in Uganda

 Unemployment and closure of industries (Jinja)

 Increase in informal settlements
 Rural-urban migration
 Environmental degradation
 Solid waste management issues
 Air pollution
 Squatter/unplanned settlements also called slums
 Solid waste management
 Pollution and its associated problems
 Over-urbanisation
 Informal sector and shared space
 Crime, Lagos in Nigeria, Kampala in Uganda, Johannesburg in South
Africa etc.
 Environmental degradation

Urban Informal sector

  Informal sector refers to enterprises which operate illegally to evade
taxes. These keep changing their premises, that is, move from place to
place as a way of evading taxes and being forced to formalise their
economic activities.
 The informal sector can also encompass small enterprises which use
very low technology, simple production methods and are unable to
comply with the legal formalities of government and bureaucracy.
 In ‘The other path, the informal sector consists of legal activities that
are carried out in extra-legal’ ways, that is, outside the tax bracket of
the local authorities.

Although many people can argue that the activities carried out by
those engaged in the informal sector are ‘informal’, the cotemprary
activities in the informal sector are somehow organised and these are
benefiting from the credit facilitation, such as banks and operation
wealth projects of government. These people are being provided with
money/funds despite their illegality in order to raise their household
incomes.

Characteristics of the informal sector

 Small size in terms of operation
 Low output
 Carried out by the less educated people
 Labour intensive ‘technology’ is used, if technology is used at all.
 Lack of fixed premises, these people do not have fixed places of
operation as they keep moving from place to place depending on the
response of government officials and Administrators such as KCCA.
 Tax evasion and the notion of not paying taxes although the
authorities may want to collect the taxes from them
 Such businesses are usually family operated, - by family members.
 Operate under situations of stiff.
 Usually have small markets
 Do not normally advertise their products
 No specialised skills to start business
 Hardly benefit from subsidies from government
 Use very limited paid workers if any
 Operate at very irregular hours, do not sleep at night and sleep during
the day.

The extent of the informal sector in Uganda’s urban centres

The informal sector is widespread in our towns. The informal sector plays a
big role in the economics of Uganda’s urban centres. The following are the
specific contribution of the informal sector to Uganda’s economy.

 Employment of people
 Services and goods provision to low income earners
 Revenue to the economy, although many do not pay taxes
 The informal economy is a training ground for future entrepreneurs
and professionals.

Between 1980-1990 the informal sector in South Africa for instance

absorbed 40% of the population, and between 1980 to 1990, the net
employment in the informal sector in the country provided 7% of the total
jobs. The dynamics must have changed over time but the central issue
here is that the informal sector is making significant contribution to the
South African economy. In Kenya, 70% of the jobs in the 1990s were
created in the informal sector.

Comparison of the formal and informal sectors

Parameter Informal sector Formal sector

Credit Money lenders, family and Banks and personal savings
friends, customers, credit,
own savings, associations,
NGOs, Donor agencies
Training Through family friends, Training institutions
links and apprenticeship,
training on job.
Information Informal networks Data Banks, circulars, news
letters
Marketing and Through traders Through meeting
supplies corporations
Premises Squat on verandas, Industrial estates, shops,
roadside, street sides complexes
Customer Personal Impersonal
relations
Advertising Hardly advertise Too much advertising and
its very important
Capital Very scarce Abundant
Technology Labour intensive Capital intensive
Government None Scarce but available
subsidy

Advantages of the informal sector over informal sector

  The informal sector is responsive to the needs of those who use
its services (housing, food etc)
 Under the informal sector, assets and networks are used when
only needed and involve no expense when not in use.
 There is no wastage in the informal sector. As soon as the
business becomes unprofitable, the people quickly go out of
business and start another thus avoiding other losses.
 Under the informal sector, nothing can outlive its usefulness.
People are able to adapt to new situations with high speed.

Strategies to improve the informal sector

 Provision of interest free loans

 Organise activities in one place not to be scattered all over the
place.
 Education of the people involved in the informal sector.
 Provision of loans to practitioners
 Education of authorities, for instance, KCCA.
 Advise them to form associations.
 Business skills education.

Urbanisation and pollution

One of the major urbanisation problems in developing countries is pollution.

Pollution can be defined as emissions by people either directly or indirectly
of toxic and non-toxic substances into the environment which results into
negative effects. One can also argue that it is the release of materials by
human activities in the wrong places in amounts that are too large and/or
exceed the capacity of the eco-systems or the environment to neutralise
them or disperse these materials to harmless levels. The impacts of pollution
include;

 Harm to living resources

 Hazards to human health
 Impairment of the quality of living and non-living resources
 Reduction in the quality of urban amenities, for instance, Air.
The types of pollutants can be solids, liquids and gasses. Pollution is taken
to be a form of stress to the eco-system or the environment. It deforms the
structure of the environment, stresses the living and non-living
objects/organisms and reverses the usual sequence of ecological processes.
It can also take the form of excessive emissions of energy. A particular
chemical or energy that causes such harm is called a pollutant.

Types of Pollutants

Categorisation of pollution is based on two principles.

 Whether the source of the pollutant is known or unknown

 The kind of environmental component or organism or sub-system
affected by the pollutant.

On the source of the pollutant, if the pollutant comes from a single

identifiable source, this type of pollution is called point source pollution.
These could include chimney or drain pipes. If pollutants come from a
dispersed source then it is called non-point source pollution. These could
include run off fertilisers from agricultural farms, lawns, gardens, pit
latrines and underground water sources.

It is much cheaper and easier to identify and contain pollutants from point
source than from widely dispersed non-point sources. However, identifying
pollution is not always easy especially where human activity causes increase
in the materials but does not create deleterious effects than the conditions
may be one of contamination rather than pollution. Contamination is the
first step towards pollution. Considering the system or component affected
by the pollutant, we can derive several classifications and types of pollution.
These include air pollution, water pollution, marine pollution and noise
pollution but there can be many more forms of pollution you can think of.
Any addition in the air, water, soil or food which threatens the health,
survival and activities of human or other living organisms will lead to
pollution of the environmental components.
Most pollutants are solids, liquids or gasses which emanate from products
or waste produced when a resource is extracted, processed (made into
products) or used. Waste is produce in each step of the resource use.
Pollutants enter the environment naturally, eg, volcanic eruptions, or
through human (atmospheric) activities such as burning coal, charcoal or
oil. It is also noted that most pollution from human activities that take place
in or near urban and industrial areas where pollution is often concentrated.

Industrial agriculture is a major source of pollution. Some pollutants

contaminate areas where they are produced while others are carried by
either wind or flowing water to other areas which they end up polluting. This
indicates that pollution does not respect state or national boundaries and
administrative jurisdictions.

Categories of pollutants

 Degradable pollutants: These are sometimes also called non

persistent or biodegradable pollutants. These are pollutants which can be
broken down completely or reduced to acceptable levels by the natural
physical chemical and biological processes. Thus environmental components
act as ‘sinks’ or ‘absorbants’ where complex pollutants are broken down or
‘metabolised’ into simpler components by living organisms which are in this
case usually bacteria. Such pollutants may include human waste, and it is
biodegraded fairly quickly by bacteria if the sewage is not added faster than
it can be broken down. Note: many of the substances we introduce into the
environment take longer to degrade, eg, plastics and metals, or some are not
broken down at all.
 Non-degradable pollutants: These are pollutants which cannot be
broken down by natural processes, Eg, lead which is toxic. Little is known
about such pollutants because of the difficulties involved and it consumes
time to fully understand their impacts (although scientists do understand
them from a chemical perspective). The difficulties in fully understanding
these pollutants also stems from the expensive experiments that need to be
carried out. Even if we determined the health and environmental risk
associated with particular pollutants, we know little about its possible
interactions with other pollutants and the effect of such interactions on
human health, other organisms and life support processes. Note: For the
case of non-degradable pollutants, they are toxic in nature eg, medical waste
and hard metals.

Causes of pollution

The factors related to pollution are diverse and largely depend on the
country, its economic and institutional setup as well as size. In particular to
urban areas, pollution is caused by excessive release of pollutants through
the sub-processes mentioned earlier into the environment such that they
become deleterious and harmful to urban resources, people and economic
wellbeing of the areas where they occur. The major causes of urban
pollution are the processes of growth/development which as a consequence
leads to increase in consumption and utilisation of those resources.

Effects of pollution

Broadly, pollution and harming the environment has three major impacts.

 Harming of human health:

 Impairment of environmental organisms or amenities
 Reduction in economic productivity or general productivity.

Pollutants disrupt life supporting systems for humans and other species,
they also damage property, can be a nuisance such as noise and unpleasant
smell, taste or sight. There are three factors which determine the severity of
pollutants and these are:

1. Chemical nature: This determines how active and harmful the

pollutant is to the living organism. Toxic chemicals destroy living cells
are dangerous to life supporting systems.
2. The concentration of the pollutant: This is the amount of the
pollutant per unit volume of water, air, soil or body weight.
 3. The pollutant persistence: This is how long the pollutant stays in
the component, ether water, soil or body. Some pollutants may exert a
level of toxicity due to their persistence and exposure of the organism
to them.

Therefore, pollution must be controlled if the life supporting systems must

be sustainable. In the urban context, this is very important because these
are places of high concentration of population, economic activities and all
other necessary activities for development.

Understanding the environment

The environment is a broad term that is almost meaningless for it

encompasses everything. The common definition looks at environment as
simply man’s surroundings which mainly looks at the biophysical elements.
The environment consists of the following;
- Air
- Water
- Land
In geographical terms, environment can be understood as man and his
surroundings taking into consideration both physical and non-physical
elements or environment comprised of the earth’s surface and how man
interacts with them. The environment is not therefore something that is
objectively experienced but one that is full of and often having competing
values and interests. Therefore the physical world is socially culturally,
economically constructed, interpreted and reconstructed and cannot be set
apart from the forces that shape it. To define environment we relate the
physical world to those forces like the environment which consists of
physical space on earth and the inhabitants who live in that space and all
processes that interact with its inhabitants. The interactions create both
desirable and undesirable outcomes that affect both the human and
physical environment. Computers form parts of the social and physical
environment that has made life easier for man which has also created
certain concerns that affect the general wellbeing, health and the
environment of man. The invention of a computer has also revolutionized
how man uses his environment which has come with its concerns that man
has to deal with on a daily basis.

Urban environment

The urban environment encompasses natural and artificial resources

available for use to people within defined boundaries. It includes the
structures, infrastructure, population, and all amenities available for use
within the urban system. Urban environments are experiencing a fast paced
change due to the increasing urban population and subsequent expansion
of urban areas. The principle problems associated with this change include
air and water quality and their impact on morbidity and mortality. Therefore
the urban environmental concern today is both in resource depletion and
the capacity of the environment to absorb our solids liquids and fass wastes
in its various sinks.

Components of the urban environment

Urban climate: Climate can be taken as the average long-term weather

conditions of an area. It is usually a regions general pattern of atmosphere
or weather conditions, seasonal variations and weather extremes averaged
over a long period of time of at least 30-40 years. The two most important
factors that determine the climate of an area, more so urban, are
temperature and precipitation (rain, snow,fog). The human impact on
climate is the modification of the atmospheric environment by the building
of cities. The construction of every factory, road, office buildings and houses
changes the micro-climate of that specific area thereby creating new ones
most often of great complexity.

Climatic changed produced by urbanisation involved all major surface

conditions but the changes in these elements depend on several variables
which include

 The extent of the urban complex

 The nature of industries
 Site factors like weather and topography and proximity to water
bodies
 Time of the say
  Season of the year
 Prevailing climatic variables

Certainly the most studied urban climatic conditions is the ‘urban head
island’, which refers to the fact that temperatures within and in the
immediate surroundings of the city are generally higher than those in rural
areas or on the periphery of the urban area. The existence of this
phenomenon is associated with the following factors.

 The rock-like materials from which the city is made have large thermal
capacities (ability to store heat). These also create impervious surfaces
that lead to the rapid removal of precipitation.
 Heat generated by artificial surfaces, these could be industries, motor
vehicles and domestic heating.
 Increased atmospheric pollution which inhibits or deters the loss of
upward direct radiation from the earth’s surface.
 The tall buildings of cities which create a three dimensional structure
that alters the flow of air and creates a complex geometry for heat
exchange.

The urban induced precipitation

Considering the precipitation component, cities influence the occurrence

and amount of precipitation either within them or within their vicinities.
This is because of the following reasons.

 The urban heat island which creates thermally induced upward

motions that diminish the atmosphere stability.
 Clouds which may be modified by the addition of condensation nuclei.
These usually come from industrial discharges.
 Obstruction of air flow caused by the increased roughness of the
urban landscape, this increases the level of turbulence which leads
into upward motions.

Several researchers have found out that urban and rural precipitation
differs. It is greater in urban than rural areas by 10%.

Air pollution in urban areas

This is the presence of gaseous chemicals in the atmosphere in quantities)

and duration) that are harmful to human health and other environmental
organisms. As clean air moves across the earth’s surface, it collects
products of both natural events (dust) and human activities, eg, emissions
from cars, these pollutants are called primary pollutants but some may mix
with air and react with one another or with the basic components of air to
create secondary pollutants. Persistent pollutants can travel great distances
before returning on the surface as solid particles, droplets of chemicals
dissolved in precipitation. This type of pollution is called out-door
pollution. It is caused by the following pollutants.

 Smog:
 Sulphur compounds
 Particulate matter
 Carbondioxide

Indoor air pollution

This type of air pollution occurs indoor, in households, especially residential

places and industries. The levels of indoor air pollution by the most common
pollutants are generally two to give times higher than those outside of home
and commercial areas. Likewise, pollution levels inside cars can be up to 18
times higher than that outside vehicles. Therefore health risks associated
with exposure to such pollutants are magnified because people spend more
time indoors. Pollutants in buildings have been linked to various health
problems such as headache, dizziness, coughing, sneezing, nausea, burning
eyes and flu-like, symptoms that can be termed as ‘sick-building symptoms.’

A building is considered sick when 20% of its occupants suffer from

persistent symptoms which disappear when they go out of the building in
question. Sometimes new buildings are more associated with this syndrome
than older buildings due to reduced air exchange and chemicals released
from paint, carpentry works, carpeting, furniture etc. Severe indoor air
pollution especially from particulate matter occurs inside the dwellings of
many urban poor in the developing countries. The burning of wood fuel, oil
products and exposure of people to high levels of indoor air pollutants
causes respiratory illnesses which are the major cause of deaths in
developing countries.

Processes of air pollution

Once pollutants enter the air they are affected by four processes

1. Transport: This means that pollutants are carried from one

place to the other by for instance wind. This process depends on the speed
of wind and directions, topography and the weight of the pollutants
themselves.
2. Dilution: This is the turbulent motion which involves the
mixing of the pollutants in air which in turn reduces the concentration of
the pollutant.
 3. Transformation: Pollutants undergo physical changes
including agglomeration, chemical change and phot-chemical changes.
4. Removal: This involves the removal of the pollutant from the air
by for instance wain water. The pollutants are washed out and in turn fall
out given that the agglomeration process makes them heavier.

Effects of air pollution

1. Damage to human health: Exposure to air pollution can cause result

in the break-down of the natural defence system of humans and animals
thereby causing diseases such as respiratory diseases, lung cancer, and
exposure to cabondioxide reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen.
2. Damage to plants: some pollutants damage leaves of plants if they
enter the pores of leaves. This incapacitates the productivity of the pants
including the production of food thereby accentuating food insecurity.
3. Damage to aquatic life in fresh and non-fresh water systems such
as rivers and lakes. Acid rain and water from oxidised sulphur are the
maim pollutants of water systems which impairs water based eco-systems.
4. Damage to resources and materials especially man-made
resources. Pollutants can cause loss of billions of shillings in processes that
may not be noticed. For instance repainting of buildings due to dirt and
soot, car engines are also costly to clean. Pollutants also deteriorate the
quality of building materials and this can for instance have adverse on
historical buildings and structures.
5. Global warming: pollution, heat, carbon dioxide, etc, is responsible
for the increase in temperatures, a process called global warming.

Reduction and prevention of air pollution

There are two approaches in dealing with pollution generally including air
pollution. These include prevention or input pollution control

A.Prevention or input pollution control. It is a type of control which

reduces or eliminates release of pollutants and waste into the
environment from and at the source. The most fundamentalist strategy is
to completely not carry out any strategy known to release pollutants into
the environment. Otherwise pollution under this approach can be
prevented or at least reduced by the three R’s.

 Reduce
 Re-use
 Recycle
 Regulate
 B.Pollution clean-up or output pollution control. This deals with
pollutants after they have been produced. But this approach has several
problems if it is primarily relied upon because:

 It is only a temporary measure as long as the population and

consumption levels continue to increase
 It only removes pollutants from one part of the environment only
to cause pollution in other areas
 Once pollutants have entered and consequently become dispersed
in the air, water or soil, it costs too much to reduce them to
acceptable levels/concentrations.

The prevention of pollution and clean-up are useful processes but

environmentalist and some economists emphasize prevention because it
works better and is cheaper than the clean-up exercises. This is central for
widely dispersed and difficult to identify non-point source pollution and for
hazardous waste. The prevention of pollution and clean up exercises are
encouraged using incentives such as subsidies and taxes and write-offs.
Regulation and taxes can be used from the stick approach. A mix of both
approaches is the best because excessive regulation and too much taxation
can stimulate resistance. But achieving the right balance is difficult and
challenging.

Air pollution reduction and prevention in fast growing urban areas of

developing countries

1. Encourage the use of non-motorised transport such as cycling,

walking to reduce automobile emissions. These green modes of transport
can be integrated in the physical plans of cities for instance walkways, cycle
lanes alongside the main carriage ways.
2. Green belts do act as sinks for industrial complexes and are very
necessary. They are important in trapping some of the pollutants like carbon
dioxide consequently reducing the costs related to human health.
3. Broad coverage of built-up areas vis-à-vis green on the plot, that is
plot ratio and plot development coverage. The adoption of building
standards and encouragement of developers to follow them is key here, and
this should apply to residential and industrial areas.
4. Come up with a policy on fuel consumption and importation by
advising people not to use lead gasoline.
5. Surfacing all roads or openings with appropriate and affordable
materials to reduce dust.
6. Apply air quality standards.
Water pollution

Sources of urban water

 Hand pumps which provide drainage water from underground sources

 Stand pipes with distribution networks and systems
 Protected and unprotected wells
 Dams and surface reservoirs
 Roofs of houses through rain water harvests

Pollution sources of urban water

 Ground water pumping

 Sedimentation and siltation of surface water
 Liquid waste from various activities like oil from garages, detergents
from hotels and laundry as well as industries
 Human waste through pit latrines
 Fertilisers used on agricultural farms

Types of water pollution

Solution to water pollution, prevention and reduction

 Reduction in use of agricultural fertilizers this is because for non-

point source pollution. Reduction in pesticide, manure and fertilizers
use could significantly cut down on the run off pollution as well as
leaching of pollutants into ground water.
 Greening policy which would be aimed at reduction in sedimentation
that occurs due to soil erosion. Substantial amount of land in urban
areas need to be kept with green cover. The greening policy can
encompass re-forestation or conservation of watersheds in urban
areas.
 Use of standards on quantities of pollutants and effluents. This
involves the use of a legal approach for point source pollution. This is
intended to ensure that sewage and water borne industrial wastes are
discharged into water sources when they are treated.
 Planning with nature which implies planning while protecting nature.
In the contemporary period, planning with nature had been realised
through the Environmental Impact Assessment and environmental
planning. Even plans should be subjected for EIA.
 Technological approach for liquid waste especially in regard to water
borne waste from homes, industries and storm runoff flow. There is
need to separate storm water from sewage to reduce direct discharge
of raw waste into water sources.
Industrialisation and pollution

Urbanisation in developing countries involves the establishment of import

substitution industries. The industrialisation process in developing
countries has been accompanied by worsening environmental conditions
either due to direct extraction of resources or due to effluents and emissions
from those industries. Therefore, industrialisation is one of the sources of
pollution in urban areas because of their concentration in such areas. The
pollution is through energy use and industrial production. It can lead to
increase in waste either through direct emissions or indirectly by altering
patterns of consumption. It can also be through boosting demand for
manufactured goods. The nature of emissions depends on the type of the
industry, the energy used and the production processes.

The production of manufactured goods entails the creation of by-products

that may be detrimental to the environment. The extent to which they
degrade the environment will depend on a number of factors including the
type of by-products, the quantities and the means of their disposal.
Unfortunately with the absence of regulation the cheapest way to dispose of
unwanted by-products usually is to release them untreated into the various
sinks such as air, water or under the ground.

Types of emissions

 Gaseous emissions: Air pollution is a major problem in the urban

centres of developing countries. Industrial establishment in the name of
employment creation and import substitution is a major cause of pollution.
Pollutants such as carbon dioxide, sulphur and methane change to
secondary pollutants due to photo-chemical processes. Related to emissions
of the primary pollutants is the ozone layer depletion. The ozone layer,
which obstructs the ultra-violet rays from reaching the earth, has allowed
life to thrive is being lost because of increase in global warming which is a
result of pollution among others. Today, research shows that ozone layer
depletion is serious and that humans and the environment are at threat due
to this process.
 Liquid waste and effluents:industries produce some of the pollutants
either as suspended metals in liquids or dissolved metals in water. This is
usually through their production processes and discarded through drain
pipes. These effluents are dangerous to aquatic life and humans since they
are directly released into water resource systems. They can also be
dangerous to biodiversity especially riverine vegetation and all vegetation
around water bodies like swamps.
 Oil and its products: crude oil and natural gas are often trapped
together deep in the earth’s crust. Once it is extracted, its refined into
gasoline, oil, diesel, and residue oils. All these are extensively used in urban
areas more so in industries and production processes. The levels of use
depend on production processes and it these processes increase then the
effluents and emissions increase as well. Oil pollutes water resources
through spills.

Managing and controlling industrial pollution

 By far, standards are the best option for controlling industrial

pollution. Enforcement of the standards and continuous monitoring
is key here if pollutants are to be kept at minimum levels. This can be
realised in many ways including the installation of devices to monitor
pollution levels.
 Enactment of laws and regulations for new industries and old ones in
terms of having environmental statements and carry out
Environment Impact Assessments (EIA). The EIA identifies the
activities, resources to be impacted on and the most important
mitigation measures put in place to mitigate the identified impacts.
 Planning with nature; this involves evaluation of land resources
during the allocation of land to industrial activities. The industries
should be established in places where they are likely to cause
minimal impacts.
 Integration of control measures in the physical plans. Since
industries are great producers of gaseous pollutants, it is also
important that the trapping of pollutants be enhanced through the
introduction of green areas within and around the industrial
establishments. Space should allow for corridors for these green
spaces/areas.
 Control of industrial solid waste. Sometimes industrial waste sites are
necessary. This is because of some uniqueness of solid waste from
industries. Such sites should be assessed and managed properly not
to allow spillage.
 Reuse and recycle some of the industrial waste. Some waste streams
can form input to another industry in form of either material or
energy. It is therefore necessary to look at alternative uses of such
water, for instance the sugar industry uses bagasse for power
generation. This reduces the pollution of the environment.

Solid waste management in urban centres and cities